THEORIES OF GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT: CONCEPTION  DEVELOPMENT COMES FROM MATURATION AND LEARNING.

THROUGH TO LATE CHILDHOOD  THERE ARE INDIVIDUAL DIFEERENCES.

Theoretical Approaches to the Growth and Development of Children
 Nurses care for people who are in different stages of development. A basic understanding
of growth and development enables the nurse to recognise the needs of each individual
and, thus, to provide appropriate care.
 Human growth and development are orderly processes that begin at conception and
continue until death.
 Every person progresses through definite phases of growth and development, but the rate
and behaviours of this progression vary with each individual.
Introduction
 The period of growth and development extends throughout the life cycle.
 Changes occur is from conception to the adolescent.
 Growth and development is a process where the person thinks normally, eventually and
takes a responsible place place in society.
 It is important for a nurse to understand the early periods as well as the total life cycle of
an individual to better understand the behavior of parents and others who provide care of
the child.
 DEVELOPMENT PROCEED IN STAGES.
 THERE ARE PREDICTABLE PATTERN OF GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT.
 EARLY DEVELOPMENT IS MORE SIGNIFICANT THAN LATER SIGNIFICANT.
Characteristics of Growth and Development
Directional Patterns
Directional patterns are fundamental to the growth of all humans.
Cephalocaudal development proceeds from head to toe The infant is able to raise the head
before he or she can sit and gains control of the trunk before walking.
The second pattern is proximodistal development, or inner to outer. Development proceeds
from the center of the body to the periphery. These patterns occur bilaterally. Development also
proceeds from the general to the specific. The infant grasps with the hands before pinching with
the fingers.

It is important to study the growth and development of a child to :

 PLAN FOR THE NURSING MANAGEMENT OF TOTAL CARE OF THE CHILD.
 TO BETTER UNDESTAND THE REASON FOR PARTICULAR CONDITION AND
ILLNESS THOSE OCCUR IN VARIOUS AGE GROUPS.
 TO TEACH PARENT HOW TO OBSERVE AND TO USE THEIR KNOWLEDGE SO
THAT THEY MAY HELP THEIR CHILDREN ACHIEVE OPTIMAL GROWTH AND
DEVELOPMENT.
TERMINOLOGIES AND DEFINITION

GROWTH – REFERS TO AN INCREASE IN PHYSICAL SIZE OF WHOLE OR ANY OF

ITS PART AND CAN BE MEASURED IN INCHES/ CENTIMETERS AND IN
POUNDS/KILOGRAMS. ( MARLOW,6TH EDITION)
DEVELOPMENT – REFERS TO PROGRESSIVE INCREASE IN SKILL AND CAPACITY.

CHARACTERISTICS OF GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

 IT IS SIMILAR TO ALL.
 IT PROCEED FROM GENERAL TO SPECIFIC.
 DEVELOPMENT PROCEED AT DIFFERENT RATES.
 GROWTH IS COMPLEX AND CONTINUOUS.
 CHEST MEASUREMENTS INCREASE AS THE CHILD GROWS AND THE SHAPE OF
THE CHEST CHANGES. At birth the transverse and antero-posterior diameters are nearly
equal. The transverse diameter increases more rapidly than does the antero-posterior diameter.

Motor development
Motor development depends on the maturation of the muscular, skeletal, and nervous
systems.the sequences of skills folllow the cephalo-caudal and proximal direction

