Research Report 26 - The Use of Smoke Extracting Equipment in Fire Brigade Operations (Reprint of SRDB Publication 37 - 84)

THE USE OF SMOKE EXTRACTING
EQUIPMENT IN FIRE BRIGADE OPERATIONS
Research Report No.26
Central Fire Brigades

Advisory Council for
England and Wales
I Scottish Central
Rre Brigades
I Advisory Council
Joint Committee on
Fire Research
I
I
I
I The Use of Smoke Extracting
Equipment in Fire Brigade Operations
I
Prepared by:· Fiona E Smith
Home Office Scientific Research and Development Branch

Fire Experimental Unit
MORETON·IN·MARSH
Gloucestershire
1985
This IS a re·print of SRDB publication No 37/84 © Crown COPYrig ht 1985

London. Home Office
Printed by Rank Xerox (Copy Bureaux) Ltd" London SW1

I
I SlMlARY
The Report considers the use of portable smoke extraction equipment in fire brigade
I operations.
Previous work on this topic is mentioned, and a brief account given of the production and
I movement of smoke in general. The current use of extractors in Overseas Bri gades and in
U.K. Brigades and Salvage Corps is described. Commercially available extractors are
reviewed Smoke clearance tests using both 'cold smoke' and 'hot smoke' in 'Industrial B'
I building of the Fire Service College are described. Comment is made on the handling and
electrical characteristics of the extractors.
I It is concluded that smoke extraction equipment of a size practicable for car~ing on fire
appliances can have a significant effect in clearing smoke logged buildings where natural
ventilation is poor for structural reasons, or wind speeds are low.
I
I
1. INTRODUCTION.
2. METHOD OF APPROACH.
I 3. PREVIOUS WORK ON THE PRODUCTION AND MOVEMENT OF SMOKE.
3.1 Fixed systems for forced ventilation.
I
3.2 Work of the Fire Research Station (FRS) of the Department of the Environment.
3.3 Model studies on smoke movement at Leeds Polytechnic School of Architecture.
3.4 University of Edinburgh MSc. Dissertation.
4. INTRODUCTION TO THE PRODUCTION AND MOVEMENT OF SMOKE.
IJ 4.1 Volume of smoke produced.

4.2 Quality and density of smoke.
4.3 Smoke production.
I 4.4 Ventilation requirements.
4.5 Basic ventilation practice.
5. OPERATIONAL USE OF EXTRACTORS.
5.1 The use of extractors in Overseas Brigades.
5.2 Survey of smoke extraction equipment in U.K.

Brigades.
5.3 Visits to U.K. Brigades and Salvage Corps.
5.3.1 Devon Fire Brigade.
5.3.2 Merseyside Fire Brigade.
5.3.3 Liverpool Salvage Corps.
5.3.4 London Salvage Corps.
-------------------- --- -
6. COMMERCIALLY AVAILABLE SMOKE EXTRACTORS.
6.1 Types of extractors available.
6.2 Extractors purchased for test.
6.3 Use of ducting with smoke extractors.
6.4 Tests on the extractors purchased.
7. CONDUCT OF SMOKE CLEARANCE TESTS IN 'INDUSTRIAL B' BUILDING.
7.1 General
7.2 Smoke production for tests .
7.2.1 Cold smoke.
7.2.2 Hot smoke.
7.3 Instrumentation.
7.3.1 General.
7. 3.2 Smoke density metering equipment.
7. 3.3 Visibility monitoring equipment.
7.3.4 Temperature measuring equipment.
7.3.5 Wind speed and direction monitoring .
7.3.6 Time.
8. TESTS OF SMOKE CLEARANCE PROCEDURES IN 'INDUSTRIAL B' BUILDING, FIRST FLOOR.
8.1 Description of test room.
8.2 Method.
I
8.3 Results.
8.4 Discussion.
8.4.1 Effect
8.4.2 Effect
of
of
wind speed on natural ventilation.
reduced natural ventilation.

I
8.4.3 Effect of 'hot smoke'.
8.4.4 Effect of additional forced ventilation using one or two extractor fans.
8.4.5 Effect of baffling the fans.
8.5 Conclusions.
9. TESTS OF SMOKE CLEARANCE PROCEDURES IN 'INDUSTRIAL B' BUILDING, BASEMENT.
I
9.2 Method.
9.3 Results.
9.4 Discussion.
9.4.1 Natural ventilation.
9.4.2 Effect of wind speed.
9.4.3 Forced ventilation.
(il 'Cold smoke' tests .
I
(ii) 'Hot smoke' tests.
9.5 Conclusions.
10. t-EASUREMENT OF FAN PERFORMANCE.
10.1 Measurements of air movement patterns.
10.2 Measurement of performance using the methods of a British Standard.
10.3 Comparative tests of fans in smoke clearance in 'Industrial B' building
I basement.
10.3.1 General.
10. 3.2 Method.
10.3.3 Results.
10.3.4 Discussion.
11. HANDLING CHARACTERISTICS OF EXTRACTORS.
11.1 Observations from comparative extraction tests.
12. ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF FANS.
12.1 Method.
12.2 Results.
12.3 Discussion.
I 13. DISCUSSION.
14. SUGGESTED GUIDELINES ON THE USE OF SMOKE EXTRACTORS.
15. CONCLUSIONS.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.
REFERENCES.
I TABlES
Table 1
Extractors purchased by FEU for tests.
Table 2
Tests of smoke clearance procedures in 'Industrial B' building, first floor.
Table 3
Tests of smoke clearance procedures in 'Industrial B' building, basement.
Table 4
Comparative half clearance times for extractors purchased by FEU.
Table 5
Surge and running currents for fans purchased by FEU.
LIST IF FIWlES
Figure 1 - Production of smoke in a fire.
Figure 2 - Comparison of published visibility measurements.
Fi gure 3 - Smoke Extractor SRBD Code No.1 Compact Generator.
Figure 4 - Smoke Extractor SRDB Code No.2 Angus Turbex.
Figure 5 - Smoke Extractor SRDB Code No.3 Supervac P164 SE.
Figure 6 - Smoke Extractor SRDB Code No.4 Supervac P164 SEZ.
Figure 7 - Smoke Extractor SRDB Code No.6 Woods Aerofoil Fan.
Figure 8 - Smoke Extractor SRDB Code No.7 Aneti Extractor.
Figure 9 - Smoke extraction equipment - comparison of sizes.
Figure 10 - Pyrotechnic smoke canisters in sand tray.
I Figure 11 - Fireload of crib for hot smoke tests. ('Industrial B' basement)
Figure 12 - Crib fire burning. ('Industrial B', first floor)
Figure 13 - Mobile laboratory adjacent to 'Industrial B' Building.
Figure 14 - Smoke density meter - projector / receiver unit.
Figure 15 - Ultra violet chart recorder.
Figure 16 - Scaffolding tower with smoke density meters.
Figure 17 - Adjustable plank trestles with smoke density meters.
Figure 18 - Visbility monitoring rig with video camera.
Figure 19 - Wind station.

I Figure 20 - Wind station display unit and chart recorder.
Figure 21 - 'Industrial B' building from the west.
Figure 22 - 'Industrial B' building, first floor interior.
Figure 23 - Diagram of 'Industrial B' building, first floor, showing position of test
equipment.
I Figure 24 - Fan positioned in doorway, first floor.
Figure 25 - Fan and baffle in doorway, first floor.
Figure 26 - Resolution of wind velocity.
Figure 27 Diagrams of wind direction and speed in ventilation operations

Tests 5 - 13.
Figure 28 - Diagrams of wind direction and speed in ventilation operations

Tests 14 - 21, HS3.
I
Figure 29 (A - D) - Comparison graphs for 'Industrial B' first floor.
Figure 30 - Diagram of 'Industrial B' basement showing the position of test equipment.
Figure 31 - 'Industrial B' basement, top vents and covers.
Figure 32 - 'Industrial B' basement door-way cover showing the shutters open.

Tests 23 - 30.

Tests HS4 - 8.
Figure 35 - 'Industrial B' basement - comparison of ventilation modes in a room where

natural ventilation is ineffective.
Figure 36 - Positioning of the compact generator, SRDB code no. 1, for comparative tests,
showing the connection to the doorway.
Figure 37 - Smoke exiting 'Industrial B' basement through layflat polythene ducting.
Figure 38 - Aneti extractor in use.
Figure 39 - Performance comparison of extractors tested.

APPOOlCES
Appendix A Fire Department Project Definition.
Appendix B Work carried out by the Fire Research Station of the Department of the
Envi ronment.
Appendix C Survey of smoke extraction equipment in U.K. Brigades.
Appendix D Information obtained from visits to U.K. Brigades and Salvage Corps.
I Appendix E Suppliers and manufacturers of portable smoke extraction equipment.
Appendix F Calibration of smoke density metering equipment.
Appendix G Graphs of tests of smoke clearance procedures, 'Industrial B' building, first
floor.
Appendix H Graphs of tests of smoke clearance procedures, 'Industrial B' building,

basement.
Appendix J Graphs of comparative tests of extractors, 'Industrial B' building, basement.
I
1. INTRODUCTION.
The Fi re Experi menta 1 Uni t (FEU) of SRDB undertook thi s work as part of the Home Offi ce
Fire Research Programme. The Project Definition, prepared in 1975, is reproduced as
Appendi x A. Thi s was revi ewed in 1981 to take account of new techni ques.
For the firefighter the major problems of entering smoke are the reduction in visibil ity
and the potential irritant and toxic effects. Working in smoke necessitates the wearing of
breathing apparatus (BA). Movement and communication are hampered and fatigue is
accelerated.
The fire service is required to minimise damage to property in a fire situation. Smoke is
I a major cause of damage duri ng and after a fi re.
To alleviate these problems the task of ventilation can be carried out by brigades to
I clear smoke. Reference 1 gives guidelines for the timing and methods of ventilation at
fires. The advice given is to ventilate as early as is practicable but warnings are given
that fire spread and flashovers can occur as a consequence.
Depending on the circumstances, satisfactory smoke clearance can be achieved by the use of
natural ventilation through suitable openings in the building. In difficult situations,
such as fires in basements and ships, natural ventilation may be too limited, and forced
ventil ati on may be used
The most common method of forced ventilation by brigades is the use of portable fans
('smoke extractors'), and this is the major area of work described in this report.
I Smoke extractors are not in general use in the U.K. Fi re Servi ce but they were found in
use by the U.K. Salvage Corps and by some overseas bri gades.
2. METHOD OF APPROACH.
A study of scientific literature on the production and movement of smoke was first made.
I nformation on operational use of smoke extractors was obtained through visits to U.K.
Fire Brigades and London and Liverpool Salvage Corps (Section 5.3). Reports on the use of
extractors by overseas brigades were al so consulted. Following this the programme of work
was planned.
The types of smoke extractor currently available to the Fire Service either directly from
manufacturers or through agents in the U.K., were i dentifi ed. Examples of the mai n types
were purchased for test purposes. Each extractor was assessed for physical
characteristics, ease of use, maintenance problems and any other factors which might have
a bearing on operational use. Simple measurements of air movement patterns of fan-type
extractors were performed by FEU, and more comprehensi ve measurements were made by a
contractor l • These adopted the measurement methods of a British Standard (Reference 2).
Smoke clearance tests were performed on the 'Industrial B' building at the Fire Service
College, Moreton-in-Marsh. Two different rooms were used for the tests; a large first
floor room with windows and doors on two opposite sides to enable lateral ventilation, and
a smaller basement room with only one vent. These rooms were thought to be representative
of the type of situation that might be met on the fireground, the first floor room
enabl ing consi derabl e fl exibil ity in types of ventil ati on procedure, and the basement
simulating a volume from which removal of smoke by natural means is difficult. Both 'hot'
and 'cold' smoke were used in the tests. Two identical electrically powered fans were used
to compare different ventilation procedures. A second series of smoke tests was used to
compare the range of extraction equipment available.
1
A correlation of smoke tests and fan performance will be possible when the SWIRL Report
is available.
1. South Western Industrial Research Ltd. (SWIRL), University of Bath, Claverton Down,
Bath BA2 7AY. This report is not yet available (May 1984).
2
3. PREVIOUS WORK ON THE PRODUCTION AND MOVEMENT OF SMOKE.
Many references to smoke production and movement can be found in the literature but these
refer to pre-determined situations in buildings using either natural convection or fixed
systems for forced venti 1ati on.
3.1 Fixed systems for forced ventilation.
The use of fixed ventilation systems to clear smoke is well documented by manufacturers
and in other 1iterature (References 3 - 5).
3.2 Work of the Fire Research Station (FRS) of the Department of the Environmen~
Major areas of FRS research relevant to this project are:

a} Smoke production and movement in corridors, tunnels and shopping malls.
Experimental work involving model studies, computer simulation and full-scale
tests.
I
b} Criteria for ventilation for smoke control.
c} Methods of identifying and fighting oxygen-starved fires.
d} Methods of smoke extraction by fixed systems.
Further details of this work (a-d) are given in Appendix B.

