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Tectonophysics 6494 (2001) xxx – xxx

1 www.elsevier.com/locate/tecto

2 Preface
3 Andean geodynamics: main issues and contributions

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4 from the 4th ISAG, Göttingen

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5 Etienne Jaillard a,b,*, Gérard Hérail b, Tony Monfret c, Gerhard Wörner d

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a
6 IRD-LGCA, Maison des Géosciences, BP 53, 38041 Grenoble Cedex, France
b
7 IRD, UR 104, 39 Allées Jules Guesde, 31 062 Toulouse, France

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c
8 IRD, UMR Géosciences Azur, 250 rue Albert Einstein, 06560 Valbonne, France
d
9 Geochemisches Institut, Goldschmidtstrasse 1, 37077 Göttingen, Germany
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11 Received 14 September 2001

12 1. Introduction D
(3) What are the timing, nature and location of
crucial deformational events that contributed to the
34
35
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13 The Andean chain is the paradigm of a continental building up of the mountain belt? Are they typical 36
14 orogeny resulting from the subduction of an oceanic ‘‘orogenic phases’’ occurring during restricted period 37
15 plate beneath a continental plate. Despite an apparent of times, which can be correlated along major portions 38
16 simple general geometry, the tectonic –magmatic evo- of the chain? What may explain the temporal and 39
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17 lution of the Andes is not entirely resolved, and some spatial variations in such tectonic events? 40
18 of the basic processes responsible for the growth of (4) What are the gravitational and climatic 41
19 this orogeny remain poorly understood. A number of responses to crustal thickening and uplift? What are 42
20 striking questions is only partly resolved and need the feedback controls of such modifications on ero- 43
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21 much more investigations. We briefly summarize here sion and uplift? 44

22 some of these questions. Addressing these questions ideally requires, at 45
(1) What is the present-day deep structure of the least, interactions between structural geologists, sed-
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23 46
24 mountain belt? What are the relative parts of tectonic imentologists, geophysicists and geochemists, as well 47
25 shortening, slab geometry, tectonic and magmatic as geochronologists, geomorphologists, paleobotan- 48
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26 underplating in the volume and composition of the ists and modelling specialists. The 4th International 49
27 Andean crust? What are the possible consequences of Symposium on Andean Geodynamics (ISAG) meet- 50
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28 such geometry on the thermal structure of the Andean ing held in Göttingen on October 4 –6 1999 aimed to 51
29 belt? assemble some 250 scientists from these fields of 52
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30 (2) What are the external forces and processes earth science to present and discuss recent progress 53
31 which cause the horizontal shortening of the conti- in the understanding of this prominent mountain belt. 54
32 nental plate, and what is the role of the lithospheric This meeting occurred at a transition period. Dur- 55
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33 mantle during crustal shortening? ing the late 1990s, several reviews have been pub- 56
lished on Andean geodynamics and more papers 57
*
synthesizing various aspects of Andean evolution 58
Corresponding author. IRD-LGCA, Maison des Géosciences,
BP 53, 38041 Grenoble Cedex, France. Tel.: +33-4-7663-5905; fax:
are coming out. The state of our knowledge in the 59
+33-4-7682-8401. geological, tectonic and geodynamic evolution for the 60
E-mail address: ejaillar@ujf-grenoble.fr (E. Jaillard). Andes was presented by Salfity (1994), Reutter et al. 61

0040-1951/01/$ - see front matter D 2001 Published by Elsevier Science B.V.

PII: S 0 0 4 0 - 1 9 5 1 ( 0 1 ) 0 0 2 0 3 - 7
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
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62 (1994), Tankard et al. (1995a,b), Dewey and Lamb 2.1. Processes of crustal thickening in the Andes 108
107
63 (1996), Allmendinger et al. (1997), ISAG (1999),
64 Cordani et al. (2000a,b) and Miller and Hervé 2.1.1. Central Andes ( 5°S –45°S) 109
65 (2000), many of which are based on the earlier land- The Central Andes is characterized by a high mean 110
66 mark paper by Isacks (1988). The climate and faunal elevation resulting from a strongly thickened crust and 111
67 response to uplift and its timing were reviewed by a well-developed thin-skinned fold and thrust belt to 112
68 Gregory-Wodzicki (2000). More geophysical work the east (sub-Andean zone). No exotic terranes have 113
69 introducing new techniques to the Andes (e.g., seis- been accreted since the Jurassic. Crustal thickening 114

