Index

Index terms Links

A
accelerating rate calorimeter (ARC) 183
accidental explosions
aluminum dust explosion, Gullhaug, Norway (1973) 269
ammonium nitrate, Ludwigshafen, Germany (1921) 325
ammonium nitrate, Texas City, USA (1947) 326
Arendal explosion, Gothenburg, Sweden (1981) 89
Beek explosion, the Netherlands (1975) 86
Elkford methane explosion, British Columbia, Canada (1982) 91
Flixborough explosion, UK (1974) 82
Kambo grain silo, Norway (1976) 262
linen dust explosion, Harbin, China (1987) 264
methane explosions in coal mines 77
polyethylene dust explosion, Kinston, North Carolina (2003) 272
pyrotechnics, Enschede, Netherlands (2000) 335
Sierra Chemical plant, Mustang, Nevada (1998) 327
silicon dust explosion, Bremanger, Norway (1972) 267
Stavanger Port silo, Norway (1970) 258
Stavanger Port silo, Norway (1988) 261
Taegu gas explosion, South Korea (1995) 96
West Vanguard explosion, North Sea (1985) 92
wheat flour explosion, Turin (1785) 256
acetylene/air mixture, ignition of 14 27 44
acoustic detectors 104

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adiabatic compression 69 347
adiabatic pressure 20
adiabatic temperature 19
advance inciting 147
air-blast atomizers 151
aircraft engines 145
aluminum 114 237
aluminum dust explosion, Gullhaug, Norway (1973) 269
ammonium nitrate 313
explosions 325
Ludwigshafen, Germany (1921) 325
Texas City, USA (1947) 326
mixture of 314
AN/FO (explosive) 314
arcs 294
area classification 354
and combustible fluids 360
direct examples 363
drawings 360
examples of 372
good standard of design and operation 356
limitations of 355
management of 357
objective of 353
point source method 364
purpose of 354
small scale operations 355
sources and grades of release 358
Swedish standard 375
zones 357
Arendal explosion, Gothenburg, Sweden (1981) 89
Arrhenius theory 31

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Atex 100a directive 7
Atex 118a directive 7 370
atomizers 151
auto ignition temperatures (AIT) 113
automatic explosion suppression 145
design of 147
of dust explosions 305
extinguishing agents 306
optical detection 148
aviation fuels 361

B
Badische Anilin und Soda Fabrik (BASF) 325
balloons 135
barriers 132
blast walls 132
in controlling pre-compression 133
in controlling turbulence generation 134
soft 133
suppressive 133
batchoff machines 276
Beek explosion, the Netherlands (1975) 86
bituminous coal 307
blast walls 132
blast waves 224
blasting caps 316
bow shock 252
break flash 238
Bremanger, Norway 267
British Royal Air Force 145
brush discharges 60 247

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buildings 136
Bundesanstalt for Materialprüfung (BAM) 319 323
Bunsen burner 11
Bureau of Mines test 323
burning nests 231
burning velocity 23 155 209
bursting panels 300
butane 11

C
capacitive circuits 380
capacitive sparks 50 238
caps 131
carbon dioxide 286 307
catalytic detectors 104
Category C fluid 368
cathodic corrosion protection 116
CENELEC 373 395 401
centrifugal spray generators 151
Chapman-Jouguet detonation front pressure 27 159 227
chemical industries 3
Christian Michelsen Institute (CMI) 142
Christian Michelsen Research (CMR) 142
Class I fluids 360
Class II fluids 361
Class III fluids 361
classical Arrhenius theory 31
closed-bomb tests 218
close-to-laminar flame propagation 209
coal dust explosions 222
coal mine explosions 77

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combustible fluids 16 360
combustion 11
compression waves 226
computational fluid dynamics (CFD) 141
connections 102
construction materials, selection of 348
continuous grade release 358
control 123
corona discharges 59 246
cranes 122
crank case explosions 168
cutting burner flame 232

D
dampers 111
Dautriche method 315
Davy lamp 77
Davy screens 127
Davy, Sir Humphrey 77
decomposition temperature 319
deflagration 315
deflagration-to-detonation transition (DDT) 27 227
detonating cap sensitivity test 317
detonation 25
arresters 129
vs. deflagration 315
dust clouds 226
measuring properties of 315
Dautriche method 315
detonating cap sensitivity test 317
Trauzl lead block test 318

