This document summarizes key concepts about species interactions and competition from chapters 13 and 14. It discusses different types of species interactions like competition, mutualism, parasitism, and predation. Competition is defined as when organisms have adverse effects on each other from limited shared resources. Intraspecific competition occurs between individuals of the same species, while interspecific competition is between different species. The Lotka-Volterra equations model how population growth of two competing species is affected by intra- and interspecific competition. The concepts of ecological niches, limiting resources, and competitive exclusion are also summarized.
This document summarizes key concepts about species interactions and competition from chapters 13 and 14. It discusses different types of species interactions like competition, mutualism, parasitism, and predation. Competition is defined as when organisms have adverse effects on each other from limited shared resources. Intraspecific competition occurs between individuals of the same species, while interspecific competition is between different species. The Lotka-Volterra equations model how population growth of two competing species is affected by intra- and interspecific competition. The concepts of ecological niches, limiting resources, and competitive exclusion are also summarized.
This document summarizes key concepts about species interactions and competition from chapters 13 and 14. It discusses different types of species interactions like competition, mutualism, parasitism, and predation. Competition is defined as when organisms have adverse effects on each other from limited shared resources. Intraspecific competition occurs between individuals of the same species, while interspecific competition is between different species. The Lotka-Volterra equations model how population growth of two competing species is affected by intra- and interspecific competition. The concepts of ecological niches, limiting resources, and competitive exclusion are also summarized.
○ Competition ■ Negative and Negative interactions between two individuals (-, -) ○ Parasitism/Predation/Herbivory ■ Negative and Positive interactions between two individuals (+, -) ○ Mutualism ■ Positive and Positive interactions between two individuals (+, +) ○ + or - is influence of populations on each other in terms of influencing vital rates ○ Vital rates include growth, survival, reproduction ■ Competition, mutualism, herbivory, etc. can all occur at simultaneously and interact irl ● Ecological Niche and Species Interactions ○ Hutchinson niche ■ Full complement of environmental conditions and resources that define requirements of a species to practice its way of life and to persist ■ Described the niche as "n-dimensional hypervolume" ○ Fundamental and Realized niche (popularized by Hutchinson) ■ Fundamental niche: defined by abiotic factors ■ Realized niche: fundamental niche modified by biotic/species interactions (competitors, predators, or pathogens) ● Mutualisms can expand realized niche ○ Resource Utilization Curve ■ Expressions of the resource niche ■ Strong competitor is not modified when overlap, weak competitor is pushed out ● Competition Defined and Limiting Resources ○ Competition is mutually adverse effects of organisms on one another within a local community (Barbour et al.) ■ Brought about by shared requirement for limited resources ● Food ● Nutrient ● Light ● Space ● Nesting sites ● Mates ● Etc. ■ Leads to reduction in vital rates ● Survivorship ● Growth ● Reproduction ● Biomass production ○ Limiting Resource ■ Essential resource that constrains vital rates of an organism or population due to the scarcity of the resource in the environment relative to its need by the organism ■ A resource is limiting if a change in the availability of a resource produces a change in vital rates ● Slope is not 0 (Functional response of a predator to abundance of its prey) ● Corroborated by paramecia lab experiments ○ Lebig’s Law of the Minimum ■ Crop yield is not limited by total resources available, but by the scarcest resource ● “Lowest stave” ● Stave height indicates supply relative to need, not absolute abundance of the resource ● Specificity, Forms, Scales of Competition ○ Specificity ■ Intraspecific competition is among individuals of the same species ■ Interspecific competition is between individuals of two or more species ○ Forms ■ Interference competition involves direct interactions. Occurs by obstructing access to a resource (e.g. territoriality in animals). ■ Exploitative (resource) competition involves indirect negative interactions. Occur via joint consumption of a shared resource in short supply. ○ Scale ■ Among Individuals, can measure: ● Growth, Biomass, Reproduction of individuals ■ Among Populations, can measure: ● Population Growth; Births and Deaths; dN/dt etc. ● Intraspecific Competition and Self-Thinning ○ Monocultures (growing same species in plot of land) ■ Logistic population growth ● Population size, K is density dependent ■ Resource level curve ● R* is Equilibrium resource level: minimum level of resource required to sustain the population. ○ The level to which a population will draw down a limiting resource when the population reaches K ○ Optimal Planting Density ■ Over time: ● t0 is initiation of planting ● t1 is increase in average individual plant weight ● t2 is when mortality