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70 mic reflection) was combined with the geological processes have been studied mainly in the Altiplano 115
(  15°S– 25°S), the mean elevation of which is about

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71 evidence for Andean-wide lithosphere imaging (Beck 116
72 et al., 1996; Dorbath et al., 1996; ANCORP Working 3900 m (Isacks, 1988) and the crustal thickness of 117
73 Group, 1999; Beaumont et al., 1999; Reutter, 1999), which reaches 70– 75 km (Lyon-Caen et al., 1985; 118

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74 including the offshore regions and marine geology Fukao et al., 1989; Beck et al., 1996; Schmitz et al., 119
75 (CINCA Study Group, 1996; Von Huene et al., 1999; 1999; Yuan et al., 2000) (Fig. 2). 120

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76 Bourgois et al., 2000). For early authors, addition of melt volume at depth 121
77 The application to the Andes of other new methods, due to intense magmatic arc activity was thought to be 122
78 such as GPS measurements (e.g., Kellog and Vega, responsible for the crustal thickening and correlative 123
79 1995; Norabuena et al., 1998; Kendrick et al., 1999; relief increase of the Central Andes (e.g., James, 124
80 Weber et al., 2001), cosmogenic isotope datings (e.g., 1971; Thorpe et al., 1981). Recent estimates show 125
81 Siame et al., 1997) or tomographic imaging (e.g., that magma addition would explain only a few per- 126
82
83
Dorbath and Granet, 1996; Engdahl et al., 1998;
Beaumont et al., 1999; Graeber and Asch, 1999;
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centages of the observed crustal thickness (Francis
and Hawkesworth, 1994; Allmendinger et al., 1997;
127
128
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84 Masson et al., 2000) and refinements of existing Giese et al., 1999). Nevertheless, magmatism has an 129
85 techniques, like isotopic mapping (e.g., Bock et al., acknowledged influence on crustal rheology (She- 130
86 2000; Wörner et al., 2000) have all advanced our menda, 1994; Allmendinger et al., 1997) and might 131
87 basic understanding of this unique mountain range. locally contribute to the thickening of active arc zones 132
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88 Accordingly, the 4th ISAG meeting brought (Lamb et al., 1997). 133
89 together many of the scientists involved in these Further studies of the deformation of the upper 134
90 studies. Many papers presented at the conference and crust and overlying sediments demonstrated that 135
91 some of the papers included in this volume are also compressional shortening of the upper plate and 136
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92 directly related to the current UNESCO International thrusting of the Andean chain upon the Brazilian 137
93 Geological Correlation Program (IGCP 436) ‘‘Tec- Shield are the driving mechanisms of crustal thick- 138
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94 tonic evolution of the Pacific Gondwana margin struc- ening (e.g., Allmendinger et al., 1983; Jordan et al., 139
95 ture, assembly and break-up events.’’ IGCP, ILP, the 1983; Isacks, 1988; Roeder, 1988; Sempere et al., 140
96 University of Göttingen and other organizations and 1990; Sheffels, 1990). Recent works, however, point 141
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97 companies (DFG, IRD, State of Niedersachsen, ER- out that the observed tectonic shortening rates do not 142
98 Mapper and the Wintershall) provided financial sup- account for the observed crustal thickening, espe- 143
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99 port for the meeting, which is greatly acknowledged. cially beneath the arc and forearc zones (Schmitz, 144
1994; Giese et al., 1999; Ramos and Alemán, 2000; 145
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Yuan et al., 2000) and that material derived from the 146
100 2. ISAG 99 contributions tectonic erosion of the upper plate edge (Rutland, 147
1971) may have been underplated beneath the west- 148
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101 The papers from this symposium gathered in this ern parts of the chain (e.g., Schmitz, 1994; Baby et 149
102 section/volume of Tectonophysics address several of al., 1997; Kley and Monaldi, 1998; Rochat et al., 150
103 the questions raised above (Fig. 1) and can be grouped 1999) (Fig. 2). 151
104 into three main themes. After broadly presenting these Shortening of the ductile lower crust weakened by 152
105 topics, we intend to outline the respective contribu- the magmatic arc activity and the undergoing dis- 153
106 tions of the presented papers. tributed deformation may have contributed signifi- 154
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cantly to the thickening of the Altiplano crust before 155

the activation of the present-day sub-Andean zone 156
(Isacks, 1988; Gubbels et al., 1993; Allmendinger et 157
al., 1997; Lamb, 2000). An alternate explanation is 158
that the geophysical Moho corresponds to the base 159
of the hydrated mantle of the forearc zones rather 160
than to the crust – mantle boundary (Giese et al., 161
1999; Yuan et al., 2000). Therefore, the estimation 162