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detonation (Continued)
sprays/mists 159
diesel engines 164
differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) 183
differential thermal analysis (DTA) 320
diffusion combustion 11
dodecanes 159
drop hammer sensitivity test 321
dry detonation arresters 129
dry static flame traps 127
dust clouds 4
chemistry of 205
close-to-laminar flame propagation in 209
design concepts for electrical apparatuses 392
detonation of 226
explosive concentration ranges of 201
flames in 203
vs. gas/vapor clouds 369
generation of 5
ignitability and explosibility of 200
ignition and combustion properties of 4
ignition curves 243
ignition sources 230
electric sparks 237
electrostatic discharges 237
hot surfaces 233
jets of hot combustion products 250
light radiation 253
mechanical impacts 234
open flames 232
shock waves 252
smoldering nests 231

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dust clouds (Continued)
maximum adiabatic explosion pressure for 213
minimizing volumes of 296
minimum ignition energy (MIE) 240
moisture 207
particle size 208
premixed gas flames in 203
turbulent flame propagation in 215
dust deposits 178
accumulation of 6
minimum ignition temperature 182
smoldering nests 231
dust dispersion system 216
dust explosions 197
automatic suppression of 305
case histories 255
aluminum dust, Gullhaug, Norway (1973) 269
barley/oats, Kambo silo plant, Norway (1976) 262
grain dust, Stavanger port silo, Norway (1970) 258
grain dust, Stavanger port silo, Norway (1988) 261
linen dust, Harbin, China (1987) 264
polyethylene dust, Kinston, North Carolina (2003) 272
silicon dust, Bremanger, Norway (1972) 267
wheat flour explosion in Turin (1785) 256
ignition sources 289
electrostatic discharges 294
hot surfaces 292
mechanical impacts 293
open flames and hot gases 291
self-heating 290
smoldering 290
smoldering nests 292

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dust explosions (Continued)
isolating 297
materials 199
preventing 286
by adding inert dust 288
by adding inert gases to air 286
by dust concentration outside explosive range 287
by good housekeeping 307
primary 228
secondary 228
turbulence-driven acceleration of 222
venting 299
dust extraction system 373
dust layers 175
accumulation of 6
minimum ignition temperature 181
dust particles 6
agglomeration of 200
influence of inertial forces on 5
migration of 7
dust-protected enclosures 394
dust-tight enclosures 394
dynamic flame trap 128

E
earthing 55
education 1
effective ignition source 29
electric sparks 49
capacitive 237
ignition by 115 162
inductive 238

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electric sparks (Continued)
minimizing dust explosion risks from 294
sensitivity tests 323
See also ignition sources
electrical apparatuses 115
encapsulation 390
flame-proof enclosures 381
increased-safety enclosures 384
intrinsic safety 378
oil-filled enclosures 388
pressurized enclosures 386
sand-filled enclosures 389
electrical ignition sources 119
electrodes 49
electrostatic atomizers 151
electrostatic discharges 237
along surfaces of bulk powder/dust 249
ignition by 115
minimizing dust explosion risks from 294
risks to explosive materials 347
types of 245
See also ignition sources
Elkford methane explosion, British Columbia, Canada (1982) 91
emergency shut-down systems (BSD) 106
actions and documentation 107
alarms 107
fail-to-safe principle 108
man-machine interface 108
manual activation of 106
purpose of 106
requirements 108
response time rate 107

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encapsulation 390
enclosures 378
encapsulated 390
flame-proof 381
increased-safety 384
International Protection (IP) code for 393
intrinsic safety 378
oil-filled 388
pressurized 386
sand-filled 389
end-of-line flame arresters 129
endurance burning 131
Enschede, Netherlands 335
equation of state 20
equivalent energy 56
ethylene/air, ignition of 57
European Union directives 7
event tree analysis 405
exothermal chemical decomposition 347
expansion ratio 21
explosion doors 301
explosion proof flame arresters 129
explosions 2
computer simulation models 140
and design of buildings 136
hazards in process industries 3
human factor 8
minimizing propagation of 124
primary 203
suppression systems 145
venting 138
explosive atmospheres 7 370

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explosive clouds 4
barriers 132
computer simulation models 140
generation of 5
ignition and combution properties of 4
mitigating 123
preventing and limiting size of 101 171
explosive gas mixtures 30 51
explosives 313
accidental explosions 325
ammonium nitrate, Ludwigshafen, Germany (1921) 325
ammonium nitrate, Texas City, USA (1947) 326
pyrotechnics, Enschede, Netherlands (2000) 335
Sierra Chemical plant, Mustang, Nevada (1998) 327
chemical composition of 313
decomposition temperature 319
definition of 373
deflagration of 315
and design of electrical equipment 401
detonation of 315
electric spark sensitivity of 323
hazardous zones 373
safety considerations in production of 344
apparatus design 347
automation and remote process operation 345
avoidance of accidental ignition 346
basic rule 344
explosion protection 345
quantities of material 346
safety properties of materials 344
ten mnemonic rules 350
written work instructions 349

