General biology

FINALS \ FIRST SEMESTER – LAUREN FRANCISCO. ASHLEE KNOP. ABIGAIL ARNOLD

SCOPE:
- Photosynthesis
• Light Phase
• Dark Phase
- Cellular Respiration
• Glycolysis
• Transition Reaction
• Krebs Cycle
• Oxidative Phosphorylation

PHOTOSYNTHESIS
- Plants
• Make own food
• Through process of Photosynthesis
- Most important chemical reaction
- Process of changing light energy to
chemical energy
- Energy
• Stored as sugar Equation of Photosynthesis:
- Occurs in plants and some algae
- Raw materials: 6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy C6H12O6 + 6CO2
• Carbon dioxide - 6 molecules of carbon dioxide react
• Water with 6 molecules of water
- Materials are combined using energy of - Forms 1 molecule of glucose and 6
sunlight molecules of oxygen gas’
- Produces:
• Glucose
• Oxygen
- Plants and other autotrophs
• Store energy of sunlight into sugar
- Occurs in leaves of plants in organelles
• Chloroplast
- Occurs in leaves
- Plants are green
• Green wavelength is reflected LIGHT PHASE
➢ Not absorbed - Light Dependent Reactions
- Occurs in thylakoid membrane
- Used light energy
-
- Produces Oxygen from water
- Converts ADP to ATP
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FINALS \ FIRST SEMESTER – LAUREN FRANCISCO. ASHLEE KNOP. ABIGAIL ARNOLD
- Converts NADP+ to energy carrier
NADPH
- Light and water is required
- Energy storage molecules are formed
• ATP
• NADPH
- Oxygen gas = waste product

ATP
NADP+
- Adenosine Triphosphate • Nicotinamide Adenine
- Contains nitrogen-based adenine and a Dinucleotide Phosphate
ribose sugar • Oxidized form
• Picks up 2 energy-electrons and
H+ from Light reaction
➢ Forms NADPH (reduced form)
= Carries energy to be passed to
another molecule

Light Reaction Summary:

- Reactants
• H2O
• Light energy
Releasing energy from ATP - Energy Product
• ATP
- ATP is constantly being used and
• NADPH
remade by cells
- ATP provides all energy for cell activities
- High energy phosphate bonds can be
broken to release energy
- Phosphorylation
• Process of releasing ATP’s energy
and reforming energy
- Adding phosphate group to ADP:
• Stores energy in ATP
- Removing a phosphate group from ATP: DARK PHASE
• Releases energy and forms ADP - Light Independent Reaction
- ATP and NADPH from light reactions
• Used as energy
- Atmospheric CO2
• Used to make sugars
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General biology
FINALS \ FIRST SEMESTER – LAUREN FRANCISCO. ASHLEE KNOP. ABIGAIL ARNOLD
➢ Glucose • When ATP and NADPH are
➢ Fructose already used up
- Six carbon sugar
• Made during Calvin Cycle CELLULAR RESPIRATION
- Occurs in Stroma
- C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O
- Process where living cells break down
glucose molecules and release energy
- “Aerobic Respiration”
- Occurs in cells of all living things
• Autotrophs
• Heterotrophs
- Occurs in mitochondria (except
Glycolysis)
Calvin Cycle - Catabolic pathway
- Oxygen is consumed as a reactant
- 3 CO2 molecules enter cycle • Along with organic compounds
• Form several intermediate - Depending on certain conditions
compounds • Cellular respiration can create up
➢ Phosphoglyceric Acid (PGA) to an average yield of 36-38 ATP
- A 3 carbon-molecule called Ribulose molecules
Biphosphate (RuBP) - Involves 3 stages:
• Used to regenerate Calvin Cycle 1. Glycolysis
- At night 2. Krebs Cycle
• Production of glucose from
Carbon dioxide continues
➢ As long as ATP and NADPH
from light reactions are
present
- Glucose production stops