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of crustal thickness should be changed to lower 163

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values. 164
On the other hand, the role of transcurrent move- 165
ments, which add crustal forearc slivers or partition on 166

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the deformation within the chain, has been recently 167
emphasized (e.g., Beck, 1988; Abels and Bischoff, 168

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1999; Coutand et al., 1999; Roperch et al., 2000; 169
Lamb, 2000). 170
Between 15°S and 25°S, we have now relatively 171
good constraints on when, where and how much 172
tectonic shortening took place, what the rates of 173
tectonic erosion at the leading upper plate edge are, 174
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and what the magmatic addition rates should be and
where it took place. From their analysis, Wörner et al.
175
176
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(10, Fig. 1) conclude that the volume observed in the 177
crustal balance occurred mainly in Upper Oligocene 178
times and can be located between the present arc zone 179
and the central Altiplano. 180
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Similar mechanisms (tectonic shortening, under- 181

plating of material removed from tectonic erosion and 182
magmatic addition) have been invoked to explain the 183
relief of the Andes of Peru (e.g., Mégard, 1987; 184
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Vicente, 1989). Using gravimetric data, which com- 185

plete former extensive mapping and petrologic anal- 186
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ysis (Pitcher et al., 1985), Haederle and Atherton (7, 187

Fig. 1) state that the huge Cretaceous Coastal Bath- 188
olith of Peru is 2– 3 km thick by 30 – 60 km wide, and 189
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therefore, contributes only to a minor part of the total 190

crustal thickness of this arc zone. These new geo- 191
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metrical data bring new constraints on the Batholith 192

emplacement. 193
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Fig. 1. Geological sketch of the Andes of South America and the

location of the areas addressed by the presented papers. 1: Schmitz
et al.; 2: Audemard and Audemard; 3: Weber et al.; 4: Hughes and
Pilatasig; 5: Christophoul et al.; 6: Bosch et al.; 7: Haederle and
Atherton; 8: Sempere et al.; 9: Husson and Moretti; 10: Wörner et
al.; 11: Jacobshagen et al.; 12: Campos et al.; 13: Matteini et al.; 14:
Pardo et al.; 15: Thomas et al.; and 16: Wenzens.
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E. Jaillard et al. / Tectonophysics xx (2001) xxx–xxx

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Fig. 2. Compared crustal-scale section of the Andes of Bolivia (compiled from Allmendinger et al., 1997; Scheuber and Giese, 1999; Giese et al., 1999; Rochat, 2000) and Ecuador
(from Mégard, 1989). The ‘‘unexplained volume’’ below the Arc – Altiplano in Bolivia may be partially represented by the underplated material proceeding from the subduction

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erosion of the continental edge (see text).

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195
194 2.1.2. Northern Andes ( 5°S– 11°N ) that they proceed from deep levels of the continental 243
196 The Northern Andes differs from the Central crust and from deeply buried fragments of accreted 244
197 Andes in that (1) the present forearc and arc zones oceanic terranes. 245
198 are made up of exotic oceanic terranes accreted In the forearc zone of southern Ecuador, mainly 246
199 during the Mesozoic and Tertiary (Gansser, 1973; basic High-Pressure (HP) metamorphic rocks 247
200 Mégard, 1987; Kerr et al., 1998; Reynaud et al., exhumed 130 – 120 Ma ago are surrounded by HT 248
201 1999; Taboada et al., 2000); (2) the belt shows minor metamorphic rocks representing deep levels of the 249
202 width and average elevation; and (3) the eastern continental crust (Aspden et al., 1995). According to 250

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203 foreland zone is dominantly of thick-skinned style Bosch et al. (6, Fig. 1), the HP rocks include material 251

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204 and has a relatively restricted extension (Colletta et of sedimentary origin derived from the erosion of a 252
205 al., 1990; Balkwill et al., 1995; Rivadeneira et al., continental crust as well as mafic and ultramafic 253
206 1999) (Fig. 2). The northern Andean orogeny is eclogites of oceanic plateau affinity, suggesting that 254

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207 considered to result mainly from compression related the oceanic plateau jammed the subduction and 255
208 to the accretions of oceanic terranes (Feininger and dragged down a sedimentary accretionary prism. They 256