e} Use of portable smoke extractors in firefighting.
Following a request in 1969 from the CFBAC Joint Committee on Design and
I
Development of Appliances and Equipment, FRS produced a brief review on wqys
portable smoke extractors may be used in operations (Reference 6). The report
explores the necessity of maintaining smoke stratification and non-turbulent
flow to prevent smoke entering clear layers. The utilization of extractors to
di rect smoke flow and to dil ute smoke is di scussed. The report concl udes that
smoke extractors may be of some use to the fire service both during and after
I
fi res.
3.3 Model studies on smoke movement at Leeds Polytechnic School of Architecture.
A report published in 1981 assessed the validity of using small-scale architectural models
to i ndi cate smoke flow (Reference 7).
Case studies of recent fires were selected which represented different types of buildings,
and for which information was available from fire brigade, press or eye witness accounts.
The only case study which used scientific data involved the 'Industrial A' building at the
Fire Service College, Moreton-in-Marsh. This utilised data from a previous FRS test on
smoke movement (Reference 8).
I
Scale models were constructed from drawings or other records.
I
The results indicated that a general guide to the movement of smoke through a building
could be obtained from such studies of models. Problems were encountered when trying to
scale the effects of wind.
304 University of Edinburgh MSc Dissertation.
This dissertation, produced in 1981 1, (Reference 9) aims to 9ive a critical assessment of

available information on portable smoke extraction equipment and methods for firefi9hting.
The report deals wi th both the theoreti ca1 aspects of smoke behavi our and the practi ca1
means by which ventilation may be effected. Mathematical formulae are included in the
sections on generation and movement of smoke. The dissertation acts well as a quick
reference gui de to these theori es.
The treatment given of the practical use of smoke extractors is based on manufacturers'
recomnendations.
The di ssertation concludes that forced ventilation might be of use to the U.K. Fire
Brigades but that, before it is adopted as practice further large scale experimental work
must be undertaken.
1. The author of this dissertation spent three weeks at FEU during his study. He was also
a Local Authority fireman and therefore aware of the fire service requ i remen~
4. INTRODUCTION TO THE PRODUCTION AND MOVEMENT OF SMOKE.
4.1 Volume of smoke produced.
In order to assess the requirement for clearance of smoke, it is necessary to recognize

the extent of smoke production by a solid fuel fire in a room. The volume of fuel gases
present is minimal in comparison to the volume of entrained air, thus it is assumed that
the rate of smoke production by a fire is approximately the rate at which air is entrained
by the rising column of hot gases and flames (Figure 1 and Reference ID). This rate is
dependent on :
I a) The perimeter of the fire.

b) The heat output of the fire.
c) The height of the smoke layer above the fire ('Clearance height' y
in Figure 1l
Some typical val ues for the production rate of smoke are tabul ated below (Reference 10).
The calculation is based on a flame temperature of 800·C in a room with an ambient
temperature of SOO·C.
Fi re Perimeter Clear Layer Volume Rate of

Height Smoke Profuction.
I m m m\
12 2 13.1
12 3 26.2
20 2 2S.0
20 3 SO.O
To compare with these figures, the most powerful extractor1 tested by FEU would remove
smoke at Sm 3s- 1, according to the manufacturer's figure. Hence this extractor would
certainly not be able to remove smoke as quickly as it was being produced in this
situation.
4.2 Quality and density of smoke.
Although the volume of smoke is important it is the quality of the smoke which determines
the visibility through i~ Smoke varies in quality from light-coloured to black and sooty,
containing unburned decomposition and condensation products arising from the destructive
combustion of the fuel. The density of smoke, and hence the visibility through it, is
dependent not only on the fuel but also on the way that the fuel burns. Typically, flamin~
combustion of a 220mm square of 3.7mm hardboard will reduce visibility to 4.2m in a 34m
room after 30 minutes. If the hardboard is smouldering the visibility will be reduced to
2.2m under the same conditi ons. As yet there are no uni versally accepted tests of smoke
quality, so that figures reported will depend on the methods adopted by the particular
experimenters.
1. SRDB Code Number 1, Table 1.
It is useful here to discuss what is meant by 'visibility' and 'optical density' of smoke
and how the two quantities relate. 'Visibil ity' is a subjective measurement since
ul timately the quantity relies on observational assessment by the individual of an object
in smoke. The optical density of smoke is measured objectively.
The reduction of light as it passes through smoke obeys a logarithmic law. Expressed
mathematically it is written (Reference 10).
OD x = 10910 10 / Ix
where OD = optical density of smoke for path length x.

I x = original light intensity.
10 = light intensity after path length x.
x
Thus an optical density of 1.0 means that 90% of the incident light has been obscured.
Although there is no formally agreed standard it is common practice to use a transmission
path of 1m in making smoke density measurements.
The most recent and comprehensive study of the relationship between visibility and optical
density of smoke has been carried out by Jin (Reference 11). He considered both the smoke
quality and the method of object illumination in assessing visibility and found that his
results fell into two distinct groups dependent on the object being either forward
illuminated or back illuminated. Although Jin is the only person to study the visibility
of back illuminated objects several workers have performed experiments on the visibility
of forward illuminated objects. The results of Malhotra (Reference 12) and Rasbash
(Reference 13) are in reasonable agreement wi th those of J i n and are shown in Fi gure 2.
As a rough guide visibility and optical density have the following approximate
relationships.
a) For forward illumination
visibility (m) = 1.0 / 0.0. per metre
b) For back illumination
visibility (m) = 2.5 / 0.0. per metre
4.3. Smoke production.
The smoke produced by a fire is hot, and because of this it rises in a plume to the
ceil ing (Figure 1). As further smoke is produced, it rises also and displaces the smoke
which has cooled slightly. In this way the smoke layers down from the ceiling until the
whole volume is filled with smoke. This is known as mushroomin~ If the fire is
extinguished and the smoke allowed to cool it will lose its buoyancy and thus the layers
will disperse and the smoke will diffuse into the whole volume. Therefore hot smoke forms
layers of different optical densities whereas cold smoke tends to fill a volume uniformly.
4.4 Ventilation requirements.
Since smoke build up in a fire is rap i d it is important to consider how, by ventilation,

this may be controlled. It is a complex theoretical problem and, within the scope of this
report, it is thought necessary merely to outline the principles and conclusions that have
been reached. For further study it is suggested that Reference 10 is consulted.
Since, in a fire, smoke rises to the ceiling and fills the room from the top, the majority
of studies have been made on the effect of roof vents. To give a guide the amount of
venting required to maintain a clear air zone of 2m height over a solid fuel fire is as
follows (Reference 10):
--------------------------------------------------------------
Height of ceiling Diameter of fire Area of roof vents
requ~red
m m m
I 3
11
0.75
0.75
2.0
4.0
4 1.50 6.3
I
The venting requirements of the table are for rel atively small fires, but even these are
impractical except in very large buildings.
The problem of the vent size required when a room is already smoke logged or where vents
are positioned 1aterally rather than vertically has not, to the author's knowledge, been
studied.
4.5 Basic ventilation practice.
To prevent mushrooming of smoke, vertical (i.e. top) ventilation should be carried out
where possible. In most domestic properties and in buildings where access to the roof is
limited or could prove dangerous, lateral (i.e. cross) ventilation is recommended. To
prevent fire spread with this method of ventilation, the direction and strength of the
I wind is an important factor to take into account when choosing a procedure. If the fire is
oxygen starved and smouldering, opening the fire compartment to air can lead to rapid
spread. When this condition is suspected discretion is required in making the decision to
I ventilate.
5. OPERATIONAL USE OF EXTRACTORS.
5.1 The use of extractors in Overseas Bri gades.
Although smoke extractors are not in widespread use in the U.K. Fire Brigade their deploy
ment as a 'first line' piece of equipment is common in several countries.
The strategic use of smoke extractors to provide better working conditions for firemen and
to enable the seat of the fire to be found quickly whilst reducing smoke damage, is common
practice in European and American Fire Brigades. Their use is not well documented because
smoke extractor deployment and ventilation is not seen as a novel or new method in
fi refi ght i ng.
By far the most extensive use of extractors is made in the USA, where there is a require
ment for every ladder rnd salvage appliance to carry at least one extractor with a minimum
capaci ty of 142m3min- (Reference 14).
The strategy employed by American Fire Departments is one of intense water attack coupled
with ventilation. Ventilation is the secondary responsibility of ladder companies
following rescue and, wherever possible, natural ventilation is pursued by opening
skylights, vents, windows and doors. Failing this, holes may be cut into roofs, ceilings
and walls to produce airflow. When this airflow is inadequate, mechanical ventilators in
the form of portable fans are used. The general mode of employment is for the fans to be
used to draw smoke out of the fire compartment, i.e. by using them in the suction mode.
For this purpose the extractors are placed at the top of an opening such as a window or
door since the hot smoke stratifies and rises to the ceiling. In conjunction with this,
additional fans may be placed at the bottom of such openings to inject fresh air into the
compartment, and thus increase air flow still furthe~ Because of the possibility of the
input of fresh air increasing the burning rate, the ventilation is carried out only when
charged hose lines are ready. Forced ventilation is, of course, continued after the fire
has been extinguished to remove smoke and combustion products from the building.
The French have developed a water driven jet-pump type extractor 1 which has proved
successful in removing toxic gases from several basement type situations (Reference 15).
This type of extractor has no mechanical moving parts and is particularly useful for
removing explosive or flammable gases since it is intrinsically saf~
The German Fire Service favours the use of ~moke extractor fans and has developed a series
of units in conjunction with a manufacturer.
Recent information indicates that the Dutch Fire Brigade does not use extractors but that
the Swedish Fire Service make extensive use of them.
1. Aneti extractor. See Table 1.
2. M&WLtd. Stuttgart. - Type MWM portable extracting fans.
11
The ventilation policy of the Fire Service in the USSR is based on the removal of smoke to
improve working conditions for the firemen and therefore enable them to find and
exti ngui sh the fi re rapi dly. The use of smoke extractors is wi despread especi a11y for
basement or other fi res where natural ventil ati on is 1i mi ted. The recommendation of the
Lenningrad Experimental Fire Station (Reference 16) was that three types of smoke
extractor should be available to the Fire Service. The three types relate to the airflow
capabil i ty of the extractors and are desi gnated 1i ght, medi um and heavy.The recommended
tactical use of these fans is that smoke removal should be facilitated as soon as possible
and to that end the light type of extractor is deployed on arrival at a fire. The medium
or heavy units can then be sent for as required.
FEU is continuing to investigate overseas practice.
5.2 Survey of smoke extraction equipment in U.K. Brigades.
To assess the equipment currently used in U.K. Brigades a questionaire (Appendix C) was
circulated to brigades with the assistance of the Chief and Assistant Chief Fire Officers'
Association.
I
Replies were received from 55 brigades, including 31 nil returns. Details are given in
Appendix C. Suppliers of smoke extraction equipment are given in Appendix E.
Sixteen of the brigades use only the Angus Turbex high expansion foam generator in the
smoke extraction mode for smoke extraction. Three brigades use the Turbex but in addition
11
have electrically driven fans and three brigades have electric fans only.
I
The survey confirmed that smoke extractors are not in general use in this countrY.
5.3 Visits to U.K . Brigades and Salvage Corps.
Following the Brigade survey, visits were made to Devon and Merseyside Fire Brigades who
had given a positive response to the questionaire (Section 5.2). Both brigades had
indicated that they used dedicated smoke extraction equipment, Merseyside having the added
back-up of the Liverpool Salvage Corps equipmen~
Liverpool and London Salvage Corps were visited as they were known to use extractors
regul arly.
I
Further details and photographs of the visits can be found in Appendix D.
5.3.1. Devon Fire Brigade.
From the Brigade Survey, Devon were known to use a number of Supervac P200SE 20 inch fans
in addition to Turbex high expansion foam generators. The Supervac fans are carried in
pairs on the Emergency Tenders and run from portable generators 1 also carried on these
appliances. Generators are not standard equipment on other Devon appliance~
1. Dale Emergency Products Ltd., Faraday House, Eastfield, Scarborough, Yorks. - Erskine
11
Portable Generators.
The smoke extraction equipment in that brigade has been on the run since 1980 and in that
time has been deployed in a number of situations. On most occasions the smoke clearance
operation has been successful. It would seem, from the operational experience gained that
the method of use of the equipment governs the success of the operation. On the occasions
where smoke extraction failed the two extractor fans were used in series, that is, joined
t ogether by a length of semi-rigid ducting. Where one extractor was used to inject air,
whilst the other exhausted the smoke, the operation was always reasonably successful.
Devon carries semi-rigid ducting for use with the extractors, but no layflat polythene
ducting. Since the semi-rigid ducting is bulky, the amount carried is limited. The fans
have hooks to enable them to be suspended in doorways from a bar1 also carried.
5.3.2. Merseyside Fire Brigade.
Merseysi de Fire Bri gade carry Supervac P124 12 inch fans on fi rst-l i ne appl iances. The
nov portable generators carried on these appl iances were modified to withstand the
starting current surge of the fans (Section 12).
Generally it is the Liverpool Salvage Corps which performs forced ventilation in

