GEN BIO FINAL REVIEWER

CELL RESPIRATION

Glycolysis (Step 1)
- Glycolysis – Breakdown of sugar; does not
- Opposite for photosynthesis. require Oxygen.

- External respiration; external environment to

the alveoli of the lungs - Energy investment  use of energy 2 ATP
used to add phosphate (phosphorylation) 
Hexose biphosphate  Hexose Biphosphate
- Internal respiration; exchange of gases at breaks down to triosephosphate.
cellular level CO2  O2

Cellular Respiration
- Autotrophs  Produces their own glucose;
bacteria, plants and algae
- Heterotroph  Relies on others to produce
food source of energy - Glycolysis needs co enzyme NAD; Hydrogen
electrons are donated to NAD  NADH;
Hydrogen is reduced – charged molecules.

- Triosephosphate are going to release 2

ATP 4ATP  Pyruvates

Mitochondria  Glucose

Processes of Aerobic Cellular Respiration

- Glycolisys  Cytosol
- Krebs Cycle  Matrix of Mitochondria
- Electron Transport  Cristae of
Mitochondria
Krebs Cycle (Citric Acid Cycle – TCA) (Step 2)
- Takes place in the matrix of the
Mitochondria.
- Series of chemical reaction
- Produces new products; repeats process
- Products are made, unmade, regenerated or
converted
- Reactants are pyruvates
- 2 Pyruvates  (Use) 2 Oxygen; Oxygen
removes carbon in pyruvates; but not only
carbon but hydrogen atoms as well; 2 free
Carbon will combine with free oxygen atoms
in the system  CO2; Acetyl is all left which
will combine with CoA  Acetyl CoA
- CO2 will be brought by blood to the lungs to
be released; we are now left with Acetyl CoA,
CAC
- NAD+H  Electron Transport Chain
- Each Acetyl CoA have their own cycle; to
combine with 4 Carbon molecules 
Oxalacetate
- CoA (2 Carbon) + Oxaloacetate (4 Carbon)
 6 Carbon in Citrate
- 1 citrate is formed it will create a series of
reaction; Decarboxylation (Removal of
Carbon); Dehydrogenation (Removal of
Hydrogen); The carbon remove joins with the
Oxygen  CO2; NAD will accept Hydrogen
from citrate; undergoing another
decarboxylation, 4 Carbon left – Release of
Hydrogen accepted by NAD  NADH
- 4 Carbon will combine temporarily with
enzyme CoA  rearrangement of molecule
 phosphorylation of ADP to ATP
- CoA will be removed; it’s a different
molecule now
- Removal of another hydrogen atom, to be
given to another carrier FADH2 (Release of
2 Hydrogen)
- Another removal of Hydrogen  given to
NAD  NADH
- 4 Carbon to be catalyzed by an enzyme,
isomerase (isomerase use the 4 carbon as a
substrate) oxaloacetate
- Products of Kreb Cycle: 3NADH, and
1FADH2 Provides energy; 2 CO2; 1ATP
- The cycle Turns two time for every glucose
molecule.
Electron Transport Chain (ETC) (Step 3)
- Reactants NADH and FADH2 (From Krebs
Cycle)
- Occurs in the Inner membrane space
- NADH and FADH2 travels to ETC
- Involves a series of four proteins embedded
in the mitochondrial membrane
- NADH gives 2 electons received from the
krebs cycle, first protein of ETC, FADH2 to
the 2nd protein
- The last protein removes hydrogen acquired
from the 3rd protein and combines it with
oxygen  H2O
- Oxygen is terminal acceptor of hydrogen
- Hydrogen energy goes through ATP
Synthase, its needed to phosphorylate
phosphate to ADP  high concentration of
Hydrogen goes through ATP synthase to
balance distribution.
Processes of Anaerobic Cellular Respiration
- Cramping, you’re tired; low pH in blood;
body is overused; dehydrated and electrolyte
imbalance
- If the body cannot be supported by aerobic
respiration, its forced to use anaerobic
respiration to support cells in the body and
supply ATP
- Not all organisms use anaerobic respiration.
- Occurs in the cytoplasm; Lactate
fermentation pathway
- Increase of muscle contraction increase
need for ATP  drop of oxygen level;
Lactose Fermentation Pathway (LFP) to
produce ATP
- Glycolysis; reactants used, 2 pyruvates and 2
NADH (products of glycolysis); NADH 
oxidation (oxidation removal of electrons) 
Hydrogen bonds with pyruvates  Pyruvates
+ Hydrogen = Lactate
- NAD (Acceptor of Hydrogen) uses lactate
dehydrogenase to remove hydrogen from
NADH, NAD goes back to glycolysis.
 RECOMBINANT DNA
- DNA, Deoxyribonucleic acid, is a complex
- Triosephosphate adds hydrogen to NAD (in molecule that contains all of the information
glycolysis) necessary to build and maintain an organism.