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209 Bristow, 1980; McCourt et al., 1984; Lebrat et al., are associated with the remnants of a normal oceanic 257
210 1987; Toussaint and Restrepo, 1994; Litherland et crust metamorphosed in greenschist facies. 258
211 al., 1994; Spikings et al., 2001; Guillier et al., in 259
212 press) and from right lateral movements (Winter and 2.2. Role of inherited features in Andean structure and 260
213 Lavenu, 1989; Freymüller et al., 1993; Kellog and evolution 261
214 Vega, 1995).
215
216
Based on the part of a programme of extensive
mapping of the Western Cordillera of Ecuador (e.g.,
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Crustal heterogeneities or particular lithologic
domains pre-existing to the Andean deformation have
262
263
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217 Boland et al., 2000), Hughes and Pilatasig (4, Fig. 1) long been recognized as major features controlling the 264
218 have shown that the Western Cordillera of Central location, geometry and style of compressional defor- 265
219 Ecuador consists of juxtaposed terranes. A first ter- mation in orogenic belts (e.g., Jackson, 1980; Hay- 266
220 rane made up of oceanic magmatic rocks showing ward and Graham, 1989; Lowell, 1995). Similarly, it 267
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221 MORB or oceanic plateau affinities accreted during has been abundantly documented that Andean defor- 268
222 the Late Cretaceous (Campanian). A second terrane mations are influenced by the pre-Andean crustal 269
223 made up of magmatic and sedimentary rocks of island history (Dalmayrac et al., 1980; Götze et al., 1994; 270
224 arc origin accreted during the Middle to Late Eocene. Tankard et al., 1995a,b), the Mesozoic paleogeogra- 271
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225 These terranes are presently separated by a major right phy (Mitouard et al., 1992; Uliana et al., 1995; 272
226 lateral fault, probably active since the Late Eocene – Welsink et al., 1995; Rivadeneira et al., 1999) or the 273
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227 Oligocene. presence of décollement layers in the sedimentary pile 274

228 Few authors have studied the deep structure of this (Allmendinger et al., 1983, 1997; Baby et al., 1989). 275
229 part of the Andes and attempted to explain the Thus, the pre-Andean history may be a key to the 276
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230 isostatic balance of its relief. Some authors, however, understanding of the local expression of the Andean 277
231 suggested that accretions of oceanic terranes can lead tectonic shortening and build-up. 278
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232 to the underplating of oceanic material, which con- 279

233 tributes significantly to the crustal thickening of this 2.2.1. Pre-Andean evolution ( >220 Ma) 280
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234 type of accretion orogeny (Mégard, 1989; Arculus et Pre-Andean, stable South America is made of pre- 281
235 al., 1999; Guillier et al., in press) (Fig. 2). The study Cambrian cratons (or shields), pre-Cambrian to Pale- 282
236 of recent xenoliths and Cretaceous eclogites provides ozoic-accreted continental terranes and Paleozoic oro- 283
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237 insights on the composition of the deep crustal parts genic belts mainly located on the western margin of 284
238 of the (present and past) northern Andes. Gondwana (e.g., Rapela et al., 1998; Bahlburg et al., 285
239 Weber et al. studied such xenoliths sampled by a 2000; Cordani et al., 2000a,b; de Almeida et al., 2000) 286
240 recent volcano of the arc zone of southern Colombia and subsequent sedimentary accumulations. In the 287
241 (3, Fig. 1). The chemical composition and metamor- Northern Andes, few are known about the Paleozoic 288
242 phic facies and evolution of these xenoliths indicate tectonic evolution (Ramos and Alemán, 2000). 289
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290 In southern Venezuela, the 3- to 4-Ga-old Guayana faulting (e.g., Jaillard et al., 1990; Flint et al., 1993; 338
291 shield reaches unusual elevations (1200 – 3000 m). Parnaud et al., 1995; Ramos and Alemán, 2000). 339
292 Using gravimetric and seismic refraction data, Rifting of the South Atlantic in the Late Jurassic – 340
293 Schmitz et al. explore the deep structure of this craton Early Cretaceous was then responsible for extensional 341
294 (1, Fig. 1) and determine an overthickened crustal features and magmatic manifestations (e.g., Uliana 342
295 thickness of 45 – 50 km. and Biddle, 1988; Turner et al., 1994; Ardill et al., 343
296 South of the Arica Elbow (  20°S ), the Late 1998; Viramonte et al., 1999), which continued 344
297 Precambrian and Paleozoic evolution of what was locally until early Late Cretaceous times (e.g., Soler 345