Merseyside. It usually arrives at an incident in Liverpool at about the same time as the
Brigade. The Fire Brigade officer in charge initiates ventilation, usually as soon as
possible. All the brigade officers talked to valued the Salvage Corps ventilation
equipment and tactics. As a result of this, and with the imminent disbanding of the Corps,
the Brigade is conSidering supplementing the ventilation equipment carried on appliances.
Smoke clearance may be performed during a fire as well as during the later salvage phase.
The equipment has also been used successfully to replace stale air during incidents on the
underground rail way network.
5.3.3. Liverpool Salvage Corps.
The Salvage Corps has considerable expertise in forced ventilation techniques. This is
made good use of by Merseyside Fire Brigade. The Corps carries two types of smoke
extraction fans : Supervac P200SEZ 20 inch fans and Spitznas axial fans. The latter have a
good airflow performance, but are easily affected by tarry deposits on the fan blades from
fi re debri s.
The fans are run from 240v a.c. mains supply.
Smoke extraction equipment is usually deployed immediately the Corps arrives at an

incident but the order to switch on is given by the Fire Brigade officer in charge.
Extensive use is made of layflat polythene ducting to remove smoke without extending smoke
damage. Usually the fans are deployed to extract smoke from the building rather than to
inject fresh ai r.
1. Dale Electric of Great Britain Ltd. - Doorbar.
10
I 5.3.4. London Salvage Corps.
London Salvage Corps uses Woods Aerofoil fans which they have had adapted to their own
specification. The adaptation includes an improved handle design which makes carrying the
fans much easier. The fans are bought in kit form and made up by the Corps.
Smoke extractors were said to be the most frequently used equipment carried by the Corps.
To enable layflat ducting to be used effectively in all conditions the Corps has developed
easily fastened straps to hold the ducting onto the fans, and brackets to steady the open
I end of the ducting around in a wind. These items are detailed in Appendix D.
Again the Salvage Corps expertise in forced ventilation was utilised extensively by London
Fire Brigade both in fires and in ventilation operations in the underground railway. It
was reported that there had been no flashover accidents caused as a direct result of
forced ventilation and that the Salvage Corps did not see this as a problem.
I
The usual method of operation of the fans
was to extract smoke from the building rather
than to inject fresh air.
11
6. COMMERCIALLY AVAILABLE SMOKE EXTRACTOR~
6.1 Types of extractors available.
Trade directories were surveyed for manufacturers and suppliers of smoke extraction equip
ment. Organi sati ons 1i sted were contacted and a doss i er of relevant i nformati on was
ccrnpiled.
The majority of organisations manufactured or supplied fixed installation smoke extraction

equipment. Appendix E lists manufacturers and suppliers of portable equipment.
Portable equipment, as required for fire service use, can be classified into two main
types:
Type 1 Fans
Type 2 Smoke entrainment devices
Fans are the most common smoke extractors and they can be driven by:
a. Electric motors. Flameproof motors are available.
b. Petrol or diesel engines.
c. Water motors.
d. Ccrnpressed air motors.
The majority of the fans are electrically powered. The most common supplies for portable
extractors are 240v single phase or 110v single phase. These can be operated from a mains
supply, via a transformer if necessary, or from portable or vehicle mounted generators
(but see al so Section 121.
6.2 Extractors purchased for test.
A list of extractors purchased for test is given in Table I, which includes an SRDB Code
Number all oted to each extractor type.
Five fans were chosen for test, and one smoke entrainment device.
Photographs of the extractors are shown in Figures 3 - 9.
The Angus Turbex was chosen because it is the high-expansion foam generator in most common
use in the Fire Service and has a smoke extraction capability. The Symtol Compact
Generator was developed under contract to the Home Office for hi gh expansi on foam work,
and can also be used as a smoke extractor.
From the large variety of electrically driven fans available, the Supervac fans were
purchased because they are sold specifically for fire service use, and used extensively in
the US~ The Woods fan was chosen because it is used by the London Salvage Corps.
The Aneti extractor is the only known example of a smoke entrainment device which has been
used by a fi re bri gade (Secti on 5.Il.
6.3 Use of ducting with smoke extractors.
Semi-rigid or layflat polythene ducting can be used with extractors. The semi-rigid
ducting is used on the inlet side of the extractor and the layflat polythene ducting on
the outlet side, where positive pressure exists. Use of ducting allows more versatility in
the positioning of the extractors.
12
I 6.4 Tests on the extractors purchased.
As indicated in Section 2. the performance of the fans was assessed by three methods.
I
First. simple measurements of air movement patterns were made by FEU (Section 10.1).
Second. more comprehensive measurements were made by SWIRL 1 using the methods of a
British Standard. Reference 2.
I Third. fan performance was measured when extracti ng smoke from a buil di ng (Secti on 10.3).
1. South Western Industri a1 Research Ltd. (SW IRLl. Uni vers i ty of Bath. Cl averton Down.
Bath BA2 7AY. This report is not yet available (May 1984).
I 13
7. CONDUCT OF SMOKE CLEARANCE TESTS IN 'INDUSTRIAL B' BUILDING.
7.1 GENERAL
As indicated in Section 2, tests of various smoke clearance procedures were made in the
fi rst floor and basement of 'Industrial B' building at the Fire Service College, using two
identical electrically powered fans and both 'hot' and 'cold' smoke.
A second series of tests was made in the basement of 'Industrial B' building using 'cold'
smoke only, to compare the range of extraction equipment available.
Smoke was produced for the tests in the manner described in Section 7.2 below. The
density of the smoke was monitored throughout by measuring optical density, and a small
number of measurements of visibil ity were also made. Instrumentation for these and other
purposes is described in Section 7.2 below.
It will be seen from results of smoke clearance tests reported in Sections 8, 9 and 10.3
that in general the logarithmic plot of optical density fell linearly with time during the
clearance process. The gradient of each plot can be taken as a measure of the speed of
clearance, and is represented by the 'half clearance time', defined as the time in minutes
required to halve the optical density. The quantity is tabulated in the tables of
experimental results. Note that, because the optical density is logarithmically related to
time, it takes another 'half clearance time' for the optical density to fall from half to
one quarter its original level and so on.
The half clearance times were taken from measurements at a height of 2.00m or 1.95m, this
being approximately head height (Section 7.3.21. As an indication of the significance of
the measurements obtained, optical densities of 2.0 and 0.43 per metre correspond to
I
obscurations of 95% and 50% per metre, and imply visibilities for forward illumination of
about 0.5 m and 2.3 m (Section 4.21. The upper density figure approaches the maximum
which can be read satisfactorily with the instrumentation used, and the lower figure was
judged to represent the point at which the visibility was just acceptable for most
operations, and the irritant effects of the smoke were much reduce~
7.2 Smoke production for tests.
7.2.1 Cold Smoke
To achieve reproducible volumes and densities of smoke, artificially generated smoke is

most convenient. There are two main types of generator, the theatrical type using heated
oil, and pyrotechnic smoke generators.
Initial tests showed that the theatrical smoke generators 1 produced relatively small
amounts of smoke which was heavier than air, settled close to the ground, and built up
slowly. Even a number of such units would have been slow to produce the required results,
with complications of expense, bulk, and electrical and gas supply lines.
1. Concept Engineering Lt~, 30 White Waltham Airfield Estates, Maidenhead, Berks•• - Mk X

110v 50Hz single phase, remote control smoke machines.
14
I
In contrast, a large volume of dinse smoke could be produced quickly and simply by using
several pyrotechnic generators. The smoke was propelled towards the ceiling. Air
temperature rises of 1 to 2 degrees Centigrade were produced in the rooms of 'Industrial
B' building, and the smoke behaved somewhat more like 'hot smoke', but soon approaching a
uniform density throughout the room. The canisters were convenient to use, and were
adopted for the 'cold smoke' tests.
The number of canisters used for each test was chosen to produce an optical density
I
exceeding 3.0 in 5 - 10 minutes throughout the room, 20 being used for each test in
'Industrial B' first floor, 5 in 'Industrial B' basement (Sections 8.1 and 9.1l. The
canisters stood in a sand tray (Figure 10) and were ignited electrically by an operator
outside the test room, using two series-connected 4.5 volt Type H30 batteries and a
switching arrangemen~
The canisters usually burned for about 7 minutes , but 10 minutes was allowed from
ignition before the smoke ·clearance test commenced.
7.2.2 Hot smoke.
There are difficulties of reproducibility of volume and density of smoke from test fires.
I
The most effective way of producing 'hot smoke' consistently is by igniting a known volume
of liquid fuel of defined quality and allowing it to burn out. Hydrocarbons such as
diesel oil and kerosene can produce satisfactory smoke for the purposes of the tests, but
also produce oily and unpleasant combustion products which deposit on instrumentation and
prevent accurate measurements of optical density. Lighyr hydrocarbons, such as heptane
or petrol, produce smoke in somewhat lesser quantities, but the fires necessary would
I
have been large and hot enough to risk damage to the fabric of the fireground building.
A solution was sought by using fires of damp straw, primed by a small amount of diesel
I
oil. About half a bale of the straw was placed loosely in a steel crib about 76 cm x 100
cm x 60 cm deep, making it about one third full (Figures 11 and 12). Generally, the fire
was allowed to produce an optical density of at least 3.0 throughout the room despite the
layering of the hot smoke before ventilation or extinction.
The fire behaviour was somewhat variable in burning rate, smoke production, and flame
heigh~ Variable quantities of steam were also produced by the extinction. Production of
the necessary optical density was slow, and the time required varied.
I
Nevertheless, the fires of damp straw produced adequate conditions for the purposes of the
smoke extraction tests, and enabled comparison to be made between the extraction behaviour
of 'hot' and 'cold' smoke (Section 8.2.4.(i)).
1. Standard Fireworks PLC, Half Moon S~, Huddersfield, HD1 2JH. - 6 inch white smoke
cases, electric ignition.
2. The concentration of fire gases in a room may be detected by monitoring the level of
I
carbon dioxide This is an alternative to measurements of optical density when smoke
density is low. However, optical density measurements were adopted for the present
work since they relate directly to the fireman's difficulties in smoke.
15
7.3 Instrumentation
7. 3. 1 General
A mobile laboratory was sited adjacent to 'Industrial B' building (Figure 13). Sensing
equipment in the room of the building used for the test was cabled to the mobile
laboratory, which contained the associated indicating equipment, including video tape
recorders and monitors. Communication was maintained between the mobile ¥boratory and
the experimental area in the building by means of battery operated headsets. Conduct of
the experiment was controlled in this way. Timing points were maintained in the
laboratory, and instructions could be given to all the experimental team simultaneously.
When video recorders were in use, all voice communication was recorded on tape.
Access to 'Industrial B' building for the conduct of the tests was limited to periods of
two to three days only at one time. The equipment to be used in the building was
therefore arranged to allow quick deployment and recovery from the test site.
I
7. 3. 2 Smoke density metering equipment
(a) Descri pti on

2
Commercially available smoke density metering equipment was modified by FEU to allow
quick deployment at the test site. The sensing equipment of each meter consisted of a
l i ght projector and photocell receiver rigidly mounted in a Dexion frame to give a
horizontal optical path length of one metre (Figure 14). The associated electronics and
indicator calibrated in percentage obscuration were rack mounted in the mobile laboratory
and connected to the projector/receiver unit in the test room of the building by two
cables. The four smoke density meters were identified as 'red', 'blue', 'White', and
'green'. Electrical signals correspon~ing to the readings of obscuration were connected
to a UV (ultra violet) chart recorder (Figure 15).
I
(b) Calibration
As a refinement Rf the maker's calibration, each meter was calibrated by plaCing neutral
density filters between the projector and receiver (Appendix F). In use frequent
cleaning of the lenses in the projectors and receivers was necessary to maintain the
calibration, particularly in hot smoke tests. The neutral density filters were handled
and stored with care to avoid contamination.
1. General Acoustics Ltd., PO Box 20, Scarborough, N. Yorks. Y011 IDE - GA 11 headset.
2. Babcock - Bristol Ltd., Power & Water Division, 218 Purley Way, Croydon. - Smoke
density metering equipment E66-50/5 with Industrial Control Unit.
3. Bryans Southern Instruments Lt~, Willow Lane, Mitcham, Surrey, CR4 4UL. - UV Recorder
series 45,000, Galvanometer driver amplifiers model 40501.
4. Kodak Lt~, Box 33, Hemel Hempstead HP2 7EU. - IOOmm square gelatine Neutral Density
Filters NO 0.1 - 2.0.
16
I
(c) Location
The smoke density metering units were positioned at various heights in the test rooms to
monitor layering effects. In general, one was as close to the ceiling as possible, and
one at head height. The units were generally supported on a scaffolding tower (Figure 16)
or on plank trestles (Figure 17).
(d) Observation
The readi ngs of the percentage obscurati on i ndi cators were noted by an observer at 30
second intervals throughout the test, and recordings were also made on the UV chart
recorder (Section 7.3.2(a)).
7.3.3 Visibility monitoring equipment
As indicated in Section 7.1, measurements of visibility were made. A number of motor