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explosives (Continued)
sensitivity to impact 321
temperature classes 375
extinguishing agents 306

F
factory buildings 136
failure modes and effects analysis (FMEA) 406
far field blasts 144
fault tree analysis 406
firedamp 43 77
fish meal silo, explosion of 192
FLACS model 142
flame arresters 127
flame propagation 5
close-to-laminar 209
laminar 154
laminar burning 12
turbulent 155 215
flame speed 23
flame traps 127
flame-proof enclosures 117 381
flammability limits 14
flammable fluids 18
classification of 18 360
flashpoints 16
handling of 355
unclassified 361
flanges 102
flashpoints 16
flash-back-proof detonation foot valves 130

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Flixborough explosion, UK (1974) 82
flushing method 287
forced ventilation 110
friction 234 346
friction sparks 41 42
fuel/air ratios 13
and explosion pressure 20
and flammability ranges 14

G
gas detection systems 103
alarms 105
coverage and location of 104
multi-sensor 195
performance of 103
spray/mist detectors 106
types of 104
gas groups 380
gas leaks, prevention of 101
gas lighter 11
gas mixtures 34
gas/vapor clouds 4
generation of 5
ignition and combustion properties of 4
vs. dust clouds 369
gas/vapor explosions 6
case histories 76
Arendal explosion, Gothenburg, Sweden (1981) 89
Beek explosion, the Netherlands (1975) 86
Elkford methane explosion, British Columbia,
Canada (1982) 91
Flixborough explosion, UK (1974) 82

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gas/vapor explosions (Continued)
methane explosions in coal mines 77
Taegu gas explosion, South Korea (1995) 96
West Vanguard explosion, North Sea (1985) 92
combustion 11
computer simulation models 140
ignition sources 112
burning metal particles 114
electrical sparks 115
electrostatic discharges 115
hot surfaces 113
jet of hot combustion products 117
light radiation 118
open flames 113
thermite reactions 114
transient hot spots 114
limiting size of 101
mitigation of 123
prevention of 100
published reviews 81
Godbert-Greenwald furnace 233
grades of release 358 366
grain dust explosions 258
Kambo silo plant, Norway (1976) 262
Stavanger Port silo, Norway (1970) 258
Stavanger Port silo, Norway (1988) 261
See also accidental explosions
Grandcamp (ship) 326
Gullhaug, Norway 269

H
halogenated hydrocarbons 131 286

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Harbin, China 264
Hartmann bomb 218
hazard analysis 405
hazard and operability studies (HAZOP) 406
hazard radius 367
hazard surveys 405
hazardous areas 354
hazardous zones 373
heat generation, rate of 31
heat loss, rate of 31
heat of combustion 199
heating coils 113
heating, ventilation and airconditioning (HVAC) 109
hexane 157
hexanes 159
Highflyer (ship) 326
high-frequency electromagnetic waves 117
hinged explosion doors 301
hot gases 33 291
hot spots 48 235
hot surfaces 33
and auto ignition temperatures (AIT) 113
computer simulation 39
enclosures 396
ignition of dust clouds by 233
ignition of spray/mist clouds by 160
preventing ignition by 292
See also ignition sources
housekeeping 307
human factor in explosions 8
human machine interface (HMI) 123

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hydraulic spray generators 151
hydrocarbons, combustion of 23
hydroelectric power stations 169
hydrogen 27
hydrogen/air, ignition of 57

I
ignition 29
maximum experimental safe gap (MESG) 63
mechanical impacts 42
overview 29
thermal runaway theory 30
ignition chamber 71
ignition sources 29
controlling 118
effective 29
electric sparks 49 115 162
237 294
electrical 119
electrostatic discharges 115 162 237
294
explosive gas mixtures 30
gas/vapor clouds 112
hot gases 33 291
hot surfaces 33 113 160
233 292
jets of hot combustion products 117 250
light radiation 71 253
mechanical impacts 234 293
non-electrical 121
one-electrode discharges 56