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298 the Western Gondwana margin is better understood. and Sempéré, 1993; Jaillard et al., 2000) although 346

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299 This evolution and possible crustal additions through transpressional deformations already began in the arc 347
300 time by arc magmatism have been studied on the basis and forearc zones. 348
301 of geochemical data on igneous and sedimentary Sempere et al. (8, Fig. 1) reassess and update the 349

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302 rocks (Coira et al., 1999; Bock et al., 2000). extension-related, tectonic and magmatic manifesta- 350
303 Jacobshagen et al. studied deformed Early Paleo- tions which affected the Andean margin of Peru and 351

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304 zoic rocks of southern Bolivia (11, Fig. 1). Illite Bolivia between Permian and Jurassic times. They 352
305 crystallinity studies indicate an anchi- to epizonal propose that this ‘‘rift’’ structure controlled the loca- 353
306 metamorphism, while new radiometric data yielded tion and nature of subsequent compressional defor- 354
307 a Late Hercynian age (320 –290 Ma) for the deforma- mations and allowed the individualization of crustal 355
308 tion. Synthesizing other recent data, they propose that blocks characterized by their distinct tectonic behav- 356
309 this deformation resulted from the eastward propaga- iour and evolution, such as the Bolivian Altiplano. 357
310
311
tion of deformations during the late stages of the
Hercynian orogeny known in the farther west.
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As outlined by Myers (1975) and illustrated by
Haederle and Atherton, the emplacement of the
358
359
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312 Thomas et al. consider three distinct models for the Coastal Batholith of Peru was controlled to the east 360
313 collision of a continental terrane to the Gondwanan by a regional major vertical fault system (Tapacocha 361
314 margin of south America (Precordillera, Argentina) Axis). 362
315 (15, Fig. 1) in the Ordovician. At that time, Gondwana 363
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316 is assumed to be separated from the supercontinent 2.3. Tertiary Andean uplift and crustal thickening 364
317 Laurentia (North America and Greenland) by the
318 Iapetus Ocean. After critical discussion of the syn- The along-strike structure of the Andean chain is 365
319 and post-orogenic sedimentation and paleogeography, classically divided into: (1) a forearc zone, which 366
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320 they conclude that the accreted terrane was a micro- corresponds to the pacific slope and offshore areas; 367
321 continent independent from Laurentia. (2) an arc zone mainly represented by the present 368
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322 chain (and Altiplano); and (3) a back-arc area, which 369
323 2.2.2. Extensional structures and their Tertiary includes the Eastern Cordilleras and Amazonian slope 370
324 tectonic inversion and foothills and the eastern lowlands underlain by 371
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325 The Late Paleozoic –Cretaceous evolution of South the foreland basin. Since the Tertiary, each zone is 372
326 America has been marked by various episodes of dominated by distinctive deformation styles. 373
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327 extensional deformation and magmatism, most of Deformations in the forearc zones are complex and 374
328 which being coeval with active oceanic subduction. still poorly known (Scheuber and González, 1999). 375
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329 In the Andean domain, the areas affected by these Western submarine forearc areas are commonly 376
330 extensional features seem to shift eastward through marked by extensional sedimentary basins (Moberly 377
331 time. In Permian– Early Jurassic times, the break-up et al., 1982; Hartley et al., 2000), the subsidence of 378
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332 of Gondwana and Tethyan rifting were associated which is related to the tectonic erosion of the con- 379
333 with local thermal anomalies leading to crustal melt- tinental margin (Von Huene and Scholl, 1991; Jaillard 380
334 ing and locally extensive volcanism (e.g., Kontak et et al., 2000). To the east, compressional deformations 381
335 al., 1985; Pichowiak et al., 1990; Litherland et al., (Vicente, 1989; Muñoz and Charrier, 1996; Garcı́a et 382
336 1994; Marzoli et al., 1999; Pankhurst et al., 2000) and al., 1996; Hungerbühler et al., in press), strike-slip 383
337 widespread sedimentation controlled by extensional faults (Daly, 1989; Cembrano et al., 1996; Reutter et 384
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385 al., 1996) and vertical uplift (Sébrier et al., 1988; ities (Mégard, 1987; Muñoz and Charrier, 1996; 417
386 Macharé and Ortlieb, 1992; Steinmann et al., 1999; Rochat et al., 1999) or to the authors (e.g., Bourgois 418
387 Hartley et al., 2000) are observed (Fig. 3). This uplift et al., 1987; Kerr et al., 1998). Uplift usually began by 419
388 seems to have occurred mainly after about 10 Ma Eocene times and became very rapid since the Late 420
389 (Sébrier et al., 1988; Gregory-Wodzicki, 2000). Miocene throughout the Andes (Benjamin et al., 421
390 Between 15°S and 25°S, it has been interpreted as 1987; Sébrier et al., 1988; Laubacher and Naeser, 422
391 the result of lower crustal flow and regional tilting 1994; Hoorn et al., 1995; Spikings et al., 2000; 423
392 rather than of tectonic shortening (Isacks, 1988; Gregory-Wodzicki, 2000). However, the rate of defor- 424

