BIOLOGY I

FINALS

CELLULAR RESPIRATION
Catabolic Pathways
▪ Metabolic pathways that release stored energy by breaking down complex molecules
▪ Breakdown of large molecules into smaller ones

Anaerobic Respiration
▪ Prokaryotes use other substances other than oxygen
▪ Both Prokaryotes & Eukaryotes

Aerobic Respiration
▪ Oxygen is consumed as reactant along with organic fuel
▪ MOST EFFICIENT
▪ Only for Eukaryotes

Fermentation
▪ Partial degradation of sugars or other organic fuel that occurs without the use of oxygen.

Organic Compound + Oxygen → Carbon Dioxide + Water + Energy

AEROBIC RESPIRATION
▪ The process most living organisms undergo to use food energy with the use of oxygen

Respiration
▪ metabolic process of most living things in which food molecules/glucose are turned into usable energy for the
cell, called ATP.
Location: Cytoplasm and Mitochondria

Photosynthesis
▪ process in which plants use sunlight and carbon dioxide to build food molecules releasing oxygen as a waste
product
Location: Chloroplast

1 GLYCOLYSIS
▪ Produced 4 ATP
▪ Used 2 ATP
▪ Net Yield 2 ATP
▪ Glyco (sugar) Lysis (breakdown/death)
▪ First phase of Aerobic Respiration
▪ Release electrons from the bonds in glucose
Goal: Breaks glucose into 2 molecules called pyruvate
Location: Cytoplasm specifically in the Cytosol

Investment
1. ENZYME: Hexokinase
PROCESS: Phosphorylates (addition of phosphate group) glucose in the cell’s cytoplasm (-1 ATP)
PRODUCT: Gluco 6-phosphate

Glucose HEXOKINASE→ Glucose 6-Phosphate

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2. ENZYME: Phosphoglucoisomerase
PROCESS: Converts glucose 6-phosphate into its isomer
Isomers - same molecular formula, different arrangement of molecules
PRODUCT: Fructose 6-phosphate

Glucose 6-Phosphate PHOSPHOGLUCOISOMERASE→ Fructose 6-Phosphate Cleavage

3. ENZYME: Phosphofructokinase
PROCESS: Uses another ATP to transfer another phosphate molecule on C1 (-1 ATP)
PRODUCT: 1, 6-Bisphosphate

Fructose 6-Phosphate PHOSPHOFRUCTOKINASE→ 1,6-Bihosphate

4. ENZYME: Aldolase
PROCESS: Splits 1,6 - Biphosphate (C6) into two (C3) that are isomers to each other
PRODUCTS:
1. Dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP) and Glyceraldehyde phosphate (G3P)
2. 2 G3P

1,6-Biphosphate ALDOLASE→ DHAP & G3P→ G3P

Energy Harvest
5. ENZYME: Triose Phosphate Dehydrogenase
PROCESS: (+2 NADH)
1. TPD transfers H- to NAD+
2. TPD phosphorylates G3P
PRODUCTS:
3. 2 NADH (Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide)
4. 1,3-Biphosphoglycerate

NAD+ TPD OXIDATION→ NADH-

G3P TPD→ 1,3-Biphosphate

6. ENZYME: Phosphoglycerokinase
PROCESS: Phosphoglycerokinase transfers a P from 1,3-Biphosphoglycerate to ADP to produce ATP, and 3-
Biphosphoglycerate (+2 ATP)
PRODUCTS:
1. 2 ATP
2. 3-Biphosphoglycerate

1,3 - Biphosphoglycerate PHOSPHOGLYCEROKINASE → 3-Biphosphoglycerate

7. ENZYME: Phosphoglyceromutase
PROCESS: relocates the P from 3C to 2C
PRODUCT: Two 2-Phosphoglycerate

3-Biphosphoglycerate PHOSPHOGLYCEROMUTASE → 2-Phosphoglycerate

8. ENZYME: Ensolase; Pyruvate Kinase
PROCESS: removes H2O from 2-Phosphoglycerate;; Transfers P from PEP to ADP (+2 ATP)
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 PRODUCT: Two Phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP); Two Pyruvate

