Science

Volcanoes, Types, & Eruptions

Volcano – landform, a mountain where molten rocks erupt through the surface pf the planet.
- it opens downwards to a pool of molten rocks below the surface of the earth.

Categories

 Active – recently erupted, may possibly erupt soon.

 Dormant – hasn’t erupted for a long time but may still erupt.
 Extinct – erupted thousands of years ago with no possibility of an eruption.

Types

 Cinder Cones – circular/oval cones made up of small fragments of lava from a single vent that
has blown up.
- small pieces of scoria & pyroclastic that build up around the vent.
 Composite – steep sided and composed of many layers of volcanic rocks usually made of high
viscosity lava, ash, & rock debris.
- strata gives rise to the name.
 Shield – bowl/shield shaped in the middle with long gentle slopes made by basaltic lava flows.
- formed via low viscosity lava.
 Lava Dome – when erupting lava is too thick to flow and makes a steep sided mound as the lava
piles up near the vent.
- slow eruptions of highly viscous lava.

Why do Eruptions happen? Magma is buoyant and will rise through the crust and erupt through the
surfaces.

Explosive – large amounts of gas & high viscosity magma, catastrophic, 10’s-1000’s km 3 of magma
eruption, ash clouds sent >25km into the atmosphere, severe environmental & climatic effects.
Effusive – small amounts of gas & low viscosity magma, outpouring of lava onto the ground.

Types of Eruptions – dependent on chemistry of magma, temperature, viscosity, & water and gas content

 Hydrothermal – hot ash, not magma, driven by the heat caused by hydrothermal systems.
 Phreatic – when the heat of the magma interacts with water, only includes ash.
 Phreatomagmatic – interaction between newly formed & water.
 Hawaiian – fire fountains.
 Strombolian – explosions due to lava fragments.
 Vulcanian – lasts for a short period, reaches 20 km.
 Sub Plinian – 20 km in height.
 Plinian – 20-35 km in height.
Volcanic Hazards & Signs of Volcanic Eruption
Hazards

 Lava Flow – red hot, high temperature.

- as long as it’s hot, it will flow down due to gravity.
- injuries & damage to property.
- cools to form solid rocks.
 Dome Growth – pile of lava grows around the vent of the volcano or on the slopes.
- formed by viscous magma which doesn’t flow far.
- prone to collapse & can cause pyroclastic flow.
 Pyroclastic Flow – hot, fast moving, mixture of ash, rocks, & hot gases.
- can flatten, burn, & bury anything in their path.
 Pyroclastic Surge – contains larger amounts of gases and are faster than flows.
- has poisonous gases. (CO2, Sulfur, etc.)
 Tephra Falls – Tephra – solid material that are thrown out during eruption.
- Volcanic Bombs – large rock particles
- Cinders – small volcanic bombs, golf-ball sized.
 Volcanic Gases – water vapor, nitrogen, & many asphyxiating, poisonous, or irritant gases are
given off.
- eruption of CO2 have caused human deaths from asphyxiation.
- affects the quality of air that we breathe.
- Sulfur Dioxide combines with rain to form acid rain which can damage crops and is a health
hazard to humans.
 Volcanic Mudflows (Lahar) – violent, fast-moving suspension of water, ash, rocks, and other
debris.
- resembles flowing wet concrete.
- flows down and large ones can rip trees out of the ground, transport boulders, sweep away
buildings and people, & bury wider land areas in thick mud.
 Tsunami – giant ocean wave caused by underwater earthquakes or volcanic eruptions that result
in the displacement of large volumes of ocean water.
- series of waves which can grow bigger as they move ashore.
- flooding of coastal areas, wash away houses, trees, and other infrastructure.

Signs of Volcanic Eruptions

1. Volcanic quakes w rumbling sounds, occur frequently.

2. Steam coming from the crater changes in color, from white (normal volcanic activity) to gray (the
presence of ash).
3. The crater is glowing because of the rising magma.
4. Swelling ground, tilts, and cracks due to magma intrusion.
5. Landslides that occur/rocks falling from the summit (not caused by heavy rain).
6. Vegetation drying up (especially those near volcano).
 7. Hot springs, wells, and craters near the volcano increases in temperature.
8. Change in the chemical content of springs, craters, and lakes within the vicinity of the volcano.
9. Drying up of wells and springs around the volcano.
10. The development of a new volcano field.