Motor development is termed as-

 Gross motor
 Fine motor

BIOLOGICAL GROWTH
Gross motor activities includes:
Changes in general body growth:
 Turning
Changes results from different rates of growth in different parts of the body during consecutive
 Sitting
stages of development.
 Standing
e.g.: infant head constitutes 1/4th of the entire length of the body at birth,where as the adult’s
 walking
head is only 1/8th of the body’s length.
Fine motor development
LENGTH OR HEIGHT:
The involvement of reflexes.the child learns to use hands and fingers for thumb
SOME CHILDREN REACH ADULT HEIGHTS IN THEIR EARKY TEENS,BUT OTHERS
apposition,palmer grasp,release,pincer grasp and so on.
CONTINUE TO GROW THROUGHOUT LATE ADOLESCENCE.
Sensory development
THE PERIODS OF RAPID GROWTH IN INFANCY AND PUBERTY.
The sensory system is functional at birth,the child gradually learns the process of associating
WEIGHT:
meaning with a perceived stimuli.
WEIGHT IS INFLUENCED BY ALL THE INCREMENTS IN SIZE AND IS PROBABLY
As myelination of the nervous system is achieved,the child is able to respond to specific stimuli.
THE BEST GROSS INDEX OF NUTRITION AND HEALTH.
*Myelination is the process by which brain oligodendrocytes produce layers of myelin that
wrap around the neuronal axons and act as a layer of insulation for the transmission of electric
HEAD CIRCUMFERENCE:
action potentials down the neuronal axon.
THE CIRCUMFERENCE OF THE HEAD IS AN IMPORTANT MEASUREMENT SINCE IT
IS RELATED TO INTRACRANIAL VOLUME.
Neurons are responsible for the transport and uptake of neurotransmitters - chemicals that relay
information between brain cells. Depending on its location, a neuron can perform the job of a
THORACIC DIAMETER:
sensory neuron, a motor neuron, or an interneuron, sending and receiving specific
neurotransmitters.
Theories of growth and development
Types of theories
 Intellectual development theory by jeans piaget and kholberg
 Moral development theory by jeans and kholberg
 Psycho-sexual development theory by sigmund freud
 Fowler’s theory of spiritual development
Piaget’s theory of intellectual development
4 stages of development
1.Sensory motor stage
2. pre-operational stage
3. Concrete operational stage
4. Formal operational stage
a. Sensorimotor stage
 Sensimotor (birth to 2 years)-sensory organs and muscles become more functional.
 In this stage child mainly concern with learning about physical object.
Stage 1: use of reflexes(birth to 1month)
 Movements are primarily reflexive
Stage 2: primary circular reaction( 1-4 MONTHS)
 PERCEPTIONS CENTER AROUND ONE’S BODY.OBJECTS ARE PERCEIVED AS
EXTENSIONS OF THE SELF.
STAGE 3: SECONDARY CIRCULAR REACTION(4-8 MONTHS)
 BECOMES AWARE OF EXTERNAL ENVIRONMENT.INITIATES ACTS TO
CHANGE THER MOVEMENT.
 STAGE 4: COORDINATION OF SECONDARY SCHEMATA(8-12months)
differentiates goals and goal-directed activities.
Stage 5: tertiary circular reaction(12-18 months)
 expirements with methods to reach goals.develop rituals that become significant.
Stage 6: invention of new means(18-24 months)
 uses mental imagery to understand the environment.uses fantasy.
B. Pre-operational(2-7 years)
 Emerging ability to think
Pre-conceptual stage (2-4 year)
 Thinking tends to be egocentric. Exhibits use of symbolism.
Intuitive stage( 4-7 years)
 Unable to break down a whole into separate parts.able to classify objects according to one
trait.
C. Concrete operations( 7-11years)
 Learns to reason about events in the here-and-now.
 Children develop the capacity to think systematically,but only when they can refer to
actual objects and use hands-on activities.
 Then they begin to internalize some tasks.this means they no longer need to depend on
what is seen.
 They become capable of reversing operations.
 For ex.they understand that 3+1 is the same as 1 +3.when real situations are presented,they
are beginning to understand other’s points of view.
D.formal operations(11+years)
 Able to see relationships and to reason in the abstract.
 According to piaget,young people develop the capacity to think in purely abstract
ways.problem solving and reasoning are key skills developed during this stage.
Kholberg’s stages of moral development
 Lawrence Kohlberg’s stages of moral development, a comprehensive stage theory of
moral development based on Jean Piaget’s theory of moral judgment for children (1932)
and developed by Lawrence Kohlberg in 1958.
 Cognitive in nature, Kohlberg’s theory focuses on the thinking process that occurs when
one decides whether a behaviour is right or wrong.
 Thus, the theoretical emphasis is on how one decides to respond to a moral dilemma, not
what one decides or what one actually does.
Level 1: (pre-conventional)-(birth to 9years)
 Authority figures are obeyed.
Stage 1: (punishment and obedience orientation)
A deed is perceived as “wrong” if one is punished; the activity is “right”if one is not punished
Stage 2:  Accepts concept of reciprocal fairness.
(instrumental-relativist orientation)
“right” is defined as that which is acceptable to and approved by the self.when actions satisfy Stage 3: (synthetic-conventional faith)
one’s needs,they are “right”. Adolescent:
 Questions values and religious beliefs in an attempt to form own identity.
Level ii:Conventional (9-13YEARS) Stage 5: ( conjunctive faith)
 CORDIAL INTERPERSONAL RELATIONSHIPS ARE MAINTAINED. Adult:
 APPROVAL OF OTHERS IS SOUGHT THROUGH ONE’S ACTIONS.  Integrates other perspectives about faith into own definition of truth.
STAGE 3: (INTERPERSONAL CONCORDANCE): AUTHORITY IS RESPECTED.  Stage 6: (universalizing faith)
STAGE 4: (law and order orientation): individual feels “duty bound” to maintain social order. Adult:
Level iii:Post-conventional (12+years)  Makes concepts of love and justice tangible.
 individual understands the morality of having democratically established laws.
Stage 5: Erickson’s psychosocial theory
(social contract orientation)
It is “wrong”to violate other’s rights.  Using the psychoanalytical framework, Erik Erikson based his (1963) theory of
Stage 6: development on the process of socialisation. He describes another series of stages of
(universal ethics orientation) personal and social development as the ‘eight ages of man’, and views development as a
The person understands the principles of human rights and personal conscience continuous struggle for an emotional–social balance (Sugarman 2001).
Person believes that trust is basis for relationships.