occurs, thinning occurs ○ Occurs consistently until reaching biomass carrying capacity (constant yield) ○ Slope of -3/2 ■ -3/2 Self-Thinning Rule ● At lower planting densities, thinning commences later in time and at a greater average plant size ● Applies when plotting AVERAGE DRY MASS PER INDIVIDUAL IN THE MONOCULTURE ○ Law of Constant Yield ■ Plants in monoculture will grow to a constant yield regardless of initial density. ● Introduction to interspecific competition, the competitive exclusion, and coexistence ○ Importance of Interspecific Competition ■ Can influence the realized niche of a species ■ Can affect the distribution and abundance of a species (where a species is present or absent; how abundant it is where it present) ■ Can influence species coexistence and diversity of communities ○ Outcomes ■ Species 1 outcompetes and excludes Species 2 from the community ■ Species 2 outcompetes and excludes Species 1 from the community ■ Despite competing, species and 1 and 2 coexist in the community indefinitely in some sort of stable way ○ Coexistence ■ Each species is limited only by itself (by intra-specific competition) ■ Both species increase up to their carrying capacities expected in monoculture ○ Exclusion ■ Large overlap in resource requirement ● Strong Interspecific competition ■ Species 2 excludes species 1 and increases up to its carrying capacity expected in monoculture ○ Two co-occurring species that share some limiting resources ■ Coexistence: Small overlap in resource requirement ■ Intra >>> Inter ● Each species limits itself much more than it is limited by the other species ■ Stable coexistence: Both species persist indefinitely and equilibrate below their monoculture carrying capacities ○ Limiting similarity ■ Concept in theoretical ecology that proposes the existence of a maximum level of niche overlap between two given species that will still allow continued coexistence ● Lotka-Volterra competition equations ○ Simultaneously model population growth of two competing species as affected by both intra- and interspecific competition. ■ Having 2 N terms per equation accounts for Intra and interspecific competition ■ Competition Coefficient (alpha) – Expresses the per capita effect of one species on another (a simple conversion factor). ● alpha12: effect of one individual of species 2 on one individual of species 1. (converts species 2 into units of species 1) ● alpha21: effect of one individual of species 1 on one individual of species 2. (converts species 1 into units of species 2) ■ alpha12= 0: Species 1 experiences no competition from species ■ alpha12= 1: Individuals of species 1 see individuals of species 2 as equivalent competitors. ● Interspecific competition = Intraspecific competition ■ 1 > alpha12 > 0: Individuals of species 1 see individuals of species 2 as weaker competitors than they do other individuals of species 1. ● Interspecific competition < (weaker than) Intraspecific competition ■ alpha12>1: Individuals of species 1 see individuals of species 2 as stronger competitors than they do other individuals of species 1. ● Interspecific competition > (stronger than) Intraspecific competition ○ This model assumes strength of interspecific competition (per capita) is equivalent to intraspecific competition (Individuals of each species see individuals of the other species as equivalent competitors) Chapter Fourteen: (LOOK AT SLIDES 30, 31 ● Exploitative interactions encompass a huge diversity of interactions nature ○ Exploitation (interaction) enhances fitness of the “exploiter” (predator, parasite, parasitoid, pathogen, herbivore) while reducing fitness of the “exploited” (prey, host, plant). ■ Examples of Exploiters: ● Classic predators: kill and consume other organisms ● Parasitoids: Insect whose larva consume its host, eventually killing it ● Parasites: live on the living tissues of their hosts (usually do not kill the host immediately). ● Pathogens induce disease in their hosts ● Herbivores: consume living plant material ● Exploiter species can influence the fitness, population dynamics, distribution and abundance of the species they exploit ○ Exploiters impact realized niche (reduce fundamental niche) ■ Overgrazing can result in impeding of plant regrowth ■ Following mange outbreak that killed red foxes, hare population quickly increased ● Rats that predate on bird eggs and young reduce population of bird ● Reducing predator density increases prey density ● Population dynamics of the exploiter and the exploited are often cyclical and can be modeled using simple systems of differential equations ○ Prey increase in lack of predators → Predators increase when prey increases → Prey declines due to excess predators → Predators decline due to lack of prey ■ Both favored to increase when rare, prevents extinction ○ Lotka-Volterra Predator-Prey/Host model: ■ Population Growth dNh /dt = ■ Predator Population Growth dNp /dt = ○ Assumptions of the Lotka-Volterra Predation Model ■ Growth of prey limited only by predation ■ The predator is a specialist on one prey species ■ Predator and prey encounter each other randomly in an homogeneous environment (No spatial structure, no refuge for prey, no opportunity for immigration). ■ Unchanging environmental conditions ■ c, p and d don’t change ○ Gause’s predator/prey experiment ■ He need both a prey “refuge” and predator immigration to occur for cycling ● Refugia, Avoidance, and Predator-Prey