vehicle rear (red) fog lamps were mounted at 1 metre intervals on a Dexion frame to serve
as back-illuminated objects. A video camera was mounted 1 metre from the nearest lamp
(Figure 18). During the smoke tests, video tape recordings were made. These
measurements are not reported here.
7.3.4 Temperature measuring equipment
(a) Description
Air temperatures external to the building were recorded by a mercury-in-glass maximum and
I
minimum thermometer. In early testf a similar thermometer was used in the test room, but
in later tests K-type thermocouples were used.
(b) Location
The external thermometer was attached to the outside of the building. The internal
thermometer was placed next to the topmost smoke dens i ty uni t. When thermocouples were
used, these were arranged at different heights from ceiling to floor in the test room.
I
(cl Observation.
The thermometers were read at the begi nni ng and at the end of each test. The
thermocouples ~ere monitored every 30s by an observer outside the room using digital
instrumentation.
1. Electroplan Ltd., PO Box 19, Orchard Road, Royston, Herts - NiCr/NiAl thermocouples.
2. Electroplan Ltd., PO Box 19, Orchard Road, Royston , Herts - Digitron Type 2751-K
17
7. 3.5 Wind speed and direction monitoring I
Since ventilation is dependent on the wind speed and direction it was important to record
wind conditions throughout the tests.
a) Oescripti on
Wind speed was measured with an anemometer and direction with a wind vane, both of which 1
were mounted on a cross arm at the top of a 4m pol e (Fi gure 19). The wi nd stati on was
connected to a display unit and chart recorder2 in the mobile laboratory (Figure 20). The
signal was also taken to the UV recorder (Section 7.3.2(a)) to ensure that the wind
conditions could be correlated with the smoke density readings.
b) Cal ibration
The wind vane assembly was oriented correctly using a magnetic compass 3•
cl Location
To minimize the effect of buildings on the wind conditions the wind station was erected
approximately lOOm from 'Industrial B' in an open position.
d) Observation
The chart was marked to denote the beginning and end of each test and the onset of
ventilation. In most tests the signal was processed by the display unit to smooth out
short-term variations on the chart-recorder trace.
7.3.6 Time
Ti me was monitored by the experimenters in the mobile laboratory using manually operated
split-second-hand stopwatches. The stopwatches were started as the smoke canisters were
ignited or as the crib fire was li~
1. Vector Instruments, 113 Marsh Road, Rhyl, Clwyd - Wind speed and direction display
type 0600.
2. Edgecumbe Peebles Ltd., Bothwell, Glasgow - 'Inkwell' Dwarf Recorder.
3. SILVA Sweden AB, Kuskvagen 4, 5-191 47 50l1entuna, Sweden - Type 3 compass.
18
8. TESTS OF SMOKE CLEARANCE PROCEDURES IN 'INDUSTRIAL B' BUILDING FIRST FLOOR.
11
As indicated in Section 2, the first floor room of 'Industrial B' building was chosen as
representi ng a si tuati on where natural 1atera 1 (i.e. cross) ventil ati on is possible and
would normally be performed.
Figure 21 is a general view of 'Industrial B' building from the west, and Figure 22 shows
11
the interior of the first floor from the southern corner. Figure 23 is a floor plan. The
main part of the first floor room is 17.4m x 9.2m, with no ceiling under a pitched roof.
The room has a small extension in the western corner with a conventional ceiling of 3.3m
heigh~ The total volume of the room is 880m3. An internal door at the south-west end of
the room leads onto the staircase. Internal partition walls exist as shown in Figures 22
and 23 to a hei ght of 2.0m.
Doors 2.0m x 1.2m at the east and west corners of the main part of the room give onto the
surrounding balcony, and continuous glazing runs along the two long side~ The upper part
of this can be opened, providing 22 glazed vents each 60 cm x 26 cm high on each side.
8.2 Method
Figure 23 shows the position of the test equipmen~ Smoke density meters were secured at
heights of 3.90m ('red'), 2.75m ('blue'), 2.00m('white'), and 0.90m ('green') (Figures 16
and 22).
I
For cold smoke tests, 20 smoke cannisters used for each test were arranged in two groups
of 10, one at each end of the room (Figures 10 and 23). A crib fire used for hot smoke
tests is shown in Fi gure 12.
I
In each cold smoke test, the ventilation procedure was initiated 10 minutes after ignition
of the cannisters, this being several minutes after they had ceased to burn (Section
7.2.1). In the single hot smoke test reported, ventilation was initiated 6 minutes after
an optical density exceeding 3 had been established throughout the room. The fire was
extinguished with water three minutes later. Recorded times were taken as zero at
i ni ti ati on of ventil ati on.
Tests using natural ventilation involved doors (at the east and west corners) and glazed
I
vents (Section 8.1). At commencement of natural ventilation, the doors and vents were
opened speedily commencing at the east corner, and finishing at the north corner. This
was considered by the Fire Officer taking part in the project, to conform to normal Fire
Servi ce practi ce.
For forced ventilation tests, electric fans were chosen for convenience. The type used was
Supervac P164SEZ, SRDB Code No.4 (Table 1), since this had the highest quoted airflow of
those advertised for fire service use. One or two fans were positioned singly in the open
I
doorways at the east and west corners as in Figure 24. In some tests, the fan was fitted
to the door openi ng by a hardboard sheet formi ng a 'baffl e' (Fi gure 25). Ihe fans were
powered from the mains supply to the building through a 110 volt transformer.
I
1. Tsar Marketing, Transformer Safety and Research Co. Lt~, PO Box 91, Swindon, Wilts SN1
3QF - 3KVA 110v transformer, modified to FEU specification.
19
8.3 Resul ts I
A total of 17 cold smoke tests and one hot smoke test is reported.
Table 2 shows the schedule of tests conducted, with temperatures and recorded wind
conditions averaged over the period of ventilation. The wind speed component resolved
perpendicular to the upwind (long) side of the building is tabulated, calculated according
t o Figure 26. Figures 27 and 28 further summarise the ventilation procedures adopted, and
the wind conditions recorded for each tes~
Smoke density measurements are presented graphically in Appendix G. Calculated half

clearance times (Section 7.ll are given in the final column of Table 2.
Figure 29 A- D are comparison graphs given to illustrate the discussion below. They are
derived from the results in Table 2.
8.4 Discussion
8.4.1 Effect of wind speed on natural ventilation.
Tests 5, 8, 9, 11, 18, 19 and 20 used full natural ventilation through doors and windows.
The half clearance times (Section 7.ll for these tests are plotted as ordinate in Figure
29 A.
With any ventilation procedure, both wind direction and speed are importan~ In the
series of tests conducted, wind conditions varied in both direction and speed. To
simplify analysis, the component of wind speed was calculated perpendicular to the long
si des of 'Industrial B' containing the windows and doors which acted as vents. (Section
I
8.3, Figure 26, and Table 2). The assumption is made that this resolved speed can be
regarded to a fi rst approxi mati on as the independent vari ab 1e contro 11 ing the natural
ventilation, and it is plotted as abscissa in Figure 29.
Figure 29 A shows a marked effect of wind speed, the recorded half clearance times falling
from 1.85 mi nutes to 0.40 mi nutes as the resol ved wi nd speed increased from 1.6 to
6.9ms- 1• The effect is most marked at speeds below 4 ms-l. An estimate of the
reproducibility of the experiments can be made from the closeness of the obscured points
to the 'best fit' curve drawn through them,particularly in the case of Tests 8, 9, 19 and
20 which were made at approximately the same resol ved wind speed.
Figure 29 A confirms that wind conditions are important in interpreting the results of the
tests. The 'best fit' curve provides a reference against which to judge the results of
tests conducted with other conditions such as forced ventilation.
8.4.2 Effect of reduced natural ventilation.
Test 21 used natural ventilation through the two doors only. Figure 29 B shows the result
plotted against the 'best fit' curve from Figure 29 A. In this test, the wind direction
was closely parallel to the long sides of the building, so that the resolved wind speed
was zero. Despite this fact, and the reduced area of venting, the half clearance time
recorded is shorter than several others obtained, and the experimental point in Figure 29
B relates only roughly to the 'best fit' curve. Evidently, the simple treatment of
resolved wind speed as the independent variable is inadequate in this case, and no
concl usi on can be drawn.
20
I
8.4.3 Effect of 'hot smoke'.
Test HS3 is the only test with 'hot smoke' reported in Section 8. Natural ventilation was
used.
The plotted point in Figure 29 B is displaced from the natural ventilation curve of Figure
29 A, but the linearity of optical density plotted logarithmically against time is
preserved (Appendix G, Figure G18), and the four plots taken at different heights lie
close together, as with the cold smoke tests.
Hence it may be concluded that the behaviour in clearance of 'hot smoke' is generally
similar to that of 'cold smoke'.
8.4.4 Effect of additional forced ventilation using one or two extractor fans.
I
In tests 7 and 13 a fan was positioned in the upwind doorway at the west corner to inject
air. In tests 10 and 15 a fan was positioned in the downwind doorway at the east corner
to extract. In test 16 two fans were used, one at the west to inject, one at the east to
extract. This forced ventilation was in addition to full natural ventilation. Figure 29
C shows the clearance times obtained plotted against the natural ventilation curve from
I
Figure 29 A. The effect of the fans is not significant compared with the natural
venti 1ati on, but there is some suggesti on that the use of a fan to extract may be more
effective than using it to inject. Thi s may be due to turbulence produced within the room
when injecting air at high velocity. Again, the fan operating to extract in the downwind
doorway is partly shielded from the prevailing wind, and so may have more effect than a
fan used to inject at the upwi nd door.
I
The single test (16) performed with two fans shows no improvement over the use of a single
fan to extract.
I
Visual observations during the tests showed local improvements in visibility were achieved
when a fan was used to inject air.
8.4.5 Effect of baffling the fans.
I
In tests 6, 12, and 14, a single fan was used, fitted to the door opening by a baffle. In
test 17 two fans were used in this way to inject and to extract. The results are plotted
in Figure 29 D against the natural ventilation curve of Figure 29 A. There is no overall
improvement over the use of unbaffled fans, though again there is a suggestion that a fan
used to extract is more effective than one used to inject.
I
Reference 17 recommends the use of baffles to prevent turbulence in the air and smoke, and
to prevent smoke re-entering the room after extraction. This recommendation is not borne
out in the conditions of the tests, but this negative result can be explained by the
domination of the effects of natural ventilation.
21
8.5 Conclusions.
Under the conditions of the tests:
(il Natural ventilation depended strongly on wind spe d, although only a small
I
1
improvement occured after the wi nd speed exceeded 4 ms- .
(iil 'Hot smoke' tJehaved similarly to 'cold smoke'.
(ilil The use of extractor fans to supplement natural ventilation gave no significant
general advantage. The effect of natural ventilation dominate~
Test conditions did not permit the relative advantages of using a fan to inject or to
extract to tJe estatJ1ished, nor did they enatJ1e the effect of tJaff1es, or of variations in
the positioning of fans in doorways, to De estatJ1ished
22
I
9. TESTS OF SMOKE CLEARANCE PROCEDURES IN 'INDUSTRIAL B' BUILDING BASEMENT.
As indicated in Section 2, the basement of 'Industrial B' building was used to represent
I
an operational situation where natural venti 1ation is absent or very 1imited, so that
extraction equipment might be expected to have significant effect.
The basement is a relatively small room 5.8m x 6.3m x 2.6m high under the west corner of
'Industrial B' (Figure 21). Figure 30 shows the floor plan and an elevation.
Along the south west side there are sealed pavement lights, and in the building face above
these are three ventil ating panel s. For the purposes of the tests, two of these were
permanently sealed, leaving one effective vent 0.55m x O.87m close to the west corner of
I
the room (Fi gure 31). Near the south corner of the room, a doorway 1.2m x 2.6m connects
with the stairs leading up to ground level . In the absence of a door, a plywood sheet was
fitted to the doorframe for the purposes of the tests. Two circular 'shutters' in this,
I
eachO.42m diameter, could be opened to provide natural ventilation (Figure 32). When a
fan was used in the doorway, it was placed against the lower shutter, the upper shutter
remaining closed.
9.2 Method
I
Figure 30 shows the position of test equipment. The 'red', 'blue' and 'White' smoke
density meters were at heights of 2.50 m, 1.95 m, and 1.20 m respectively, supported on
plank trestles (Figures 11 and 17).
For cold smoke tests, a group of 5 smoke canisters was used, located centrally in the
room. A crib fire used for the 'hot smoke' tests is shown in Figures 11 and 12.
As described in Section 8.2, in cold smoke tests the ventilation procedure was initiated
10 minutes after ignition of the canisters, this being several minutes after they had
ceased to burn (Section 7.2.1). Similarly, in the hot smoke tests, ventilation was again
initiated after 6 minutes at an optical density exceeding 3 throughout the room. The 'hot
smoke' fires were extinguished with water from a hosereel played through the open vent,
the timing being as noted on the graphs of Appendi x H. Recorded times were taken as zero
at initiation of ventilation.
In tests using natural ventilation, various combinations of the top vent and the plywood
'door' shutters were used (Section 9.1l. For the tests of forced ventilation, one or two
electric fans, SRDB Code No 4, Supervac P164 SEZ (Table 1) were used, as in Secton 8.2.
When a fan was arranged to extract, ducting was generally used. In some tests semi-rigid
neoprene ducting was used on the inlet side of the fan, in others layflat polythene
ducting was used on the exhaust side to avoid smoke logging the staircase. A 3 m length of
semi-rigid ducting was used, and a 15m length of layflat polythene.
9.3 Results
I
A total of 9 cold smoke and 5 hot smoke tests are reported. Table 3 gives details of the
tests with recorded temperatures. The figures given for wind conditions are averages
taken over the period of ventilation. The wind speed component resolved perpendicular to
the vented (south west) end of the building is calculated according to Figure 26 and
tabulated.
I
23
Figures 33 and 34 further illustrate the ventilation procedures adopted, and the wind
conditions recorded for each test. ·
The smoke density measurements taken are given in full in Appendix H. The calculated
half-clearance times (Section 7.1) are given in the final column of Table 3.
I
Figure 35 is a comparison graph which reproduces results from Appendix H. For cold smoke
tests it compares natural ventilation with the effects of one or two fans.
9.4 Discussion
9.4.1 Natural Ventilation
Tests 23, 27 and HS4. were conducted with natural ventilaton and show very long clearance
times, indicative of the very limited effect of the top ventilator.
9.4.2 Effect of wind speed.
The resolved wind speeds varied from positive to negative (Table 3). A positive wind I
speed indicates a component entering the upper vent, a negative speed means that the
building shielded the vent from the direct action of the wind, although smoke, once
extracted, would be dispersed by the wind.
Tests 26 and 28 were made with the same fan configuration but with resolved wind speeds of
opposite si~ They gave very similar results. Similarly, tests 30 and HSB each used two
fans, but in opposite senses in the two tests. Despite the fact that both tests had
negative resolved wind speeds, the results for half-clearance times are similar to each
other. I
The sma11 effect of the wind speed may be partly expl ai ned by the fact that the door
communicated via the stairs to the same building face as the upper vent (Section 9.1), so
giving a balancing effect.
9.4.3 Forced ventilation I
9.4.3 (i) 'Cold smoke' tests
The initial horizontal plateau in the smoke density curves is a consequence of the high
initial smoke density obtained, and the poor reading accuracy of the smoke density meters
at optical density approaching 3.0 (see Appendix Fl. Hence the discussion conducted in
terms of the constant slope of the main point of the curves, representing the half
clearance time (Section 7.11.
9.4.3 (ii) 'Hot smoke' tests
Some difficulty was experienced in controlling the smoke densities produced by the fires.
Extinction of the fires with water produced steam, which in some cases, gave a momentary
increase in optical density. Most tests showed a decrease in optical density after
commencing clearance, followed by a plateau which is normally terminated when the fire is
exti ngui shed. The pl ateau evi dently represents an equil ibri urn between smoke production
and extraction. After the plateau, a clearance curve of constant slope follows, and this
I
is used to calculate the half-clearance times.
I
24
I With the above proviso, the 'hot smoke'