3. Electron Transport Chain

- By breaking high-energy bonds
between last two phosphates in ATP

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FINALS \ FIRST SEMESTER – LAUREN FRANCISCO. ASHLEE KNOP. ABIGAIL ARNOLD
ATP - Cells use FAD
• To accept two electrons and two
- Adenosine Triphosphate hydrogen ions
- Primary carrier of energy ➢ To become FADH2
- Captures chemical energy obtained Glucose
from the breakdown (catabolism) of
food molecules - Main organic compound used in cell
• And releases it to fuel other respiration is carbohydrates (glucose)
cellular processes6
- Energy used by all cells Glucose as an Energy Source
- Organic molecule
- Contains high-energy phosphate bonds - When glucose is in adequate supply
(such as after a meal)
• Hormone (insulin) from pancreas
increases glycogen formation
(glycogenesis) in the liver
- When glucose level drops (between
meals)
• Hormone (glucagon) is released
from the pancreas
➢ Stimulating conversion of
glycogen into glucose
NADH and FADH2 (glycogenolysis)

Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+) Reduction Oxidation Reactions (redox)

• Accepts two electrons and a
hydrogen ion - Type of chemical reaction
➢ Producing NADH - Involves transfer of electrons between
- High energy electrons received by two chemical species
NAD+
• Transported to ETC Where does Cellular Respiration take place?
FAD
- Flavin adenine dinucleotide - Takes place in two parts of the cell:
• Significant coenzyme 1. Glycolysis occurs in
Cytoplasm
2. Krebs Cycle and
ETC take place in
Mitochondria
• Smooth outer
membrane

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FINALS \ FIRST SEMESTER – LAUREN FRANCISCO. ASHLEE KNOP. ABIGAIL ARNOLD
• Folded inner membrane
• Folds
➢ “Cristae”

• Space inside
➢ “Matrix”

GLYCOLYSIS
- First part of cellular respiration
- Takes place in cytoplasm of both
prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
- “Splitting of sugar”
- Occurs in cytosol of cell
- Breakdown of glucose into two
molecules of pyruvate
- Not need oxygen
• Anaerobic
- Series of catabolic reactions
• Converts one 6-carbon glucose
molecules into two 3-carbon
pyruvate molecules Energy Investment Phase
• Through 10 enzymatic steps
- There is a distinct enzyme
• Involved in each reaction
- Net of two ATP molecules is produced
- Pyruvate
• Other product of glycolysis
• Used in aerobic respiration

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FINALS \ FIRST SEMESTER – LAUREN FRANCISCO. ASHLEE KNOP. ABIGAIL ARNOLD
- At the onset of glycolysis - At the same time,
• Two ATP molecules are used to • Electrons in each three-carbon
activate glucose molecule are removed
➢ By adding glucose ➢ Are accompanied by
• Results in formation of two hydrogen ions
molecules of glyceraldehyde-3- - Hydrogen ions are then picked up by
phosphate (G3P) NAD+ separately
- Glucose then separates into 2 carbon - Because each NADH molecule carries
molecules two high-energy electrons
- Each three-carbon molecule • They can be carried by ETC
• Has a phosphate group - Synthesizing two ATP molecules through
➢ Obtained from an ATP process:
molecule • Substrate-level ATP synthesis or
- The three carbon molecules go through Substrate-level phosphorylation
the same series of reactions - After first substrate-level phosphorylation
• In energy payoff phase • Water is removed from three
carbon molecules
- Another substrate level phosphorylation
Energy Payoff Phase occurs
• Where two pyruvate molecules
are finally produced
➢ By synthesizing two more
ATPs
- Four ATP molecules are produced
• But remember that two ATP
molecules were used in the
energy investment phase
- Net gain in the entire glycolysis is two
ATP molecules

Glycolysis Summary:
- Consists of 5 additional steps
- Results in: - Takes place in cytoplasm
• 4 ATP - Anaerobic (doesn’t use oxygen)
• 2 NADH + 2 H+ - Requires 2 ATP
• 2 pyruvate - Glucose splits into two molecules of
• 2 H2O molecules Pyruvate
- After splitting of glucose - Produces 2 NADH and 4 ATP (Net= 2
• Another inorganic phosphate is ATP)
added into each three-carbon
molecule
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General biology
FINALS \ FIRST SEMESTER – LAUREN FRANCISCO. ASHLEE KNOP. ABIGAIL ARNOLD

TRANSITION REACTION

Formation of Acetylcoa
- Junction between glycolysis and Krebs
cycle
- Oxidation of pyruvate to acetyl CoA