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393 Allmendinger et al., 1997; Lamb et al., 1997). Due mation appears to be too small and the timing is 425

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394 to the uplift and subsequently increasing topographic inconsistent with simple crustal shortening to explain 426
395 gradient, gravitational landslides are common from the observed uplift and crustal thickening. 427
396 small scales to giant offshore slumps (e.g., Moberly Pardo et al. (14, Fig. 1) study the forces acting 428

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397 et al., 1982; Bourgois et al., 1988; Duperret et al., upon the downgoing slab below the southern Central 429
398 1995; Von Huene et al., 1999). Andes (30°S – 32°S). They revise the location and 430

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399 In the forearc zone of northernmost Chile, Wörner focal mechanism of the seismicity, making it possible 431
400 et al. (10, Fig. 1) interpret a large rotated block as a to determine the stress distribution along the slab. 432
401 huge gravitational slump of Late Miocene age, relayed Shallow events located at the interface zone between 433
402 by a secondary landslide, both resulting from Miocene the oceanic and continental plates are mainly com- 434
403 uplift, increasing aridity and subsequently decreasing pressional; intermediate earthquakes (60 –100 km) are 435
404 erosion. The evolution of this area is characterized mostly correlated with the bending of the slab which 436
405
406
since the Miocene by (1) uplift, (2) erosion –sedimen-
tation and (3) large volumes of felsic volcanism.
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becomes horizontal at depths around 100 km; and
deeper events ( >100 km) are extensional due to slab
437
438
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407 Uplift would be related to flat subduction periods pull. They also focused their study upon the causes of 439
408 inducing strong coupling, whereas large volcanic damage generated by the 1997 Punitaqui earthquake 440
409 eruptions would correspond to periods of steeper sub- (central Chile). 441
410 duction, allowing asthenospheric heat flow and crustal The connection between volumes and composi- 442
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411 melting. tions of volcanic rocks has been proven to be a 443

412 Deformational structures in the arc and forearc powerful tool to constrain the deep structure and 444
413 areas are often obscured by widespread and thick dynamic evolution of the crust, and the geochemical 445
414 volcanic covers. Where visible, they are usually study of igneous rocks can help to identify pre- 446
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415 dominated by compressional folds and reverse faults, Andean crustal domains (e.g., De Silva, 1989; Wörner 447
416 the vergence of which varies according to the local- et al., 1992, 2000; Coira et al., 1993; Aitcheson et al., 448
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1995; Tosdal, 1996; Carlier and Lorand, 1997; James 449

and Sacks, 1999; Guivel et al., 1999; Bock et al., 450
2000; Lagabrielle et al., 2000). Reviewing geochem- 451
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ical data, Kay et al. (1999) linked the geometry of the 452
subducting slab and the thickness of the Andean crust 453
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through time, as well as the location and rate of 454

igneous activity, to the trace element composition of 455
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the erupted magmas. 456

Following these lines, Matteini et al. (13, Fig. 1) 457
studied Late Miocene volcanic suites located in the 458
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arc to back-arc areas at 24°S. They correlate trace 459

elements in Miocene volcanic rocks with crustal 460
thickening between the Late Miocene and the present 461
times. In addition, a significant regional difference in 462
Fig. 3. Geodynamic setting and deformation styles of the forearc crustal composition between the arc and back-arc 463
zone of northern Chile (after Hartley et al., 2000). domains is proposed. 464
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465 Campos et al. (12, Fig. 1) present data on fluid and internal radiogenic heat, while the eastern low heat 491
466 glass inclusions from a newly opened Cu – Porphyry flow is related to erosion and fluid circulations within 492
467 copper deposit in Northern Chile. Their data indicate the deformed sedimentary wedge. 493
468 that melts were included into the host quartz crystals Farther east, the evolution of foreland basins is 494
469 at rather high temperature and had very high mag- firstly governed by the tectonic development of the 495
470 matic copper contents. Based on their observation, orogen, which controls the flexural subsidence 496
471 they argue for the ‘‘orthomagmatic’’ model of metal (Beaumont, 1981; Jordan, 1981; Cant and Stockmal, 497
472 enrichment in Andean Cu porphyries. 1993; Miall, 1995) and the sediment supply provided 498