plotted logarithmically against time,
curves preserve the linearity of optical density
and the plots of optical density at different
heights lie close together, as with the 'cold smoke' tests. The behaviour in clearance of
'hot smoke' is generally similar to that of 'cold smoke' in these tests.
The use of a single fan, in whatever configuration, produces a very significant

improvement exceeding a factor of 5 in half clearance time over natural ventilation, and
the use of two fans produces a further improvemenL
Some improvement is produced even while the fire, albeit a small fire, is burning.
9.5 Conclusions.
Under the conditions of the tests, the follOWing results were obtained:
I (i) Natural ventilation in the test room gave very slow clearance.
I (i;) The wind speed had little effect on conditions in the test room, whether fans
were in use or not.
I
(iii) The clearance behaviour of 'hot smoke' and 'cold smoke' was similar.
(iv) The use of fans gave very significant improvement in clearance over natural
ventilation.
(v) Two fans, one to inject, one to extract, gave rather better results than a
single fan.
However, it should be noted that the relative merits of various configurations using a
I single fan for clearance were not establishe~
I
25
10. MEASUREMENT OF FAN PERFORMANCE.
10.1 Measurements of air movement patterns.
Simple prel iminary measurements of the performance of each type of fan were made at FEU
using a small vane-type anemometer1 as a probe to explore the pattern of air movement.
These measurements have proved difficult to interpret, and are not presented. The tests
I
did, however, provide an initial assessment of the relative effectiveness of the fans.
10. 2 Measurement of performance using methods of British Standard.
As indica~ed in Section 2, more comprehensive measurements of fan performance by a

contractor are in hand, using the methods of a British Standard on fan testing (Reference
2) •
10.3 Comparative tests of fans in smoke clearance in 'Industrial B' Building Basement.
10.3.1 General.
Sections Band 9 describe tests of smoke clearance in 'Industrial B' building designed to
examine different procedures, using two identical electrically powered fans, SRDB Code No
4 (Table 1l.
The methods described in Section 9 were also used to compare the performance of the
various extractors listed in Table I, SRDB Codes 1 to 6.
10.3.2 Method.
I
The method followed the description of Sections 9.1 and 9.2, with the follOWing conditions.
The tests used cold smoke provided by a group of four canisters.
Each fan in turn was positioned in the doorway of the basement to extract from the lower
shutter in the plywood panel (Section 9.ll, the upper shutter being closed. the larger
fans requi red the i mprovi sed use of polythene sheeti ng to connect them to the shutter
(Figure 36). The exhaust smoke from thEJ fan was lead up the stairs and out to air through
ISm, of I.Bm 1ayfl at polythene ducting (Fi gure 37). The top vent of the basement was open
in all tests.
A modified procedure was used for the Aneti Exractor , SRDB Code No. 6 (Table ll, which
operates by entrainment of gases in water. The exhaust from the extractor contains the
pumped water supply, and so must lead to waste suitably, if water damage is to be avoided.
The Extractor was positioned outside the building (Figure 3B) the semi-rigid inlet ducting
leading through the open top vent. The two shutters in the basement door were open.
1. Airflow Developments Ltd., Lancaster Rd., High Wycambe, Bucks.
2. South Western Industrial Research Ltd.(SWIRLl, University of Bath, Claverton Down, Bath
BA2 7AY.
3. Layflat polythene ducting ordering size corresponds to half the circumference of the
expanded ducti ng.
26 I
Opportunity was taken during these tests to assess the operational handling of the various
extractors. Results are given in Section 11 below.
10.3.3. Results.
I The resu1 ts for the 12 'col d smoke' tests conducted are gi ven in Appendi x J. Tab1 e 4
summarises the tests, and tabulates the half-clearance times obtained (Section 7).
10.3.4 Discussion.
In Figure 39 the reciprocal of the mean half-clearance time obtained from each fan is
I plotted agai nst the manufacturers' quoted a i rf1 ow taken from Table 1. Si mp1e theory
suggests that these points should lie on a straight line through the origin. The Woods
fan, SRDB Code No. 5, had performance well exceedi ng thi s cri teri on, .and the Angus Turbex,
SRDB Code No 2, fell short oJ it. This suggests that practical performance cannot be
predicted from the manufacturers' quoted airflow. A possible reason for this may be that
test conditions applying to the manufacturers' figures are not standardised. The work
I being undertaken by SWIRL (Section 2) should supply standardised test results to clarify
thi s point.
The most effective extractor was the Compact Generator, SRDB Code No.l, and the most
effective electrically driven fan was the Woods, SRDB Code No.5.
The results obtained apply specifically only to the particular test conditions used, but
these are considered to be representative of operational use.
I
27
11. HANDLING CHARACTERISTICS OF EXTRACTORS.
11. 1 Observations from comparative extraction tests.
Dur ing the large-scale comparative tests in 'Industrial B' Basement (Section 10.3)
observations of the handling characteristics of the smoke extraction equipment were made
i n circumstances similar to these encountered in fire brigade operations.
The observations are detailed below:
(i) SROB Code No I, COMPACT HIGH EXPANSION FOAM GENERATOR

This was easy to manoeuvre with two persons.
Problems occurred in deployment due to the positions of the water inlet and
outlet couplings on the casing. When used with polythene exhaust ducting the
outlet hose had to be threaded through the ducting, this was time consuming.
The inlet hose had to enter the generator from the smoke filled area. At the
end of the test the water from the hoses drained into the basement when they
were uncoupled, causing a potential risk of water damage.
I
(ii) SROB Code No.2, TURBEX MKII HIGH EXPANSION FOAM GENERATOR
This was difficult to manoeuvre even with two persons due to the weight and
size of the Turbex. It was the heaviest of all models teste~
There were problems in deployment due to Iack of manoeuvreabi I i ty and the
necessary connection of the inlet and outlet hoses, although this was easier
than the Compact Generator above.
Water was sprayed out of the foam-making jets during the course of the tes~
Again, on making up, water from the hoses drained out of the couplings causing
a potential risk of water damage.
(iii) SROB Code No.3, SUPERVAC PI64 SE
This was easy to manoeuvre by one person and qui ckly deployed.
There were no problems encountered in use.
(iv) SROB Code No.4, SUPERVAC PI64 SEZ

This was easy to manoeuvre with two persons, and could indeed be manoeuvred
single hande~
Vibration in operation caused two screws to fallout from the safety grill on
the inlet side of the fan. This caused increased noise and reduced the safety
functi on of the gri 11.
(v) SRDB Code No.5, WOODS AEROFOIL L TYPE

This was difficult to manoeuvre due to the position and size of the handles.
It was second heaviest of all mOdels tested, and required two persons to
carry. Nevertheless it was qui ck ly deployed and no problems were encountered
in use. I
(vi) SROB Code No.6, ANETI EXTRACTOR
The extractor was easy to manoeuvre single handed and it was quickly deployed.
Lack of instructions meant that the optimum operating water pressure was
unknown. This was determined by preliminary experiments (7 bar was used).
Water was sprayed about 5m, with the potential of causing serious water
damage.
28
12. ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS.
Tests were carried out on the fans that had been purchased by the FEU to measure the
running current and the starting current surge.
12.1 Method.
The fan under test was powered via a nov transformer from 240v a.c. mains, as described
in Section 8. A moving-coil meter1 with a shunt2 to enable high currents to be measured
was connected in series between the fan and transformer. A second method of current
measurement was also adopted using a clamp meter3 around one current conductor of the fan
cable. Suitable safety precautions were taken in performing these electrical tests.
The surge and running currents were measured and an estimate made of the duration of the
surge current.
12.2 Results.
The results are given in Table 6.
12.3 Discussion.
The Supervac fans (SRDB Code Nos. 3 and 4) and in particular the high speet P164SEZ had
very high surge currents. Even the steacjy running current for these fans was higher than
the starting current for the Woods fan (SRDB Code No 5) which has relatively low starting
and running currents.
I In arranging to run a fan from a portable generator (or otherwise), it is important to
check provision for starting surges as well as running currents. This is confirmed by the
I experience of Merseyside Fire Brigade (Section 5.3.2) who found such modification
necessary when using a Supervac fan.
1. AVO Ltd., Dover. - AVO Model 8 Multimeter.
2. AVO Ltd., Dover. - AVO current ratio transformer.
3. AVO Ltd., Dover. - AVO clamp meter CA-25.
4. The maker's figure for the P164SEZ is 2860 rpm, and for the Pl64SE 1725 rpm.
29
13. DISCUSSION.
Study of the literature has revealed many references to smoke production and movement but
li ttle of direct relevance to clearance of smoke in brigade operations. The relevant
references are di scussed in Secti ons 3 and 4 of thi s report. Thi s stuqy together wi th
df scussi ons with FRS, Salvage Corps and representati ve bri gades is consi dered to have
adequately explored exi sting experti se in the fi el d of smoke extraction for fi refighti ng
purposes .
Because no two firefighting situations are the same, a clear definition of the operational
requirement is difficult to produce. However, from the present work carried out by the
FEU, general guidel ines might be formulated which apply to many common situations. These
guidelines might then be adapted as required
Cl earance of smoke can be commenced duri ng fi refi ghti ng operati ons or at a 1ater stage
when the fire has been extinguished, that is during salvage operations. It is difficult to
simulate a repeatable a firefighting situation and the tests carried out by the FEU
relate more di rectly to salvage operati ons than to fi refi ghti ng operati ons. In Li verpoo 1
and London, when the Salvage Corps were in attendance, it was often practice to commence
forced ventilation during firefighting. Early use improves visibility, so facilitating
firefighting operations, as well as limiting smoke damage.
This report considers the use of extractors of a physical size which enables them to be
carried on firefighting appl iances, perhaps first-l ine appl iances. The size of buildings
cons i dered and used in the experi ments may be descri bed as 'medi um- si ze i ndustri a 1
premises' •
In all but very small fires portable extractors will not remove smoke at the rate at which
it is being produced although extraction may produce a local improvement. However, the
tests carried out indicate that smoke extractors can make a useful contribution in
cl earing smoke logging. They are advantageous in all except cross-ventil ation situations
with high wind conditions, where there may be only marginal benefits. Where natural
ventilation is restricted, the use of extractors has a marked effect. Other appl ications
of extraction equipment such as the removal of toxic or flammable atmospheres and the
provlslon of fresh air, were not directly evaluated However, results obtained in this
seri es of tests are relevant.
As discussed earlier in this report, a major problem with full-scale tests is the
variability of wind conditions, which have a significant effect on ventilation. To make
further progress without being dependent on the weather, an extensive test facility would
be required. A more precise test programme could be designed and carried out. It is
doubtfu 1 however if the tacti ca 1 advi ce that could be gi ven to the fi re servi ce after a
lengthy test programme would be significantly more than that which can be given at the
present time. However, information could usefully be obtained by further work on the
performance of indivdual extractors, and factors such as the effect of ducting.
A number of factors govern the choice of the type of extractor. With electrical fans, a
generator is required which must be able to withstand the current surge on switching on.
The advantages of electrical power 1ie in the ease of deployment and absence of water
damage when compared with water driven fans. Water driven fans require only a pump for
power, but the time spent in laying hose must be considered Water damage which may result
as a consequence of their use should be taken into account. Water driven fans may have the
advantage of being dual-purpose equipment since they are often designed to function also
as high expansion foam generators. This type of equipment can withstand hot gases by
30
using the internal water sprays but with increased risk of water damage. Water-driven
equipment is intrinsically safe for use in flammable atmospheres.
I Criteria for commencing forced ventilation should follow the instructions given in the
Manual of Firemanship (Reference 1) for natural ventilation. The advice is to ventilate as
early as is practicable but warning is given that fire spread and flashover can occur as
a resul t.
31
14. SUGGESTED GUIDELINES ON THE USE OF SMOKE EXTRACTORS
The limited number of discussions with brigade personnel indicated that there was a need
for training in the effective use of smoke extractors including the best use of ducting.
This section suggests guidelines for training purposes based on experiences gained during
this project. However, further work would be required in order to produce more
authoritative advice.
Forced ventilation should only be commenced if it is deemed safe to commence natural