Coexistence ○ Spatial Refuges ■ Environmental complexity and oscillations in lab populations of an herbivorous mite and a predatory mite *REVIEW* ■ Coral reefs provide structural Refugia for prey species ■ European perch uses spatio-temporal refugia to avoid predators ○ Avoidance mechanisms ■ Mobility ■ Defenses ● Structural ● Chemical ■ Crypsis (camoflauge) ■ Mimicry ○ Natural selection on Prey should favor a reduction in predation rate (p) ■ Favors quickness and elusiveness ○ Natural Selection on Predators should favor an increase in predation rate (p). ■ Favors quickness and agility ○ Red Queen Hypothesis ■ Changes in environments to stay in the same place relative to each other ■ Example is Toxic Sierra Newt and Sierra Garter Snake ● Newt becomes more toxic, snake gains more resistance to toxins Chapter Fifteen: ● What is Mutualism? How can we distinguish mutualism from other types of interspecific interactions? ○ Mutualism (+/+) Interactions between individuals of different species that provide Net benefits to both partners (fitness: growth, survivorship, reproduction). ■ Not to be confused with symbiosis, that is any sort of close, long-term relationship between two organisms (also parasitic and commensalistic (0/+)) ■ Facilitation is positive interactions in general (0/+) and (+/+) ○ Classifying Mutualisms ■ Symbiotic versus non-symbiotic ● Facultative mutualism – gains benefit but does not depend entirely on partnership ● Obligate mutualism – must form partnership to live ● Generalists – can engage in mutualism with many partner species ● Specialists – can engage in mutualism with a select few or only single partner species ○ Classifying interactions ■ Weakly negative, non-symbiotic, exploitative, low duration and specificity: herbivory, mosquito bites (generally) ■ Very negative, low duration and specificity, exploitative: true predation ■ Highly negative, high duration and specificity, exploitative, symbiotic: Parasites ● Parasitoids are similar, but VERY HIGHLY negative and specific ■ Nonsymbiotic, weakly positive, low duration and specificity: pollinator ■ True mutualisms are symbiotic, very positive and specific/durtaion ○ Classifying more mutualisms: ■ Obligate Specialists ● Both partners cannot survive without one another and do not have many different partners. ○ Most well studied, but likely rare in nature! ○ Examples: ■ Leaf cutter ants and fungal gardens ■ Hawk moths and long corolla flowers ■ Ant acacia mutualisms ■ Corals and zooxanthellae ■ Facultative Generalist ● Neither species depends on mutualism, and can get benefits from many different partners ○ Many cleaner mutualisms are considered facultative and generalist (i.e. Aspen sunflower-ant mutualism) ■ Facultative Specialist ● Partners do not need one another for survival, but are highly restricted in who they do associate with. ○ Clownfish and anemone ■ Obligate Generalist ● Both partners need mutualism generally but can associate with many different partner species to obtain benefits. ○ May be most common type (i.e. Bee and many aster species – Honey bees have some of the broadest number of partners) ○ Many (but not all ) mycorrhizal relationships (Differences in specificity between plant hosts and types of mycorrhizal fungi) ● Mycorrhizae and Nitrogen-fixation symbioses ○ Widespread symbiosis between fungi and plant roots ■ Mycorrhizae are widespread (>90% of vascular plants) ■ Ancient relationship ■ Usually Mutualism, but range over broad spectrum (+/-, - /+, +/+) ○ Relationship itself ■ Fungus receives carbs and access to organic carbon ■ Plant receives nutrients: enhanced absorption of nutrients (particularly Phosphorus) and water; protection from soil pathogens ○ Fungal hyphae ■ Long, branching filamentous structures that function as the main mode of vegetative growth ■ Collectively called a mycelium ■ Mycorrhizal hyphae extend the root systems of plants ■ Increased surface area for absorption ■ Penetrate root cell, intimately allow nutrient exchange and acquisition ● Nitrogen Fixation Symbioses ○ Conversion of atmospheric Nitrogen (N2 ) to NH3 that occurs via root-microbe symbioses ■ Microbes receive C and energy and plants obtain N in a useable form ○ Major groups ■ Rhizobia (4 genera): Forms nodules on the roots of legumes (fabaceae) ● Benefit to Plant is enhanced access to inorganic nitrogen ● Benefit to Bacteria is access to organic carbon (photosynthate) ● Nitrogen Fixation → Bacteria convert atmospheric forms of Nitrogen to a form that plants can use for growth. ■ Frankia (1 genera): Forms nodules on the roots of a diverse array of plant in 17 different families. Chapter Sixteen: (Slide 59) ● Conceptions of the ecological community ○ Community is an assemblage of potentially interacting species that occur together within in the same defined area ○ The boundaries of some communities are clearly defined ○ The boundaries of other communities are less certain ○ The boundaries of some communities are defined by the investigator for practical purposes ○ Because of their complexity, community ecologists have to restrict their studies to certain groups ● Components of community structure (emergent properties) ○ Species Composition ■ Species composition is the collective list of species present in the community or sample ○ Species Abundance and Abundance Distributions ■ Abundance: ● Absolute abundance is Raw abundance (numbers, biomass, other). ● Relative abundance is