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473 Due to thrusting of the chain upon the stable south by the erosion of the chain (Heller et al., 1988; 499

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474 American plate (Molnar and Lyon-Caen, 1985; Giese Flemings and Jordan, 1989). Other factors are large- 500
475 et al., 1999), back-arc areas are generally character- scale thermal processes (Mitrovica et al., 1989; 501
476 ized by active compressional shortening materialized Pysklywec and Mitrovica, 1998), climate which 502

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477 by east-verging fold and thrust belts (sub-Andean governs relief dissection, sediment transport and 503
478 zones) (e.g., Allmendinger et al., 1983; Mégard, drainage patterns (e.g., Masek et al., 1994), eustatic 504

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479 1987; Dengo and Covey, 1993; Roeder and Cham- sea-level changes (Jordan and Flemings, 1991), 505
480 berlain, 1995) although the shortening amount and deformation styles (Houston et al., 2000) or combi- 506
481 deformation style are highly variable along the strike nations of these factors (Catuneanu et al., 1999). The 507
482 (Gil et al., 1999) (Fig. 4). nature, composition and distribution of sediments of 508
483 Husson and Moretti (9, Fig. 1) present a critical a foreland basin provide information about the nature 509
484 review of the factors controlling the heat flow of and location of the source areas and the erosion and 510
485
486
orogenic belts and their foredeep and compare them
to the results of numerical modeling. Then, after
D
transport processes (e.g., De Celles and Hertel, 1989;
Potter, 1994). In the same way, the age, thickness
511
512
TE
487 presenting the results of the heat flow measurements and stratal pattern of the sedimentary successions 513
488 on the Bolivian sub-Andean zone — which is an give useful constraints about the deformation affect- 514
489 important petroleum prospect — they propose that ing the basin and its neighbouring areas (Flemings 515
490 the western high heat flow is due to thickening and and Jordan, 1989; Leturmy et al., 2000). 516
EC
R
R
O
C
N
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Fig. 4. Simplified cross-sections of the sub-Andean zones and Eastern Basin of Ecuador (after Rivadeneira et al., 1999) and Northern Bolivia
(after Baby et al., 1995).
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517 Christophoul et al. present an update of the sedi- years, while the Colombian and Patagonian Andes 562
518 mentary evolution of the Oriente Basin of Ecuador have been much less studied (e.g., Fig. 1). Available 563
519 since the Eocene (5, Fig. 1). They correlate the main data suggest, however, that the structure and evolution 564
520 earliest Eocene unconformity with an Andean tectonic of the Andean belt are rather variable in time and 565
521 event inducing renewed erosion and subsidence, space although the chain is morphologically continu- 566
522 whereas the Middle Eocene – Miocene evolution ous from northern Colombia to southern Chile. This 567
523 would be controlled by isostatic adjustments due to volume combines papers presented during the 4th 568
524 erosion and unroofing of the Andean chain. This ISAG meeting, which deal with various parts of the 569

F
525 evolution leads them to suggest that the Oriente Basin Andes and bring new insights on two sections of the 570

O
526 did not behave as a typical foreland basin (Fig. 4). chain and allow a more general perspective and 571
527 Farther north, the northern Colombian Andes and comparison. 572
528 their transition to the easterly Caribbean ranges of In the northern Andes, tectonic shortening is 573

O
529 Venezuela (Fig. 1) are characterized by a complex limited. Present-day data suggest that the tectonic 574
530 interaction between the grossly E-ward motions of evolution and crustal thickening are dominated by 575