2-Phosphoglycerate ENSOLASE DEHYDRATION→ PEP PEP PYRUVATE KINASE→ 2 Pyruvates

2

PYRUVATE OXIDATION CITRIC ACID CYCLE

Pyruvate Oxidation - follows Glycolysis

- pyruvate is carried from cytosol to the mitochondria via active transport
GOAL: convert pyruvate to CO2, Acetyl Coenzyme - A, and NADH

WHY DO WE NEED ACETYL COA?

✓ It serves as fuel for the citric acid cycle and it delivers acetyl group from pyruvate to the next stage

KREB’S CYCLE or TRICARBOXYLIC ACID (TCA) CYCLE

NET YIELD (X2)
▪ THREE NADH
▪ FADH2
▪ ATP AND/OR GTP
Goal: act as metabolic furnace that oxidizes fuel derived from pyruvate
Location: Mitochondrial Matrix
final common pathway for the oxidation of fuel molecules (fatty acids, amino acids, carbohydrates)
Fuel Molecules: Acetyl CoA

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 STEP ENZYME REACTION PRODUCT # OF CARBONS

Pyruvate Dehydrogenase Arrival

0 2C ; 4C
Complex (Pyruvate Oxidation) COASH removed

1 Citrate Synthase Synthesis Citrate 6C

2 Aconitase Isomerization Isocitrate/Aconitate 6C

Oxidation
3 Isocitrate Dehydrogenase NAD+ ---> NADH A - Ketoglutarate 5C
Removal of CO2

Oxidation
A - Ketoglutarate Dehydrogenase NADH
4 Succinyl COA 4C
Complex CO2
COASH attach

COASH detach
5 Succinate COA Synthase Phosphorylation Succinate 4C
Synthase

Oxidize
6 Succinate Dehydrogenase Fumarate 4C
FAD --> FADH2

7 Fumarase Isomerization Malate 4C

Oxidation
NAD+ --> NADH
8 Malate Dehydrogenase Oxaloacetate 4C
(No more removal
CO2)

3 OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION

NET YIELD
▪ 30 ATP
Goal: ATP Generation
Location: Inner Membrane
Phase 1: Electron Transport Chain
▪ No ATP Generation yet
▪ 10 NADH
▪ 2 FADH2
I. NADH Dehydrogenase
II. Succinate Dehydrogenase
III. Cytochrome - C Oxidase
IV. Cytochrome Oxidase
Ubiquinne/Coenzyme Q

Phase 2: Chemiosmosis
▪ ATP Synthase- enzyme that makes ATP from ADP

NADH Oxidation NADH → NAD+ + H+ + 2E-

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 SUMMARY

GLYCOLYSIS: 2 NADH & 2 ATP

PYRUVATE OXIDATION:
CITRIC ACID CYCLE:
TOTAL:
2 NADH
6 NADH & 2 FADH2 & 2 ATP
10 NADH AND 2 FADH2
1NADH = 3 ATP = 30 ATP
1FADH2 = 2 ATP = 4 ATP

Oxidation KREB'S CYCLE YIELDS

1. NAD+ ---> NADH 3 - NADH [3, 4, 8] FAD (strong enough to fight succinate) =
2. Removal of CO2 1 - FADH2 [6] NAD+ (both electron carriers)
1 - ATP [5]
-----------------------
3 - CO2 [PO - 3 - 4]

ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION
ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION
▪ Prokaryotes in environment without oxygen
▪ Other electronegative substances act as electron acceptor
▪ Sulfate Ions - H2S
▪ For microorganisms only

FERMENTATION
▪ No Electron Transport Chain
▪ No oxygen
▪ ATP generation by Substrate Level Phosphorylation