ventilation. The criteria for the commencement of natural ventilation are gi ven in the
Manual of Firemanship Book 12.
ONE EXTRACTOR I
1. Ensure that there is an inlet for fresh air, if possible other than the opening for the
fan.
2. Decide whether conditions favour extracting smoke or injecting fresh air with the fan.
This will depend on the positions of openings and the wind direction.
3. Position the fan in such a way as to emphasise the wind direction, as below:
~Wind
inject air t Fan
4. Where possible, when extracting smoke, pOSition the fan at the top of the opening.
Doorbars can be used for suspending fans in doorways. In these instances the fresh air
inlet should be low down if possible.
5. If the fan is to be used to inject air, it should be positioned at the bottom of the
opening. Outlets for the smoke should be made at a higher level.
6. The use of trunking will be found helpful where external openings are a distance from
the fi re, or where openi ngs, such as basement vents, are not 1arge enough for the fan.
Semi-rigid ducting should be used on the inlet side of the fan whereas layflat polythene
ducting may be used on the outl et si de.
TWO EXTRACTORS
1. If smoke has to be moved a long way eg through a building, it is best to use a long
length of layflat ducting on the outlet of one fan and use the second fan to blow fresh
air in. The use of two fans linked in series with ducting is likely to be unsuccessful in
a practical situation.
2. Both fans may be used to extract smoke. In this case sufficient inlets for fresh air
should be provided. The fans should be positioned at the top of openings.
3. Both fans may be used to inject fresh air. These should be placed at a low level and
sufficient high level outlets provided for the smoke.
32 I
I 4. One fan may be used to inject fresh air (at a low level) whilst the second fan
extracts smoke from a high level. This is probably the best arrangement where openings are
limited.
33
15. CONCLUSIONS
Smoke extraction equipment of a size practicable for carrying on fire appliances can have
a significant effect in clearing smoke logged buildings where natural ventilation is poor
for structural reasons, or wind speeds are low. Smoke extractors of practicable size will
not keep pace with smoke output of any but the smallest fires, howeve~
For fire service use, electrically or water-powered fans are appropriate. Electric fans
have the advantage of easy deployment. Water powered fans ma,y take the form of dual
purpose equipment, functioning al so as hi gh-expansion foam generators and avoi d the use
of electric power in flammable atmospheres.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Acknowledgements are made to staff of the Fire Experimental Unit, and to the Commandant of
the Fire Service College for permission to make use of fireground facilities.
34
1.
I 2.
Manual of Firemanship: Book 12 - Practical Firemanship 11, London, HMSO (1983).
British Standards Institution, BS 848: Part 1: 1980, 'Fans for general purposes:
Methods of testing performance'.
3. Colt International, CI/SfB 1976 (57.71(K23), Leaflet 14 - 'Automatic Fire

Ventilation' •
4. Alden J.L., 'Design of Industrial Exhaust Systems', New York, The Industrial Press
(1959).
5. Os borne W.C., Turner C.G., 'Woods Practical Guide to Fan Engineering', Colchester,
Bentham & Co. Ltd. (1961l.
6. Rasbash, D.J., 'Notes on the use of smoke extractors for firefighting', Fire
Research Note No. 772 (1969), Fire Research Station, Borehamwood.
7. Sykes F., 'Smoke Flow in Buildings' - SRC grant final report (June 1981), Leeds
PolytechniC School of Architecture.
8. Shipp M.P., 'Smoke movement in a multicompartment building: initial experiments to

test a computer program using a full-scale building' Building Research Establishment
Note No. N37/80 (1980), Fi re Research Stati on, Borehamwood.
I 9. Bush R.S., 'An Assessment of the use of Smoke Extraction Methods and Equipment for
use by U.K. Fire Brigades', MSc Dissertation (1981). University of Edinburgh.
10. Butcher E.G., Parnell A.C., Smoke Control in Fire Safety Design, London, E & F.N.
Spon Ltd. (1979).
11. Jin T., 'Visibility through fire smoke Parts 1 and 2', Report No. 30 (March 1970) &
Report No. 33 (February 1971), Building Research Institute, Tokyo, Japan.
12. Mal hotra H.L., 'Movement of smoke on escape routes, ; nstrumentation and effect of
smoke on visibility. Parts 1, 2 and 3'. Fire Research Notes Nos. 651, 652 & 653
(1979), Fire Research Station, Borehamwood.
13. Rasbash D.J., 'Efficiency of hand lamps in smoke', Institute Fire Engineers
Quarterly 11., 46. (1951).
14. NFPA Standard No. 19 - National Fire Protection Association, Batterymarch Park,
Quincy, MA 02269, US~
15. Revue Technique de Feu (in French) ~. 25-30 (1965).
I 16. Faisishonko~, 'Smoke exhausting fans in firefighting'.

(1966). (j n Russi an, the FEU has a transl ati on).
POZH DELO Mosk. 12, 26
17. Super Vacuum Manufacturing Co. Inc., 'Supervac drill manual and operating
instructions for smoke ejectors'. Colorado (1972).
TABLE 1 - EXTRACT~ PURCHAS£D BY FEU Fm l£STS.
SRDB TYPE MANUFACTURER/SUPPLIER DIMENSIONS FAN WEIGHT QUOTED POWER QUOTED AIRFLOW APPROX. COST TO
CODE Width x Height x Depth DIAMETER REQUIREMENT FEU EXC. VAT
No. mm mm kg nfmin- 1 £
1 'Compact' Symtol Engineering Ltd. 670 x 600 x 350 555 29 Water power 300 at 7 bar 995.00
High-expansion foam Unit 9A. Blyth Ind.Est. 314 lpm water pressure
generator. Blyth. Northumberland. at 7 bar
2 Turbex Mark II Angus Fire Armour Ltd. 885 x 910 x 470 605 55 Water power 285 at 7 bar 2182.20
High-expansion foam Thame Park Rd •• Thame. Wheels increase width 225 lpm water pressure
generator. to 1095nm at 7 bar
3 Superyac P164SE
Dale Emergency Products 482 x 485 x 370 398 24 nOy 60Hz 122 485.00
(16 inch)
Ltd. Faraday House. a.c. 0.3kW
Eastfield. Scarborough.
4 Superyac P164SEZ
Dale Emergency Products 477 x 485 x 435 400 33 nOy 50Hz 233 625.00
(16 inch)
Ltd. Faraday House. a.c. 1.5kW
Eastfield. Scarborough.
5 Woods Aerofoi 1
Woods of Colchester Ltd 600 x 680 x 535 481 47 nOy 50Hz 125 637.00
L-type (19 inch)
Tufnell Way. Colchester a.c. 0.7kW
Essex.
6 Aneti Ventilator- A. Dubois &Co •• Rue de 317 x 490 x 1630 20 Water power 90 at 8 bar 595.00
ejector la Plaine. 75020. Paris. 262 lpm water pressure ( import
at 8 bar price)
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-- TABlE 2 - TESTS
-
(F 5MJ(£
-- -
CLEARAt«:E PROCEOlIlES IN 'ItlJUSTRIAl 8' BUILDII«i. FIRST Fltm.
- -
FAN USED TO FAN USED TO WINDOWS DOORS WINO COND ITI ONS 1EMPERATURE HALF
I~ECT EXTRACT CLEARANCE
Test No.! Date of Without With Without With Open Open Direction 2 Speed3 External Peak 4 TII'£5
test baffle baffle baffle baffle Total Resolved Internal
degrees ms-I ms-I DC DC minutes
5 16/12/82 X X 235 5.0 2.1 4.0 9.5 0.793
6 16/12/82 X X X 275 3.5 3.2 4.5 9.0 0.986
7 16/12/82 X X X 260 6.0 4.6 4.0 9.0 0.736
8 16/12/82 X X 260 9.0 6.9 5.0 8.0 0.407
9 16/12/82 X X 255 8.0 5.7 4.5 8.0 0.500
10 16/12/82 X X X 260 7.5 5.7 3.0 6.0 0.364
11 17/12/82 X X 250 2.5 1.6 1.0 8.0 1.850
12 17/12/82 X X X 270 5.0 4.3 1.5 4.0 1.275
13 17/12/82 X X X 270 4.0 3.5 2.0 5.0 0.886
14 17/12/82 X X X 265 5.0 4.1 2.0 7.0 0.700
15 17/12/82 X X X 280 5.5 5.2 2.5 7.0 0.700

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1. Tests 5 - 21 used 'cold smoke', test HS3 used 'hot smoke'.
2. Awind from the North is represented as 0 degrees, from the East as 90 degrees, from the West as 270 degrees.
3. See Section 8.4.1 and Figure 34.
4. Highest temperature reached at ceiling height. TABLE 2: 1 of 2
5. See Section 7.1
TABLE 2 - TESTS ~ ~ QEARANCE PROCEIJtIlES IN 'IIIJUSTRIAL 8' BUILDUli. FIRST A.Offi.
FAN USED TO FAN USED TO WINDOWS DOORS WIND CONDITIONS TEMPERATURE HALF
INJECT EXTRACT CLEARANCE
Test No.! Date of Without With Without With Open Open Direction 2 Speed3 External Peak 4 TIME 5
test baffl e baffle baffle baffle Total Resolved Internal
degrees ms-I ms- 1 DC DC minutes
16 17/12/82 X X X X 255 7.0 4.9 3.5 7.5 0.636
17 17/12/82 X X X X 240 2.0 1.0 3.0 5.0 1.929
18 10/01/83 X X 235 7.0 3.0 9.0 12.0 0.964
19 10/01/83 X X 245 10.0 5.7 9.5 10.0 0.486
20 10/01/83 X X 250 10.0 6.4 9.0 12.5 0.500
21 11/01/83 X 210 7.0 0.0 9.0 12.5 1.429
HS3 10/01/83 X X 250 8.0 5.1 9.8 52.0 0.850
1. Tests 5 - 21 used 'cold smoke', test HS3 used 'hot smoke'.

2. A wind from the North is represented as 0 degrees, from the East as 90 degrees, from the West as 270 degrees.
4. Highest temperature reached at ceiling height. TABLE 2: 2 of 2
5. See Section 7.1
IiiI
- -- - TNllE 3 - TESTS (F SKI([
-- -
ClEARAI«:E I'ROCEIJmES IN 'ItlJUSTRIAl B' BUILDIt«i. BASD£MT.
--
TOP VENT DOOR COVER WIND CONDITIONS TEMPERATURE HALF
CLEARA~E
Test No. 1 Date of FAN USED TO FAN USED TO Dfrectfon 2 Speed3 External Peak 4 TIME
test OPEN mJECT EXTRACT OPEN mJECT EXTRACT Total Resolved Internal
degrees ms- 1 ms-1 °c °c minutes
23 2/ 02 /83 X 240 2.75 2.38 15.00
24 2/02/83 X6 240 3.50 3.03 1.43
25 2/02/83 X6 X 250 4.50 3.44 1.22
26 2/02/83 X X 270 7.00 3.50 1.17
27 2/02/83 X 275 7.50 3.17 7.50
28 3/02/83 X X 5 4.5 -4.10 1.03
29 3/02 /83 X X7 5 4.25 -3.80 1.03
30 3/02/83 X X7 10 4.50 -4.20 0.93
1. Tests 23 - 30 used 'cold smoke'.