Do’s & Don’ts Before, During, and After Volcanic Eruption

Volcanic Alert levels

 Normal
 Smallest
 Green
 Has the capital letter ‘N’ inside the triangle.
 Advisory
 Second to smallest
 Yellow
 Has the capital letter ‘A’ inside.
 Watch
 Second to biggest
 Orange
 Has an eye drawing inside the triangle.
 To watch out/observe
 Warning
 Biggest
 Red
 Has an exclamation mark inside.
 Unassigned
 A white, empty triangle
 Insufficient monitoring to make out an assessment.
What to do
 Before/Prior
 Be aware of damage from volcanic eruptions.
 Familiarize yourself with the alert levels.
 Prepare all the necessary things, and do not hesitate to leave the
house.
 Food, medicine, water, blanket, and secure important documents
(if needed by the government to evacuate)
 Prepare other lifesaving devices. (Cellphones, flashlights,
whistles, gas masks)
 Prioritize the safety of children/elderly before other things, as early
as level 2 and take them to friends/relatives in further places.
 During (outdoor)
 Seek shelter indoors and cover (especially during rockfalls)
 Avoid low-lying places – lahar and lava flows are more likely to run
down.
 If you can drive, use the vehicle to evacuate, keep windows close,
and be aware of unusual hazards on the road.
 During (indoor)
 Close all windows, doors, fireplace, and other openings in the
building.
  Monitor alert levels via tv or battery-operated transistor radios (in
case of power loss)
 Cover nose and mouth with masks to not breathe in ashes.
 Pets and livestock should be in a closed shelter.
 Stay inside the house unless authorities tell you to evacuate.
 After
 Check the entire house.
 Walls, roofs, electrical wirings, pipes
 Earthquakes increase the temperature and other volcanic-related
activities that might affect the stability of the building.
Climatic Factors & Patterns
Factors

 Latitude – Low – between tropic of Cancer & Capricorn, includes equator receives direct
sunlight, warm & hot climate.
- Middle – between Cancer and Artic Circle/Capricorn and Antarctic Circle, temperate climate,
seasons change from hot to cold.
- High – polar regions, indirect sunlight, continuous day for 6 months.
 Altitude – as elevation increases, thinner air which means less heat.
- higher altitude means a decrease in temperature.
- sunlight is brighter at higher altitudes due to a thinner atmosphere filtering less amounts of
energy.
 Prevailing Winds – global winds that blow in the same direction
- Coriolis Effect – winds blow diagonally
- Trade Winds – low latitudes, blow from NE from 30° N and from SE from 30° S, towards
equator
- Westerlies – middle latitude, blows from W to E between 30° N & 60°N and between 30°S &
60° S
- Polar Easterlies – blow diagonally from W to E, pushes cold air to middle
- Wind Belts – narrow bands of calm air, encircles the earth
- Doldrums/ITCZ – at the equator, calm & light winds
- Horse Latitude - 30° N & S, calm region & light winds, wind blows from high to low pressure
- Circumpolar Low – belt where violent storms occur
- Polar High – permanent ice cap
 Ocean Currents – movement of warm & cold water in the ocean
- as the ocean current circulates, cold water moves to the equator & warm water goes to the
tropics which become cold as they move away.
 Topography – mountain ranges affect precipitation & climate
- windward side – facing the wind, rising air cools & rains
- leeward side – opposite side, less rain, dry air
- rain shadow effect – dry areas develop on the leeward side of the mountain.
 Bodies of Water – oceans affect precipitation in near areas & coast
- oceans are primary source of moisture
 - warms oceans near cooler land cause more humid air with a lot of moisture which blow inland
causing abundant precipitation.
 Climate – Greek – Torrid, Temperate, Frigid
- Wladimir Köppen – monthly & annual values of temperature & precipitation

Stars & Constellations

 Star
 A massive ball of plasma held together by its own gravity.
 Emits light throughout the universe.
 Constellations
 Group of stars
 Used for navigators to locate certain stars.
 Total of 88 constellations covering the sky
Star Planet
Nuclear Reactions No Nuclear Reaction
Massive Relatively Smaller
Cloud of Gas burst out from nebular or other When materials in the disk around a
region of interstellar space collapses due to preexisting star begins to condense around
gravity rock or cycle core
Bright Not Bright
Randomly Distributed Ecliptic Plane
Moves but seem static Moves Slowly

Stars
Differ in Evolutionary States
Brightness Described by
Luminosity and Magnitude
Luminosity - amount of energy released by
the star (surface temp.)

Apparent Magnitude - brightness of the

star as seen from the Earth.

Absolute Magnitude - brightness of the

star as seen from a standard distance (32.6
light years away from Earth)
Color HR Diagram
Stars generally appear white in the sky.

This depends upon the stars’ surface temp.

Red Dwarf - coolest

Blue Dwarf - hottest
Temperature Main Red, White, Supernova,
Size/Mass Sequence Dwarf Super
90% of stars are sequence stars. Giant
- exhibit fusion of hydrogen in the core of
the stars into helium
 Hottest stars generate the most light,
coolest stars generate the least.

The higher the mass, the shorter the

evolutionary cycle

Red Dwarf - smallest stars in the universe

such as the Proxima Centauri - 12% the
mass of the sun, and 14% the size of the sun

White Blue Supergiant - larger than the

sun
Hypergiants are the biggest stars.

HR (Hertzsprung Russel) Diagram - a

graphical tool used to classify stars (in
luminosity, spectral type, color, temp., and
evolutionary stages)
Composition
Stars are primarily composed of hydrogen
(the basic fuel that stars use to create energy)

Helium is another gas component, a major

component of the main sequence stars — it is
25% of the mass of the sun.