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ignition sources (Continued)
open flames 33 113 232
291
preventing 289
rapid adiabatic compression 69
Shockwaves 252
small burning metal particles 42
smoldering nests 231 292
thermite flashes 47 114
transient hot spots 48 114
ignition volume 31
impact energy 43
increased-safety enclosures 384
induction time 73
inductive circuits 380
inductive sparks 50 238
inert dust 288
inert gases 286 297 307
inertial forces, influence of 5
infrared detectors 104
Ingersoll-Rand Co. 166
in-line flame arresters 129
Institute of Petroleum 16 18
in-stream instrumentation 103
insulation materials 113
International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) 354 370 393
International Protection (IP) code 393
intrinsic inerting 286
intrinsic safety 378
inventories 405

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isolation of dust explosions 297
iso-octane 157

J
JET-A fuel 160

K
Kambo silo explosion, Norway (1976) 262
kerosene 156 157 361
kinetics 206
Knibyshev region, Russia 187

L
laminar burning velocity 12
laser 253
lead azide 313
light radiation 71 253
lightning 117
lightning type discharges 249
limestone 307
linen dust explosion, Harbin, China (1987) 264
liquid 130
liquid droplets 149
classification of 368
coalescence of 152
combustion of 153
design concepts for electrical apparatuses 392
ignition of 160
influence of inertial forces on 5
migration of 7
liquid explosives 322

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liquid static flame traps 127
local suppression 147
Ludwigshafen, Germany 325
lycopodium 209

M
Mach-number 28
Malmö, Sweden 189
man-machine interface 108
maximum experimental safe gap (MESG) 63 250 382
mechanical impacts 42
avoidance of ignition from 346
heat from 234
preventing ignition by heat from 293
mechanical processing 4
mechanical valves 125
mechanical ventilation 110
metal sparks 114
metallurgical industries 3
methane explosions 77
methane/air, ignition of 43 204
minimum ignition energy (MIE)
dust clouds 240
vs., spark energy 49
sprays/mists 162
minimum ignition temperatures 38
computer models 39
for explosive substances 375
standard test methods 40
mists 149
coalescence of drops in 152

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mists (Continued)
combustion of 153
constant-volume adiabatic explosion pressures in 158
detectors 106
detonation in 159
explosions 149
crank cases 168
hydroelectric power station 169
oil mists 166
formation of 6
generation of 150
ignition sources 160
electric sparks 162
electrostatic discharges 162
hot surfaces 160
laminar flame propagation in 154
turbulent flame propagation in 155
See also sprays
mitigation 123
moisture, influence on dust clouds 207
molding 399
motivation 9
multi-compononent fuels, ignition of 38

N
natural ventilation 110
Nd-YAG CW laser 254
net impact energy 43
Netherlands Forensic Science Institute (NFI) 335
nitrated organic compounds 313
nitrogen 286
non-electrical ignition sources 121

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non-hazardous areas 354 358
non-suppressive soft barriers 133
Nordtest fire 106 test 323
Nusselt type flame 203

O
offshore platforms 121
offshore process modules 140
oil and natural gas industries 3
oil mist detectors 106
oil mist explosion 166
oil-filed enclosures 388
one-electrode discharges 56
open flames 33 113 232
291
optical detection systems 148
oxygen index (OI) 66

P
partial inciting 297
pentane/air mixture 34
personnel categories 8
petrochemical industries 3
petroleum fluids 18
physical barriers. See barriers
piping 102
Pittsburgh bituminous coal 307
plug flow 287
point source method 364
point sources 358
grades of release 366

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point sources (Continued)
hazard radius 367
identification of 365
zone categories 367
polyethylene 206
polyethylene dust explosion, Kinston, North Carolina (2003) 272
polyvinylchloride (PVC) 206
powder layers and deposits 175
deep dust deposits 178
dust layers 175
explosion initiation processes in 184
explosions in silos 185
minimum ignition temperature of dust deposits 182
minimum ignition temperature of dust layers 181
powder suppressants 307
pre-compression 133
pre-ignition pressure 27
premixed gas flames 203
premixed gas/vapor and air 11
detonation of 25
expansion ratio 21
flammable concentration ranges for 14
ignition of 29
ignition sensitivity of 63
laminar burning of 12
maximum pressures 19
turbulent combustion of 24
See also gas/vapor explosions
pressure piling 21 124 133
382
pressure variation method 287
pressure waves 2 144