- Takes place in matrix of mitochondria

- First step of aerobic respiration is the link
reaction
• Which transports pyruvate into
the mitochondria KREBS CYCLE OR CITRIC ACID CYCLE
- Named link reaction as this links the
products of glycolysis with the aerobic
processes of the mitochondria
Process:
- Pyruvate molecule breaks down into:
• Two carbon acetyl group
• Carbon dioxide
- Electrons
• Transferred to NAD+ to form
NADH
- Coenzyme A is attached to acetyl
group
• To form acetyl coenzyme A
➢ Before it goes into citric
acid
- The two NADH molecules will carry
electrons to the ETC
- Process where aerobic cellular
- The CO2 molecules that are produced in
metabolism occurs
the transition reaction freely diffuse out
- Takes place in mitochondrial matrix
of the cell

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General biology
FINALS \ FIRST SEMESTER – LAUREN FRANCISCO. ASHLEE KNOP. ABIGAIL ARNOLD
- Hans Krebs received 1953 Nobel Prize in Krebs Cycle Summary
Medicine for the discovery of citric acid
cycle - Each turn of the Krebs Cycle produces:
- Cyclical series of oxidation reactions • 3 NADH
• Gives off CO2 and produce one • 1 FADH2
ATP cycle • 2 CO2
- Requires oxygen (Aerobic) - For each glucose molecule, the Krebs
- Turns twice per glucose molecule cycle produces:
- Each turn produces: • 6 NADH
• 3 NADH • 2 FADH2
• 1 FADH2 • 4 CO2
• 1 ATP • 2 ATP
- Takes place in the matrix of the
mitochondria OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION

Process: - Process that produces ATP

• Through oxidation of electron
- Citric cycle begins with acetyl CoA carriers
joining 4 carbon oxaloacetates ➢ In the presence of oxygen
- In the process, a 6-carbon citric acid - Absence of oxygen
molecule is produced • Not allow the process to proceed
- During cycle - “Oxidative phosphorylation”
• Oxidation happens when • Energy to synthesize ATP is
electrons are accepted by NAD+ derived from oxidation of
by three instances and by FAD in hydrogen carriers
one instance ➢ Transfer of e- to O2 from
- Thus, entire cycle produces: NADH to FADH2
• 3 NADH molecules • Proton pumps
• 1 FADH2 molecule ➢ Creates an
• 2 CO2 molecules electrochemical gradient
- Substrate-level phosphorylation occurs (proton motive force)
in cycle • ATP synthase
• An enzyme facilitates the ➢ Uses subsequent diffusion
addition of inorganic phosphate of protons (chemiosmosis)
to ADP to synthesize ATP
➢ To produce ATP • Oxygen
➢ Accepts electrons and
protons to form water

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FINALS \ FIRST SEMESTER – LAUREN FRANCISCO. ASHLEE KNOP. ABIGAIL ARNOLD
Steps: ➢ To prevent chain from
becoming blocked
a. Generating a Proton Motive Force - Oxygen also binds with free protons (H+)
- Hydrogen carriers (NADH and FADH2) in the matrix
oxidize and release high energy • To form water
electrons and protons ➢ Removing matrix protons
maintains hydrogen
- Electrons are transferred to the electron gradient
transport chain which consists of several - In absence of oxygen
transmembrane carrier proteins • Hydrogen carriers cannot transfer
energized electrons to the chain
b. ATP synthesis via Chemiosmosis • ATP reduction is halted
- Proton motive force will cause H+ ions to
move down their electrochemical Two parts: (Oxidation Phosphorylation)
gradient
• And diffuse back into matrix 1. Electron Transport Chain
- Diffusion of protons is called 2. Chemiosmosis
chemiosmosis
• Facilitated by the 1. Electron Transport Chain
transmembrane enzyme ATP
synthase - Final stage of aerobic respiration
- Located in cristae (inner mitochondrial
c. Reduction of Oxygen membrane) of mitochondria
- In order for the ETC to continue - Series of carriers
functioning • Transports or carry electrons from
• De-energized electrons must be one protein to another
removed - Releases energy stored within the
- Oxygen acts as the final electron reduced hydrogen carriers (FADH2 and
acceptor NADH)
• Removing de-energized electrons • In order to synthesize ATP
Process:
- High energy electrons that go to the ETC
are carried by NADH and FADH2
- When NADH loses its electron