Fowler’s theory of spiritual development

 Fowler’s Stages of Faith Development form a framework for the spiritual development of
people throughout their lives.
 The model was developed by theologian James W. Fowler. He argues that the
development of people’s spiritual awareness runs parallel to other aspects of human
development.

Pre-stage:(undifferentiated faith)
Infant: trust,hope and love compete with environmental inconsistencies or threats if
abandonment.

Stage 1: (intuitive-projective faith)

Toddler-preschooler:
 Imitates parental behaviors and attitudes about religion and spirituality.
 Has no real understanding of spiritual concepts.
Stage 2: (mythical-literal faith)
school-aged child:
 Accepts existence of a deity.
 Religious and moral beliefs are symbolized by stories. Psycho-sexual development theory by sigmund freud
 Appreciates other’s view points.
 STAGE 3:PHALLIC(3-6YRS OF AGE)
 DURING THIS STAGE, PRESCHOOLERS TAKE PLEASURE IN THEIR GENITALS
AND,ACCORDING TO FREUD,BEGIN TO STRUGGLE WITH SEXUAL DESIRES
TOWARD THE OPPOSITE SEX PARENT(BOYS TO MOTHERS AND GIRLS TO
FATHERS).
 FOR BOYS,THIS IS CALLED OEDIPUS COMPLEX,INVOLVING A BOY’S DESIRE
FOR HIS MOTHER AND HIS URGE TO REPLACE HIS FATHER WHO IS SEEN AS
RIVAL FOR THE MOTHER’S ATTENTION.
 THE Electra complex,involves a girl’s desire for her father’s attention and wish to take her
mother’s place.

Stage 4:latency(6-12 yrs of age)

 During this stage,sexual instincts subside,and children begin to further develop the
superego,or conscience.children begin to behave in morally acceptable ways and adopt the
STAGE values of their parents and other important adults.
1:ORAL
Conclusion
Studying And understanding child growth and development are important parts of teaching
young children.no two children are alike.children differ in physical,cognitive,social,and
emotional growth patterns.understanding child development will help make you a successful
caregiver or early childhood teacher. Theories of development can help caregivers understand
STAGE(0-1 YR.) how to best work with children.
 DURING THIS STAGE,THE MOUTH IS THE PLEASURE CENTER FOR
DEVELOPMENT.
 FREUD BELIEVED THIS IS WHY INFANTS ARE BORN WITH A SUCKING
REFLEX AND DESIRE THEIR MOTHER’S BREAST.
 IF A CHILD’S ORAL NEEDS ARE NOT MET DURING INFANCY,HE OR SHE MAY
DEVELOP NEGATIE HABITS SUCH AS NAIL BITING OR THUMB SUCKING TO
MEET THIS BASIC NEED.

STAGE 2:ANAL STAGE (1-3 YRS.OF AGE)

 DURING THIS STAGE,TODDLERS AND PRESCHOOL-AGED CHILDREN BEGIN
TO EXPERIMENT WITH URINE AND FECES.
 THE CONTROL THEY LEARN TO EXERT OVER THEIR BODILY FUNCTIONS IS
MANIFESTED IN TOILET-TRAINING.
 IMPROPER RESOLUTION OF THIS STAGE,SUCH AS PARENTS TOILET
TRAINING THEIR CHILDREN TOO EARLY,CAN RESULT IN A CHILD WHO IS
UPTIGHT AND OVERLY OBSESSED WITH ORDER.