2. ~ wind from the North is represented as 0 degrees, from the East as 90 degrees, from the West as 270 degrees.
4. Highest temperature reached at ceiling height.
5. See Section 7.1.
6. Tests performed with 3m of semi-rigid ducting on the inlet side of the fan.
7. Lqyflat polythene ducting on the exhaust side of the fan. TABLf 3: 1 of 2
TABlE 3 - TESTS (F SKJ<E ClEJlRJlJ«:E PROCEDURES IN •IIIlUSTRIAl BI BUIlDIIIi. BI\SOENT.
- ----- ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ -------------------------------~--------

TOP VENT DOOR COVER WIND CONDITIONS TEMPERATURE HAlF
CLEARANCE
Test No. 1 Date of FAN USED TO FAN USED TO Direction 2 speecf External Peak4 TIMES
test OPEN WJECT EXTRACT OPEN WJECT EXTRACT Total Resolved Internal
degrees ms-I ms-I ·C ·C minutes
HS4 3/03/83 X X7 205 4.00 3.98 36.2 17.00
HS5 3/ 03 /83 X6 205 4.00 3.98 80.0 2.46
HS6 4/03/83 X6 X 70 2.00 -1.50 2.37
HS7 4/03/83 X 65 2.00 -2.30 1.60
HS8 4/03/83 X X 70 1.50 -1.10 1.00
1. Tests HS4 - HSS used 'hot smoke'.
2. Awind from the North is represented as 0 degrees, from the East as 90 degrees, from the West as 270 degrees.
4. Highest temperature reached at ceiling height.
5. See Section 7.1.
6. Tests performed with 3m of semi-rigid ducting on the inlet side of the fan.
7. Opened 15 minutes into the test to try to improve the airflow. TABlE 3: 2 of 2
TA8I..E 4 - C(JIIARATIVE EXTRKTIIJI TII£S HR EXTRACTIRS PlIROIASEIJ BY FEU.
I ------------------------------------------------------------------------.----
TEST EXTRACTOR SRDB HALF CLEARANCE r.£AN HALF
CODE No. TIME CLEARANCE TIME
minutes minutes
-----------------.-----------------------------------------------------------
C8 Compact Generator 1 0.68 0.72
C9 Compact Generator 1 0.75
C10 Angus Turbe)( 2 1.57 1.55

I C11 Angus Turbe)( 2 1.53
I C4
CS
Supervac Pl64 SE
Supervac P164 SE
3
3
1.92
1.88
1.90
I Cl Supervac P164 SEZ 4 1.22

C2 Supervac Pl64 SEZ 4 0.99 1.08
C3 Supervac P164 SEZ 4 1.04
I C6
C7
Woods Aerofoil
Woods Aerofoil
5
5
0.90
0.80
0.85
C12 Aneti 6 3.32 3.32
I
I
I
I
I
TABLE 5 - SIAiE NI) RlNIII«i CURRENTS FOO FANS PURCHASED BY TI£ FEll.
SRDB CODE FAN MEASUREMENT SURGE RUNNING DURATION

No. DEVICE CURRENT CURRENT OF SURGE
A A 5
3 Supervac Movi ng-coil meter 25 7 1

Pl64SE Clampmeter 25 7
4 Supervac Movi ng-coi 1 meter 56 19 10

Specimen 1 Pl64SEZ Clampmeter 62 20
4 Supervac Movi ng-coil meter 58 18 10
Specimen 2 P164SEZ Clampmeter 63 20
5 Vloods Movi n9-coi 1 meter 19 6 5

Aerofoil Clampmeter 19 6
L-type
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
I
Smoke
l ayer
I
y
Heigh t o f -------
c lear layer
Flames It)
smoke plume
Solid fue l decomposing .
glvlIlg off flammabl e vapour s
I
Fi!J.Ire 1
Proctlction of SIIIlke in a fire.
From 'Smoke Control in Fire Safety Design'. E.G. Butler and A.C. Parnell. E. &F.N. Spon.
100
50 +------'
20 •Rasbash
+Malhotra
I 10 ----Jin
Range of J',n's results
5
E
~ 2
:0
' iij
:;;
1,0
0 ,2 +--+--+--+- + - -+--+--+------'
0'1 +-+--+--+--+----4 ---11---+---1-----"'1
0,01 0·02 0·05 0,I 0·2 0'5 1·0 2,0 5'0 10·0
Optical densily (per metre smoke th ickness)
~rison of published visibili1;y measul"l!Ellts.

From 'Smoke Control in Fire Safety Design ' . E.G. Butler and A.C. Parnell. E. &F.N. Spon.
Fi!Jln! 3
COL B3 SIroke Extractor SRBD Code No.I C~act Generator.
Fi!Jln! 4
I
COL B12 SIroke Extractor SRD8 Code "0.2 An!JlS Turbex.
Smoke Extractor SRD8 Code No.3 : Supervac Pl64 SE.
I Fi!Jlre 6
COL BB Smoke Extractor SRIJB Code No.4 : Supervac Pl64 SEZ.
Figure 7
COL 139 SnIIIc.e Extractor SROIl Code No.6 : Woods Aerofoil Fan.
I
Figure 8
COL B6 SnIIIc.e Extractor SRDB Code No.7 Aneti Extractor.
Ff~re 9
COL A6 Smoke extraction equipment - comparison of sizes.
I Fi~re
5/58/83
10
Pyrotechnic SIOOke canisters in sand tray.
I
I
I
I
I
Figure 11
$/226/83 Flreload of crib for hot SIOOke tests. (. Inwstrlal B' basement)
Ff~re 12
S/77 /83 Crib fire burning. (. I nwstrial B'. first floor)
I
I
Fi!JIre 13
C/432/82 Mobile laboratory adjacent to ' Inlllstrial B' Building.
Fi!JIre 14
COL pS SnIlke density meter - projector! receiver unit.
I
I
I
I
FI~re 15
5/193/84 Ultra violet chart recorder.
I
I
Figure 16
e/27/83 Scaffo1di ng toiler wf tit SlIde dens i ty llleters.
Ff!J.Ire 17
5/695/83 AdjusUlble planlc trestles with SIIIlke density meters.
Figure 18
5/99/83 Visbility IOOnitoring rig with video Calrerd.
.. I t
\
I Ffgure 19
5/681/83 Wfnd station.
I
Figure 20
5/191/84
Wind station displ~ unit and chart recorder.
I
I
I Figure 21
e/135/84 'Industrial B' building froM the west.
Figure 22
e 5/109/83 'Industrial B' building, first noor interior.
.
I
- -
- -
W
~N
-....,
~ E
~
N
®
Visibility
• • • • • • •
meas.u ring equipment
... 14
-.'"
<:>
~
'"
:: 3
-.
~ ~
9.2m
Up /,-- r---- b
_._ . _ ., 3 ._
~
10
-g§. I - '- '---'. I. ®
-
'" '"J.
:t...... I I
o '"
~ ....
o- ;, '" ~.I 112 i
8 I
I
I
I se AL E
~g-
'" 0
........-.
1 i I I 1 : 100
-..
~~.
..
"'Cl
~~ ,I
-
~------------- 21 .8 m
~~....
::!l Smoke density metering uni ts Video (amera
8 1. ' Red' - height 3.90 m ® Position of smoke (anisters
.'" 2 . ' Blue' - height 2.75 m
3. 'White' - height 2,00 m 2,Om high partitions
4. 'Green' - height 0, 90 m
Total volume of room = 880 m3

I
I Figure 24
C/460/82 Fan positioned in doonoray. first noor.
Figure 25
S/15/83 Fan and bafne in doorway, first noor.
N
I (First floor, windows
and doors)
'I NDUSTRIAL B' BUILDING

IJ N
I ( Basement,
vents)
w
I
u = wind speed } measured 100m

a= wind direction from the building
v= r esolved wind speed perpendicular to
first floor windows and doors
w= resolved wind speed perpendicular to
basement vents
b = a - 210°
v = u sin b
w=u cosb
I
Figure 26
Resolution of wind velocity.
I
X
Ii'
--
eet
-------.
~235
Test 5 Test 6
Inj ect
J,----. 270·
Test 13
ri-=- in dicates that the door was baffled for the test
Diagrams of wind direction and speed in ventilation operations

Tests 5 - 13.
.
Test 14 \ 265·
Test 15
\ 280
~
5 ,S ms- 1
~
5 , 0 ms- 1
Extract Extract
Inject Inject
~ -~-
.
I Test 16
~ 255
Te st 17
~ 240·
7,0 ms 1 2,Oms- 1

t
Extract
~
Extract
I Test 18
-1
Test 19
10,0 ms
-1
7,O ms
•
~ 250
--7 21 0
I
Test 20
10,0 ms
-1
Test 21
7,0 ms
-1
Test HS3
indicates that the door was baffl ed for the test .

Tests 14 - 21, HS3.
- •
-
2 .0 2.0 naf ura l
ventilati on
011 cu rv e from Figure 29A
1 .8 1.6
VI
....QJ1 .6 ~1.6
:::l
c
.....::: I v 21
E1 .4 @1 .4
E
QJ1 . 2
E -1 .2
.
-+ ~
QJ 1 .0 ~10
u QJ
C u
0 .B OHS:!
m
c ~0 . 8
m <
re
~0
u
.6 ~0 . 6
u
..9 0 20
~0 . 4
m
19 0
8 ~0
tu
.4
:c :c
0. 2 0.2
0 o
0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0 o 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0
Resolved wind speed (ms- 1) Resolved wind speed (mi 1)
A. Effect of wind sReed on natural ventilation . B. Test 21 - Cold smoke, ventilation by doors only.
Test Nos .- 5,6,9,11,18,19,20 . Test HS3- Hot smoke, full natural ventilation .
Figure 29 lA and SI
Comparison graphs for 'I~strial S' first floor.
I
- - ~
-- - -
2 .0 nat u ral 2.0 .
17 0
ventilat io n
1 .lB+E B
1 .8 curve fran Figure 29A .B Fi~ure 29A
<Il
+ru1 .6
:::J
l=lnjed air
[=Extrad smoke
....~1. 6 IB=lnject air. tan baffled
EB;Extract smoke .
.~ 1 .4
:J
c 1 .4 fan baffled
12 I B
E o
ruE 1 . Z -;;:1.2
- E
+-1 61B
ru .0 131
:0::1.0
QJ
o
u o u
~ O.B 7I
o 15 E ~ 0.8
L L
ru o
ru
~
u
0 .6 ° 161·E ~0.6
u
.....
~0
ru
.4 010 E -ro O.4
I I
0.2 0.2
0 0
0 la 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 B.O 9.0 10.0 o la 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 B.O 9.0 10.0
Resolved wind speed (ms-') Resolved wind speed (ms-')
[ Effect of adding one or two extractor fans . D. Effect of baffling the extractor fans .
Figure 29 (C and Dl
Comparison graphs for 'Industrial B' first noor.
I
PLAN
v
V
V
V
V
.
~
c
Smoke density V
I .
>
c
"'
0
met er i ng
units
~
I ' red' I V
I 5,1 m l
.
'"c
cri
o Smoke
cani s te r s
I ' blue' I
V
V
V
~
~
>
..
"0
ro.
V
V
--l
V>
I 'white' I V
'0
c E
v> V
(-
0
r :;:: ",
Q , I ~
/
"Vi ..0
V
I
0
"'
' -
V
/
/
'E~ ~ 12m-+-1 46m I
0,5m
O,9m l <:
1,Om
;0.
O,Bm ELEVATION
SCALE 1: 50
I I
2,6m
Positio n
2,50m
1,95 m
'red'
'blue '
1,20 m 'while '

of doorway
Total volume of room approximately 100 m3
Fi~re 30
Diagram of 'Industrial B' basement s~ng the position of test equipment.
I
ff~re 31
5/228/83 'Inrustrlal D' basenent. top vents and covers.
F1~re 32
5/701/83 'IndJstrlal D' basenent door-wi\Y cover showing the shutters open.
I
Extrac t
~f-
240 ·
Test 23 Test 24
I 3,Srns 1
I ~xtrac~ \
2 SO· 27 0·
Test 25 Test 26
I 4.5 rns
-1
7, 0 rns
-1
i
Inject
I
\ V
275·
Test 27 S·
Test 28
-1 -1
7, 5ms 4,S rns
i
Inject
Inject )
~1 0·
Test 29 Test 30
4,3rns
-1
4,5 rns
-1
l-----...J
Extract Ex t ract
I
Figure 33
Tests 23 - 30.
Ex t ract
205
T~st HS4 T~st HSS
-1
I 4,0 ms
-1
4,Oms
Ex tract
~
, 70 '
Test HS6 T~st HS7
-1 -1
2,Oms 2,0 ms
j-
I nje ct
Ext r act
I " " 70' ~

Test HS8
I
1, 5 ms
1
l' _____ -.1
Inject
Figure 34
Tests HS4 - 8.
I
Figure 35
Comparison of ventilation modes in a room where natural ventilation
is ineffective .
3. 0
I
I
TE ST 23 I
2. ~ '"~~ i'-. Test No 23 25 26 29
I
30
~~
'\ Venl.ahon mode Venl open Venl eK{raC\ Vent open Venl open Ve01 inJeCt
IJoo< open Door inject 0001 extract Ooor extract
WINO SPEED
r TOI.al measured (ms-'! 275 • 50 700 .25 4.50
Resolved Ihr<ll9h door (ms·') 2.38 344 3.50 -3~ .... 2
1. D _. - -- -
""" " "