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FINALS \ FIRST SEMESTER – LAUREN FRANCISCO. ASHLEE KNOP. ABIGAIL ARNOLD
• Becomes oxidized to NAD+ - For every glucose molecule
- FADH2 also becomes oxidized to FAD • Total of 10 NADH
• When it gives up its electrons • 2 FADH2
- This redox reaction occurs as electrons ➢ From previous processes
move down the chain - Each NADH can produce 3 ATP
- From there, oxygen receives the - Each FADH2 can produce 2 ATP
electrons that have spent energy from
the last of the carriers 2. Chemiosmosis
- As soon as oxygen receives electrons
• Combines with hydrogen ions
➢ Water is produced
- From the time that NADH delivers high
energy electrons to the first carrier all
the way to the last
• So much energy as already been
captured

- Hydrogen ions are pumped back into

the matrix
• Through a membrane protein
(ATP synthase)
- Most of ATP molecules are produced in
the ETC
- For every glucose molecule there is a
- This is enough to permit the production total of:
of 3 ATP molecules by the time electrons • 10 NADH
reach O2 as the final acceptor • 2 FADH2
- FADH2 can also deliver high energy - Each NADH can produce 3 ATP
electrons molecules in the ETC
• Bringing 2 more ATP molecules by - Each FADH2 can produce 2 ATP
the time it reaches the end of molecules
ETC
Summary of Oxidative Phosphorylation
Summary of ETC
- Hydrogen carriers donate high energy
- Most ATP molecules are produced in electrons to ETC (located in cristae)
ETC - As electrons move through the chain
• Lose energy
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FINALS \ FIRST SEMESTER – LAUREN FRANCISCO. ASHLEE KNOP. ABIGAIL ARNOLD
➢ Which is transferred to the - Krebs Cycle
electron carriers within the • 2 ATP
chain • 6 NADH > 18 ATP
- Electron carriers use the energy to pump • 2 FADH2 > 4 ATP
hydrogen ions
• From matrix into the - Grand total of= 38 ATP
intermembrane space Fermentation
- Accumulation of H+ ions in the
intermembrane space creates an
electrochemical gradient
• Or a proton motive force
- H+ ions return to the matrix via
transmembrane enzyme ATP synthase
• Diffusion of ions is called
chemiosmosis
- As the ions pass through the ATP
synthase
• They trigger phosphorylation
reaction
➢ Produces ATP (from ADP +
Pi) - Anaerobic type of cellular respiration
- Produces a limited amount of ATP in the
Cellular Respiration in Summary absence of oxygen
- Lactic Acid Fermentation in muscle cells
- Glycolysis
• Makes muscles tired
• 2 ATP
- Alcoholic Fermentation in yeast
• 2 NADH > 6 ATP
• Produces ethanol
- Formation of Acetyl CoA
- Nets only 2 ATP
• 2 NADH > 6 ATP
- In the absence of oxygen
• The pyruvate is reduced by the
NADH into either lactate or
alcohol
➢ So cells can continue to
work
- Purpose of fermentation:
• Regenerate NAD+ molecules
➢ So that energy-harvesting
phase of glycolysis can
proceed

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General biology
FINALS \ FIRST SEMESTER – LAUREN FRANCISCO. ASHLEE KNOP. ABIGAIL ARNOLD
1. Lactic Acid Fermentation - NAD forms from NADH for glycolysis to
continue
- Pyruvate molecule from glycolysis is - Pyruvate from glycolysis loses one
converted into lactic acid carbon in the form of carbon dioxide
- NADH is oxidized into NAD+ • To produce acetaldehyde
• To allows glycolysis to continue - NADH is oxidized into NAD+
- Results in additional molecules of ATP • And reduces the acetaldehyde
- Body also carries out this type of to ethyl alcohol
fermentation when muscles work hard
and fast
- Increased levels of lactic acid
production make:
• Muscle cells acidic
• Disrupt other metabolites
➢ Resulting in a burning
sensation in the body’s
active muscles

(Note credits: Lauren Francisco)

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2. Alcohol Fermentation
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- Pyruvate changes to ethanol
• Releases carbon dioxide
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