By: JM ft. Aira :]

Social Studies
The Demand Supply Model
Market Equilibrium

The demand-supply model is a fundamental concept in economics that explains how prices and
quantities are determined in a market. Market equilibrium occurs when the quantity demanded by
consumers equals the quantity supplied by producers at a specific price. At this equilibrium point, there
is no inherent tendency for prices or quantities to change, resulting in a stable market situation.

Shifts in the Demand and Supply Curves

The demand and supply curves represent the relationship between price and quantity in a market. Shifts
in these curves occur when factors other than price affect the demand or supply of a product. When the
demand curve shifts, it indicates a change in consumers' willingness and ability to buy a certain quantity
at each price level. Factors that can shift the demand curve include changes in consumer income, tastes
and preferences, population, expectations, and the prices of related goods.

Similarly, shifts in the supply curve represent changes in producers' willingness and ability to offer a
certain quantity at each price level. Factors that can shift the supply curve include changes in production
costs (e.g., labor, raw materials), technology, government regulations, and expectations.

Addressing Equilibrium

If the market is not in equilibrium, where quantity demanded and quantity supplied do not match, there
will be either a shortage or surplus of goods. In the case of a shortage, where quantity demanded
exceeds quantity supplied, prices tend to rise. Conversely, in the case of a surplus, where quantity
supplied exceeds quantity demanded, prices tend to fall. These price changes act as signals to market
participants, influencing their behavior and eventually leading the market back toward equilibrium.

Markets
Perfectly Competitive Market

A perfectly competitive market is characterized by many buyers and sellers, homogeneous products,
perfect information, free entry and exit of firms, and no individual participant having the ability to
influence the market price. In a perfectly competitive market, firms are price-takers, meaning they
accept the prevailing market price and adjust their output accordingly. Examples of perfectly competitive
markets include agricultural commodities.

Imperfectly Competitive Market

 Monopoly: A monopoly market consists of a single firm that is the sole provider of a particular
good or service in the market. As a result, the monopolist has significant control over price and
quantity. Barriers to entry prevent other firms from entering and competing in the market.
  Monopsony: A monopsony market occurs when there is a single buyer or dominant buyer in a
market with many sellers. The monopsonist has market power to influence the price and
quantity of the goods or services they purchase.
 Oligopoly: An oligopoly market consists of a small number of firms that dominate the market.
These firms can affect prices and compete with one another. The actions of one firm can have
significant impacts on the others, leading to strategic decision-making.
 Monopolistic Competition: Monopolistic competition is characterized by many firms competing
in a market with differentiated products. Each firm has a degree of market power, allowing
them to differentiate their products through branding, marketing, or product attributes.
However, there is still a relatively low barrier to entry.

Government Interventions

 Price controls: Governments may impose price ceilings (maximum prices) or price floors
(minimum prices) on certain goods or services to protect consumers or producers. These
interventions can lead to distortions in supply and demand.
 Taxes and subsidies: Governments can impose taxes and subsidies to influence market
outcomes. Taxes, such as sales taxes or excise taxes, increase the cost of production or
consumption, which can affect the equilibrium price and quantity. Subsidies, on the other hand,
provide financial assistance to producers, reducing their costs and potentially increasing supply
or lowering prices.
 Regulations: Governments implement regulations to ensure fair competition, protect
consumers, and address externalities. Regulations may include quality standards, safety
requirements, environmental regulations, and antitrust laws to prevent monopolistic behavior.
 Market interventions: In certain cases, governments may directly participate in the market by
becoming buyers or sellers of goods and services. This can occur in industries such as healthcare,
education, or defense, where the government provides services directly or contracts with private
firms.

The Circular Flow Diagram

National Income Accounting
GDP & GNI

Gross Domestic Product (GDP) is a measure of the total value of all final goods and services produced
within a country's borders in a specific period (usually a year). It includes consumption, investment,
government spending, and net exports (exports minus imports). GDP measures the economic output of
a country.

Gross National Income (GNI) is a measure of the total income earned by a country's residents, including
income earned domestically and income earned abroad. It is calculated by adding net income from
abroad (such as wages and profits earned by residents working abroad) to GDP.

Approaches for measuring GDP & GNI

 Expenditure approach: GDP is calculated by summing up the expenditures on final goods and
services in the economy. This includes consumption expenditure, investment expenditure,
government expenditure, and net exports (exports minus imports).
 Income approach: GDP is calculated by summing up the incomes earned by individuals and
businesses in the economy. This includes wages, salaries, profits, rents, and interest.
 Production approach: GDP is calculated by summing up the value added at each stage of
production. It accounts for the value added by each industry and avoids double counting.
 GNI is measured using a similar approach to GDP but includes net income from abroad, such as
remittances and profits earned by residents working overseas.

(Credits to Rza lol I just highlighted important parts for easier understanding)