- When triosephosphate removes hydrogen - Dictates characteristics of an organism, how

atoms from itself, its able to remove it functions and how it works
phosphate, creating 4 ATP called pyruvate.

- Plants are better because of something done

to their DNA
Components of DNA
- Phosphate, sugar

- Nitrogenous Bases:

o Adenine  Thymine
o Guanine  Cytosine
- When Hydrogen binds with pyruvates it
produces a lot of lactate  Lactate build up - 5 prime to 3 prime (DNA replication)
 Lactic acid (Causing cramps) 
Imbalance of pH in blood, making it acidic
(Lowering); the blood brings it to the liver to
filter it (liver remover of toxins in the body)

Genetic Engineering
- Remove undesirable and adds desirable gene
from a source
 - Golden rice  Vitamin a was added because kidneys to remove it, the sugar stays in the
Filipinos have vitamin a (carotene) kidneys  kidney stones; or via the skin;
deficiency; Genes from daffodil flower was that’s why nilalanggam ang pawis and pee of
added a jabetic patient.

- Featherless chicken  to cut of cost in - Chromosome 3 creates DNA of bacteria

production and manual labor plasmid  gene from human ipapasok sa
bacteria  all that bacteria will produce
- Genetic engineering, to enhance and modify. insulin

- GE, changing of genetic material;

Genetic Recombination
recombinant DNA Technology
1. Genetic isolation (isolate gene of interest –
o Joining DNA molecules Chromosome 11; insulin)
o Inserting to a host from organism to
produce new genetic combination

- Norman Borlaug; awarded nobel price for

high yielding rice, solving global hunger after
WWII despite of lack technology from that
time.

- Products of GE: Insulin, Growth Hormones,

Follistim, Antihemophilic, vaccines, etc - Molecular scissors  enzyme or restriction
enzymes that reads and cuts; certain genes
CRISPR – Cas 9 have their own restriction enzymes that will
also cut the plasmid so that the cut DNA can
- Genetic modification technology applied to enter the plasmid  gene of interest is pasted
most organism. to the plasmid with DNA Ligase (paste) its
called ligation  those cut are called
restriction sites.
- Recombination

- Used to preserve species.

- BT Corn; bacteria (Bacillus thuringiencis)

that has insecticidal proteins (endotoxin) 
inserted to plant corn so when caterpillar and
insects will die after eating

- Insulin – from pancreas – chromosome 11

genes dictate insulin production

- After eating carbohydrates  glucose to the

blood, without insulin the glucose stays in the
blood  high glucose, the brain tells the
- A restriction site is a sequence of
approximately 6–8 base pairs of DNA that
binds to a given restriction enzyme.

- There are sticky ends so that the genes will

bind  pairing of compliments

2. Insetrion of isolated gene in a vector (Plasmid

is placed in a vector; carrier) (Plasmid 
Vector) 3. Transformation - Introduction of the
Modified Vector into a host
- The gene is carried in a bacteria; the bacteria
must be competent, if the bacteria is good the
plasmid will enter; e-coli bacteria is used;
plasmid enters e-coli, is called
transformation, via:
o Microinjection
To open bacteria o Electroporation
{
so plasmid can o Chemical transformation (heat or
enter chemicals)
- Vector is for multiplying. - Bacteria is place in a test tube

- Expresses what genes need to see

- Isolating

- Selecting of plasmid:

o Plasmid must have antibiotic resistant

gene
o Selectable marker
o Promoter Gene (para dumami)
o Restriction Digestion site (prepares of
cloning) 4. Selection of Transformed Host Cells
o Origin of Replication - Experimental condition
 o Control Plate no ampicillin
(antibiotic)  High population of
bacteria colony
o Test Plate has ampicillin some growth
 antibiotic ressistent  those not
affected by antibiotics are selected
and cultured, those bacteria are
capable of insulin production.
- Those bacteria are to be placed in live
reactors.

5. Expression of the gene introduced to the host

- The last step of recombinant DNA
technology is aimed at increasing the
production of the desired product.