Proportional abundance. Useful for comparing communities or samples that differ in the overall abundance of organisms. ■ Measuring Species Abundance Distributions ● Frequency Distribution (helpful with many rare species, few highly abundant) ○ Reverse J ○ Our impressions of species abundance distributions can be strongly colored by sampling effort ■ Logistic species accumulation curve ○ Species distributions generally conform to a log-normal frequency distribution (bell shaped curve), that can only be fully revealed by extensive sampling ■ Preston’s veil is the point at which rare species cease to be sampled ○ Species may be partitioned this way because of: ■ Niche/resource partitioning ■ Random processes (product of many random variables acting at once) ● Rank Abundance Curve ○ Pi of log scale vs rank ○ Biological Diversity ■ BIODIVERSITY: Variety of life in all its forms, levels and combinations. Includes habitat diversity, species diversity, functional trait diversity and genetic diversity ■ SPECIES DIVERSITY: Diversity of taxonomic species in the community, has two components: ● Species richness (S) is the number of species present in the community. ● Species evenness (E) measures equitability in the relative abundances of species in the community ● Shannon-Diversity (H’) combines species richness and evenness into a single measure of species diversity ● Patterns of species diversity ○ Biological diversity varies greatly from place to place; along major environmental gradients; and in response to environmental change ● Environmental Complexity and Species Diversity ○ Principle of Limiting Similarity ○ Niche Separation/Differentiation ○ Environmental Heterogeneity ● Disturbance and Diversity ○ Disturbance: A perturbation of an ecological community that harms and/or kills individuals and disrupts population and ecosystem processes ■ Diversity often peaks at intermediate disturbance intensity and/or frequency ● Few species are highly disturbance tolerant, high mortality ● Low diversity because of competitive exclusion, community dominated by few competitive species ● Moderate disturbance reduces competitive exclusion, allows persistence of less disturbance-tolerant species ○ Community composed of mixture of species – varied competitive abilities, varied life history strategies ○ Types of Disturbance ■ Abiotic: fire, hurricanes, tornadoes, ice storms, floods, landslides etc. ■ Biotic: disease outbreaks, severe overgrazing, heavy predation human impacts (deforestation, pollution, agriculture etc.) etc. ○ Disturbance Severity ■ Frequency: how often disturbance occurs ■ Intensity: how severe a single disturbance event is ■ Extent: how much of the habitat is disturbed Chapter Seventeen: ● Ecological Network ○ An ecological network is a representation of the biotic interactions in a community, in which species (nodes) are connected by pairwise interactions (links). ■ Interaction links may be trophic, exploitative, competitive, mutualistic or commensal. ○ Can be viewed from three different perspectives ■ Feeding relationships: Who is eating who, Trophic structure. ■ Material and Energy Flows: How do interactions among species regulate the movement of matter and energy throughout ecosystems? Trophic dynamics ● Carbon, Nitrogen, Phosphorus. Energy ■ Population and Community regulation: How do the interactions among species regulate population dynamics and stability, species relative abundances, and diversity? ● dN/dt, Species Diversity, Community stability ○ Representations ■ Food webs (trophic webs) describe feeding or energetic relationships among trophic levels (who is eating who) ● Vertical energy arrows ■ Interactions webs describe which species are interacting (who is affecting who) ● Vertical arrows are trophic interactions, horizontal arrows are non- trophic interactions ■ Bipartite networks are a particular class of interaction networks, whose nodes are divided into two sets X and Y ● Strong interactors in interaction networks ○ Interaction strength: magnitude of the direct effect of one species on another (often represented by the width of the arrows) ■ Strong Interactors: The subset of species in the network whose interactions have the greatest impact on community structure (Paine 1980). ■ A focus on the strong interactors simplifies the analysis of complex food/interaction webs ● Indirect Interactions ○ Indirect interactions: effect of one species on another via one or more intermediaries ■ Trophic cascade: a chain of indirect effects that propagate across multiple trophic levels ● Keystone Species ○ Keystone Species is a species with a strong influence on the composition, structure, and diversity of a community that is greater than expected based on its abundance. Types Include: ■ Predators (wolves in Yellowstone) ■ Modifiers (Ecosystem engineers, such as beavers) ● Ecosystem Engineers: An ecosystem engineer is a species that creates, modifies, and maintains habitat used for itself and by many other species. ■ Mutualists (acorn banksia and honeyeater) ○ Foundation species (Dominant species) is a species whose influence on the composition, structure, and diversity of a community is proportional to its abundance ● Keystone predators and species diversity ○
(MARE Publication Series 9) Julie Urquhart, Tim G. Acott, David Symes (Auth.), Julie Urquhart, Tim G. Acott, David Symes, Minghua Zhao (Eds.) - Social Issues in Sustainable Fisheries Management-Spring