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pressurized enclosures 386 399
primary dust explosions 228
primary explosions 203
primary explosives 313
primary grade release 358
process equipment, minimizing volumes of 296
process hazard analysis (PHA) 351
process industries 3
process safety 1
process safety management (PSM) 350
propagating brush discharges 61 248
propane 11
propane/air, ignition of 43 57
propane/methane mixture 39
propellants 314
decomposition temperature 319
deflagration of 315
purging 387
pyrotechnics 314
decomposition temperature 319
deflagration of 315
and design of electrical equipment 401
disaster in Enschede, Netherlands (2000) 335

Q
quartz sand 390
quenching distance (QD) 51 63
quenching tubes 303

R
radiation 71 118

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radiative heat transfer 204
radioactive radiation 73
rapid adiabatic compression 69
rare gases 286
Reina del Paciflco (ship) 168
replacement method 287
reversible vent covers 302
Reynolds numbers 155
risk analysis 405
event tree analysis 405
failure modes and effects analysis (FMEA) 406
fault tree analysis 406
hazard and operability studies (HAZOP) 406
hazard surveys 405
plant audits 408
rotating machinery 103
rubber compounding 274

S
S.E. Fireworks (SEF) 335
safety 1
safety audits 408
safety management 9
sand-filed enclosures 389
secondary dust explosions 228
secondary grade release 358
sectioning 297
self-heating 290
ship engines 168
shock absorbers 129

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Shockwaves 252
detonation of premixed gas/vapor and air 26
detonation of sprays/mists 159
generation of 69
simulation of 144
Sierra Chemical plant explosion, Mustang, Nevada (1998) 327
silicon dust explosion, Bremanger, Norway (1972) 267
silos, explosions in 185
excessive self-heating 194
fish meal silo, Norway (1992) 192
Knibyshev region, Russia (1987-89) 187
Malmö, Sweden (1989) 189
prevention of 194
Stavanger, Norway (1985) 185
simple enclosures 392
small scale operations 355
smoldering 290
smoldering nests 231 292
soft barriers 133
hazards 136
materials 135
soft triggered barriers 133
solid explosives 322
spark energy 49 238
sparks 42 114
sprays 149
coalescence of drops in 152
combustion of 153
constant-volume adiabatic explosion pressures in 158
detectors 106
detonation in 159
explosions 149

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sprays (Continued)
crank cases 168
hydroelectric power station 169
preventing and mitigating 171
vapor cloud 166
generation of 6 151
ignition sources 160
electric sparks 162
electrostatic discharges 162
hot surfaces 160
laminar flame propagation in 154
turbulent flame propagation in 155
See also mists
static electricity 347
static flame traps 127
Stavanger Port silo explosions, Norway 185 258
steel 114
stirred tank method 287
superheated steam 307
suppressants 131 306
suppressive barriers 133

T
Taegu gas explosion, South Korea (1995) 96
Teflon 301
temperature classes 375 379
thermal explosion theory 196
thermal radiation 204
thermal runaway theory 30
thermite flashes 47
generation of 42
ignition of dust clouds by 237

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thermite flashes (Continued)
ignition of gas.vapor clouds by 114
thermodynamics 205
through-mixing method 287
thunderstorms 117
titanium sparks 44
TNO Prins Maurits Laboratory (TNO-PML) 335
TNT, casting of 375
tracer gases 194
transient hot spots 48 114
Trauzl lead block test 318
tribo-electric charging 115
turbulence 5 134
turbulent combustion 24
turbulent flame propagation 215

U
U.S. Bureau of Mines test 323
ullage space 362
unclassifed flammable fluids 361

V
vacuum cleaners 309
valves 103 125
vapor cloud explosions 166
vent covers 140 300
vent ducts 303
Ventex valves 125
ventilation systems 109
documentation and modification 112
forced/mechanical 110

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ventilation systems (Continued)
HVAC 109
natural 110
venting 138
dust explosions 299
potential hazards 302
vessels 102
volume explosion flame arresters 129

W
walls 370 392
water curtains 133
water vapor 286
weak walls 132
welding torch flame 233
West Pharmaceutical Services Inc. (Kinston, North Carolina) 272
accidental explosion 277
accumulation and ignition of dust clouds 283
analysis of explosion 280
company and process 273
facility damage and relocation of reproduction 280
fatalities and injuries 279
fires following explosion 278
housekeeping standards 276
location and layout of plant 273
recommendations 284
root causes of explosion 283
rubber compounding process 274
West Vanguard explosion, North Sea (1985) 92
wheat bran silo explosion, Malmö, Sweden (1989) 189
wheat flour explosion, Turin (1785) 256

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Z
Zener diodes 380
zinc powder 202
zones 354
definitions of 357 370 373
and grade of release 359

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