LACTIC ACID FERMENTATION

GOAL: TURN PYRUVATE (from Glycolysis) TO LACTATE
LOCATION: CYTOPLASM
▪ No CO2 release
▪ Lactic acid bacteria carry out lactic acid fermentation
Lactobacillus bulgaricus (L. bulgaricus)
Staphylococcus thermopilus (S. thermopilus)
NET YIELD
▪ TWO NADH*
▪ TWO ATP*
▪ 2 LACTATE
*from glycolysis

IN THE BODY
Lack of Oxygen = Muscle cells make ATP by Lactic Acid Fermentation
ANAEROBIC

Glucose → Lactic Acid + Energy

AEROBIC

Glucose + Oxygen → CO2 + Water + Energy

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 ALCOHOL FERMENTATION
GOAL: TURN PYRUVATE TO ETHANOL
LOCATION: CYTOPLASM
▪ 2-step process
▪ CO2 is released
▪ Microorganism carry out alcohol
▪ Fermentation in anaerobic environment
Saccharomyces cerevisiae (S. cerevisiae)
NET YIELD
▪ 2 NADH*
▪ 2 ATP*
▪ Ethanol
▪ 2 CO2
*from glycolysis

Glucose. → Ethanol + CO2 + Energy

Application
Sccharo - Sugar
Myces - Yeast/Fungi
▪ First found on grapes skin
▪ Also called Brewer's Yeast/Baker's Yeast
Water + Malt + Hops + Yeast = BEER.

EVOLUTION
Charles Darwin
“On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection”
• 5 years in Galapagos Islands (via HMS Beagle)
• Compared the beaks of Galapagos Finches

EVOLUTION - change in genetic composition of a population from generation to generation

- everything comes from a common ancestor
Physical Evolution - erosion
Genetic Evolution - having an offspring

Darwin argued that a similar process occurs in nature.

Observation #1 - members of a population often vary in their inherited traits
Observation #2 - reproduce more offspring than the environment can support

Mechanisms of Evolution
1. Descent with modification “heredity” - unity of life to the descent of all organisms from the remote past
Diversity - descendants from ancestral organisms dispersed and lived in different conditions, leading
adaptation, modification and mutation
2. Mechanisms of Evolution
Adaptation - inherited characteristics of organisms that enhances their chances of survival and reproduction
in specific environments
Natural Selection - a process in which individuals that have certain inherited traits tends to survive and
reproduce better
Artificial Selection - modification by breeding and selection of specific physical traits
Ex. Getting the different parts of a plant to breed a new type of plant
3. Genetic Variation
Mutation - change in the structure of a gene that can be transmitted to the next generations
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 Gene Flow - movement of genes from one population to another
Sex- process that can introduce genetic shuffling and new combinations of genes into the new
population
Recombination - combination DNA strands that are artificially constructed for a specific purpose
4. Genetic Drift
- happens by chance
- the genes of the next generation will be the “lucky” genes and not necessarily be the “better”
genes
- does not work to produce adaptations
5. Coevolution
- happens when two or more species affects each other’s evolution
- normally seen on species that interact closely together at very frequent doses
ex. Predator and Prey
Mutualistic relationships
Competitive species

Notes:
→ individuals do not evolve, populations evolve
→ natural selection can amplify or diminish only those heritable traits that differ among the individuals
in a population
→ environmental factors vary from place to place and over time
→ LUCA – Last Universal Common Ancestor – still not found

Divergent Evolution – different species, share common ancestor, but have different characteristics
Speciation – formation of new and distinct species in a world of young lady.
Convergent Evolution – different ancestors, but due to environment, there are analogous
Homology – similar structure and origin, but different purposes
Homoplasy – evolved independently to have similar functions in distantly related organisms

Bipedalism – ability to walk both two feet

Encephalization – increase in complexity of relatively small brain
Sexual Dysmorphism – differences in male and female
Ulnar Opposition – contact of the fingers in one hand

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