PR
531 the Pacific and Caribbean oceanic plates, the W-ward the accretion and underplating of oceanic material 576
532 motion of the South American plate and the NNE-ward (Bosch et al., Hughes and Pilatasig and Weber et 577
533 escape of the continental slices of northwestern South al.) and by transpressional tectonics (Audemard and 578
534 America (e.g., Pindell and Barrett, 1990; Freymüller et Audemard) locally guided by former sutures (Hughes 579
535 al., 1993; Taboada et al., 2000). Based on previous and Pilatasig). Therefore, as reflected by the Tertiary 580
536 works and on the present-day tectonic activity, Aude- evolution of the Oriente Basin (Christophoul et al.), 581
537
538
mard and Audemard propose that the Mérida Andes of
Western Venezuela (2, Fig. 1) would result from both
D
the relief of this part of the chain may result from the
isostatic reaction subsequent to the underplating of
582
583
TE
539 dextral transpressional motions and from the build-up oceanic material and to the growth of giant flower 584
540 of a tectonic wedge related to a NW-ward-dipping structures rather than to normal trench shortening. 585
541 continental subduction. The latter interpretation thus Such shortening of the continental crust is in fact 586
542 challenges previous interpretations which assumed a dominating the build-up of the Andes of Peru, Bolivia 587
EC

543 SE-ward continent subduction (De Toni and Kellogg, and northern Chile although the underplating of con- 588
544 1993; Colletta et al., 1997; Hervouët et al., 2001). tinental material dragged down by subduction erosion 589
545 Wenzens (16, Fig. 1) reports the interpretations of and the thickening of the ductile lower crust or litho- 590
546 ages and extension of glacial deposits from the Pata- spheric mantle may have played significant roles. The 591
R

547 gonian Ice Sheet in order to derive information on the pre-Andean state of the heterogeneous continental 592
548 existence and timing of the last major glacial advances crust is being progressively revealed by studying the 593
R

549 of the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM). There are con- geochemical signature of the arc magmatism (e.g., 594
550 flicting results and interpretations, and the present Matteini et al.) and the Paleozoic tectonic evolution 595
551 contribution represents one view in this dispute. Wen- (Thomas et al.) that allows us to distinguish better the 596
O

552 zens maintains that the glacial outflow is much con- respective parts of the Paleozoic and Andean defor- 597
553 trolled by Neogene tectonic processes, which created mations (Jacobshagen et al.). Additionally, this com- 598
C

554 the underlying morphology. He also argues that LGM plex history is shown to noticeably influence the 599
555 is related to higher precipitation as the result of the Mesozoic evolution of the margin (Haederle and 600
N

556 effect of the westerlies and that the final period of ice Atherton and Sempere et al.) and finally its Andean 601
557 advance lasted until 9500 14C years BP. deformation (Sempere et al.). The topographic chain 602
is presently submitted to active compression (Pardo et 603
U

al.) and subduction erosion to the west. This implies a 604

558 3. Conclusions steepening of the western slope, which would induces 605
gravitational deformations (Wörner et al.), and an 606
559 The Altiplano in the Central Andes, second highest active eastward thrusting of the thickened belt induc- 607
560 and largest high plateau in the world, is a first-order ing thermal anomalies in the foreland basin (Husson 608
561 feature and received much attention in the last 20 and Moretti). 609
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10 E. Jaillard et al. / Tectonophysics xx (2001) xxx–xxx

610 Significant advances have been made recently in the care they took in reviewing the set of submitted 652
611 our knowledge of the Andes build-up through the ex- contributions. 653
612 ploration of the present-day structure and inferred
613 processes by means of the modelling of ‘‘indirect’’
References 654
614 geophysical, geochemical or petrological data. Valida-
615 tion of these conclusions, however, requires their Abels, A., Bischoff, L., 1999. Clockwise block rotations in northern 655
616 comparison with well-controlled local and regional Chile: indications for a large-scale domino mechanism during 656
617 studies derived from all fields of geosciences and 657

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the Middle – Late Eocene. Geology 27, 751 – 754.
618 Andean regions. Our wish is that the present set of Aitcheson, S.J., Harmon, R.S., Moorbath, S., Schneider, A., Soler, 658
P., Soria-Escalante, E., Steele, G., Swainbank, I., Wörner, G., 659

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1995. Pb isotopes define basement domains of the Altiplano, 660
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621 and other opened scientific meetings will contribute to Allmendinger, R.W., Ramos, V.A., Jordan, T.E., Palma, M., Isacks, 662

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622 the exchange and confrontation of complementary re- B.L., 1983. Paleogeography and Andean structural geometry, 663
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635 Burg (Zürich), J. Chéry (Montpellier), A. Cisternas ening contribution to crustal thickening in the back-arc of the 686
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