I"
o.5 '\~ ""\ I\. ""'" ~

1
.?
•c
\ ~ ~
0•
;;;
0
\~ ~ ~ "-
~
f\~ ~ ~
0
\
o. 1
"-
" "" "
.05;
"-
'\
"~
"'-
'\ ~'" ~>
\ \ ~
\% '"
- - - L --
,,~,-
'4-"
"0
'·1 ~&
~~
""
- - -- - -
o 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
Time (minut es)
I
Fi!J,lre 36
I 5/673/83 Positioning of the compact generator, SRD8 code no. 1.
for comparative tests, showing the connection to the doon/ay.
I
Ft!J,lre 37
S/203/83 SnIlke exiting' Inwstrial D' basanent through li1j'flat polythene Wcting.
I
Figure 38
I 5/687/83 Aneti extractor in use.
I
I
I
1.5
Compact
Generator
I / /
I /
le
I Wo ods
/
/
/
/
/
- 1.0
E
E
Q)
l-
Q)
/
/
/!
/
/
super vac
P164SEZ
u /
e /
III
L
III /
Q)
/
u /
I ....
III /
/
:I: I S Upervac
.... 0.5 / P16 4 S E
0
-I II
u /
0
L /
a. • Aneti
/
u
Q) /
Cl:: /
O~----~-------T-------r------~------~------~-
o 50 100 150 200 250 300
I Manufacturers quoted airflow (m 3 min-1 )
Figure 39
Performance c~ri son of extractors tested.
I
APPENDIX A
FIRE DEPARTMENT PROJECT DEFINITION THE CLEARANCE OF SMOKE IN BRIGADE OPERATIONS
I 1. BACKGROUND
In firo fighting operations in buildinl;B and confined. Op 2.C f.' " there :Cl) o :'~ sn 3, ~,·:_ c,' t ')
I cleer smoke to facilitate entry or rC ~lc·,,-e work, or to mini::;irJE> S!l!ol:e ci:=.~,,<;(;. :';::. :'·.:.c__ c:!.
s1tuatioIl8 where natur&l ventilatioD io l:!.mitcd. include ollGcJlent end [.lli;> ii:::~ : ' . .~ __ ,e
smoke problem mz.y be eerious with slowly b'.: niM fimould.er:i.!lC iires. ~:c1 I'::o...'"i;ic::'.-,;,.·
burning materials such as certain pl:wt! CB w11 j :Je'oduce cem:e 0;:- tOXic S!!!~1.~ c.
Depending on the circumstanoes, natural ventilation by con·,;-oction lll.'ly be Rll u ',! c,i or
promoted to achieve smoke clearance. However, Bpocial C!etllcds and equiplLcnt, L,\2'\ ~~
smoke extractors, !lIay be used in adi':ition or as en alternative.
In UK Brigades little UBe has been made of smoke a;:t;:-actor[), although e:. fev u,?" U ,.r.'_ cr
I caxry them, and Selvage Corps are equipped "i th them. It E'ee m5 that cxt.r.:!-c t o:::3 :2: :,"
be used more com:nc.nly in the United Statee: there is a liFPA reco!!II::cncation tt:.t
I oertain applianoer, lIhould carry the:n.
2. ODJECTIVE
I The objective ie to etudy the feasibility, costs 3nd benefite of the US2 of ff?CCi 2l
equipment to clear smoke nnd, if justified, to fo=late rcc:Jmi'leliOF.tionz on tt,3 u['.~
I of tbe equipment in brigade operatioDs end, if ncceBB~, ~o deriVe cu~linc s~ ec1 1 i
oations for suitable equipment.
I
3. FURTHER CONSIDERATIONS
I The queDtion of cleSJ:allce of smoke IllUSt be considered

of ventilation in firefight1ng operations.
IlB part of the lar.;er probl...')
In,judicious U:le of e:xt:::actors =y help
I to opread a fire.
A possible use for extraction equipment lies in producing a reduced pressure in a

I structure which it is required to fill with hiBb exp:msion rorun.
rate of breakdown of the fOBl!l under pressure might be reduced.
In this "2~' ;;;:"e
In oonsidering speoilicationa for equipment, the question of BtO~loge on an appliance

must be considered. '
I The powered fAD..9 known cs "extractora" mE;! b", positioned to blow f:::esll si2' ~to t,.l)e
structure. Flexible portable ducting ~ b", attc.ched to an extractor or blo;ror.
High e::q:>ansion foam generators =y be utilised. aB air fnns. There ie also tt;a
posaibili ty of ueing a fog nozzle to p:rc!aote air r.lO"Ve:nent throu,;ll .n p-:ocrture neh 2.6
a doorway or window.
Some pro:nisin£; resuI te have been obt·-:ined in the e~:p6~iDcIl-:;nl use of ej e ctor p'c:~r;e to
I clear smoke from a ship I B hold ~b=0U&h L, inch S'.lction hOBO. Other B,,-,,])cr-iLlents ;{i t,! B i
fans on high exp~Bion foam genere:.tora 4ave indicatod the possibility cf ~idn, cte
in suoh equipment becominG blocted br combustion products [~d debris.
11 Fob 197
I
APPOOIX B
ImK CARRIED OOT BY TIE FIRE RESEARCH STATION IF nE DEPARnEHT IF TIlE ENYIRIHEHT
B.1. Smoke production and movement in tunnels , corridors and shopping malls.
The Fire Research Station (FRS) has studied the rate of production of smoke by a fire, the
rate at which it can spread and methods of restricting its sprea~ Extensive experiments
have been carried out both on models and at full scale, including work on a building
representing part of a shopping centre (Reference 20), and on ·the rate of flow of smoke
from fires in a railway tunnel in Glasgow (Reference 21). An aim of the FRS work has been
I
to establ ish the best control method for smoke in a shopping mall. It is difficult to
apply results from scale models to situations involving practical forced ventilation, and
therefore much of the work has only limited application to the use of portable smoke
I
extractors. A brief outline of the work is given below, however, and further details are
av ail able in the references.
FRS assumes that in a shopping mall the fire generally starts in a shop, and if shop
fronts are fire resisting, hot smoky gases may be confined to shops of origin. If this is
not the case, limitations are placed on the size of the fire and hence the rate of
I
production of hot smoky gases and it is then possible to confine the smoke to a stratified
layer beneath the ceiling while the air beneath them is relatively cool and clear. The
extent of the layer is limited by dividing the space beneath the ceiling into smoke
reservoirs (Reference 22) by screens extending part way towards the floor. Arrangements
must then be made to extract smoke from the reservoirs as fast as it flows into them while
fresh air must be introduced or allowed to flow into the building to replace the hot
gases. ' Such a system is satisfactory for single storey malls.
The requi rements of both natural and power systems for extracti ng smoke from the smoke
I
reservoi rs have been
adversely affected
consi dered (Reference 23 ). Natural venti ng systems are 1i able to be
by the wind whereas forced extraction systems can overcome wind
effects. However, it is difficult to obtain fans which will handle the large volumes of
hot gases involve~
The situation in multi-level shopping malls is more complex and requires the modification
of the equations for smoke movemen~ The resultant recommendations for methods of extrac
tion of smoke from multi-level malls are given in a set of papers by Morgan (References
24-26). All the ventilation procedures given in this work apply to fixed ventilation
I
systems installed in the building, although certain principles may be applied to portable
systems.
As part of the work on smoke movement, a computer model for analysing the motion of smoke
through a multi compartment building was develope~ The program was then tested by
comparison with results obtained from full scale fires in the Industrial 'A' building at
the Fire Service College, Moreton-in-Marsh. The fire tests were monitored for pressure in
compartments, flow ra~es through doors, smoke density, concentration of carbon dioxide l
and temperature. A lm tray of kerosene was burned to produce the smoke, and variations
in the tests were introduced by opening and closing doors.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
I
1. Carbon dioxide concentration in the air is an indication of the travel of fire gases,
since the amount produced from burning kerosene can be readily calculate~
I
These large scale tests showed certain limitations of the computer program, particularly
wi t h regard to the temperature and travel of smoke in shafts, and perhaps more
si gnificantly, the dilution of smoke by air. Further work in these areas was recommende~
The large scale tests on Industrial 'A' formed the basis of another comparative
investigation which is discussed further in Section 3.3.
8.2.2. Criteria for ventilation.
Part of the work of FRS has involved investigating the spread of fire in relation to
ventilation. This work has been confined to a situation with very poor ventilation (i.e.
a room with windows and doors closed) so that the air entered into the fire compartment
only through gaps between the windows and doors and their frames. Therefore the
application of this work to the current project is limite~ It is pOinted out in the
report that flashover may occur even with minimal ventilation.
B. 2.3. Methods of smoke extraction.
The research on ventil ati on of shoppi ng malls whi ch was di scussed in Secti on S.l was
mainly concerned with fixed ventilation systems. FRS has investigated the use of these
systems and has carried out work to improve the heat resistance of honeycomb dampers used
in the ducting of such systems (Reference 27).
Morgan and Bullen (References 28-29) have experimented with a ducted water spray to remove
smoke by entrainment. From the resul ts obtained with an experimental small size system
they predicted the behaviour of a full size system which would be installed in a shopping
I
mall and suggested that it would be a reasonably effective smoke control system.
I
I APPENDIX C
I
SURVEY OF SMOKE EXTRACTION EQUIPMENT IN U.K. BRIGADES
APPOOIX C
SURVEY Cl' SIO<E EXTRACTION IN BRIGADES.
Questionnaire sent to brigades
qUE.5TIO~':!~AJRE
1. Does your brigade c.se si.;okc c:xtractlO:l equ ip~ent? YES/NO

I If the answer to question 1 is lID, :l0 furth~r questions need be answered.
however, please r ct ur~ a NIL reDly.
I
2. What type of equic~e~t
hi&h-expansi o~ ben~rator
is used? Please state - (eg electric fans,
in s~oke extract ion mode, give make, Slze etc)
3. How many smoke extractors (including high-expansion generators used as 6~oke

I extractors) does your brigade hold?
4. Does yuur brignde produce any technical :instructions Or operatillg procedures

for using smoke extractors?
YES/NO
If YES, a ~6py of the same would be appreciated.
5. Please give the n~~e of a contact within the brigade for further discu6sion,
if necessary.
Name Te 1 Iio ••••••••••.••

Rank
Appointment .••.••..•••••••••.••.••••••••••••••
I Completed questionnair e s and nil returns should be sent to:- ·Divisional Officer
A C \Jells, Home C:ficcr Fire Research and Development Unit, Fire Service College,
I
Horeton-in-Hnrsh, Gloucf::stcrshire.
Brigscie .. . ....•.•.....••..•• Date •....•.•••••••.•
Signed •..... .,-; .. .. Rank ...•.••...•.. • •..•••••....••••
APPENDIX C
SURVEY OF SMOKE EXTRACTION I~ ORIGAOES.
Table Cl • 8rigades returning a Nil re ply to the questionnair(
I
CJ.evel~nd
Derby!''>; r" ·
I
Dorset
I
Dyfed
Gwent
Gwynerid
Humbersi de
r~"". Isle of
Nnrthe rn Reil) on
I Nort humbe r h lCld

Powys
I Salop
Some rset
Staffo r dshi re
1
oSu flolK
Su rrcy
Sussex (fas t )
SUSRCX ( We s t)
~/est Ni dla.,d,;
Wi ght . Isle of
I Wiltshi re
York ~h ir~ (North)
York::;h; r c l ;iout il)
- - -
APPENDIX C
SURVEY IF SKJ([ EXTRACTION IN BRIGAOCS.
Table C2 - Smoke extractors in U.K. brigades
Brigade Type o f Equipment No. of

Unfts
I Technical Instructions or
Opera ting Procedure
Ccmnents
Avon Angus Turbex 2 Operating Procedure
Bedfo r ds hi ~ Angu s Turbe x 2 Technical Bulletin and

Training Note
Berlcshi re Ang us Turbex None
Ch.yd Ang us Turbex 2 None
Cornwd 11 Angus Turbex 2 None
De von Angus Turbex Operating Instructions

Su pervac P200SE 20" 6
Fan 115'1 a.e. lhp
Dumfries Supervac P164S[ 16" 2 None (comment made that Used with 20'x16" flexible ducting and
Fdn 115v a.e. operation ;s se lf collapsible polythene tube on delivery side.
exp 1ana tory) Operated from 2kW portable generator or 2.5kW
Powermite fixed generator on Emergency
Tenders.
Essex Angu s Turbex J None No smoke extraction policy but Hi-ex foam
ti n; ts have been used for th; s purpose.
Glarrorgan Angus Turbex J None

(Mid) lei chstchaum lG100 Hi le;chstchaum can be adapted to extract sfOOke.
ex foam generator,
petrol driven.
Ai rscrew Weyrock water
turbine fan.
Gl arrorgan i\ngus Turbex 2 References in Training

(South) 110v Electric Fans 2 Notes 15,000 cu ft per min.
Table C2: 1 of 3
APPEIfJIX C
SURVEY ~ SKJ<[ EXTRACHct.1 IN BRIGADES.
Table C2 - Smoke extractors in U.K . brigades
Bri gade Type of Equipment No. of

Units
I Technical Inst ructions or
Operating Procedure
Ccmrents
Hampshi re Spi tznas 300mm diam. 3 Operational and Training 60 cu m per min.
Fan. 110v Note.
Hereford & Angus Turbex Mk 1I Note on Operation

'Worcester
La ncashire Angus Turbex No detail given Comments of Station Commander on ventilation

given.
Lei ces tcr shi re 15 inch diam. Fan None

l00v d.e.
Lon don Angus Turbe x t-Ic 11 5 Note on operation Onc unit used for training
I. o th"ian " Angus Turbex 2 None

norrlers
!~anches ter Angus Turbex Mk Ir 6 Operational Procedure

(Gre ater)
Mer seys ide Angu s Turbex r~k I I 4 TurbeK information as i n

Manual of Firemanship
Supervae P1 24S 12" 5 Operational and Training 83 cu m per min .
Fan 110v Instruction on Super vac
Norfolk Angus Turbex 4 Tec hnical and Training

Order
Northamptonshire Angus Turbex Uone
Nottinghamshire Angus Turbex 2 None
Oxfordshire Angus Turbex Mk I I None
Table C2: 2 of 3
- -- -- -
APPEMJIX C
SURVEY IF SMJ<E EXTRACTION IN BRIGAIl£S.
Table C2 - Smoke extractors in U.K. brigades
Brigad£' Type of Equipment No. of Technical In structions Or Cc:mrEn ts

Units Operating Procedu re
War,.oi ck shi re Angus Turbe' Mk 11 3 Operational and Training

Instruction s
YOrXshire K. Blackman lO~ Fan 1

(West) Supervac P124S 12" 1 Operational Notes on
Fan Supervac
I
Table C2 : 3 of 3
I
APPENDIX D - INFORMATION OBTAINED FROM VISITS TO UK BRIGADES AND SALVAGE CORPS .
This appendix contai ns annotated photographs taken on the visits described i n Section 5.3.
Fi!Jlre Dl
5/928/83 Devon Fire Brigade - Supervac P200SE fan suspended
in a door WilY froD an adjustable door bar.
I
Figure D2
5/564/83 Merseyside Fire BrIgade - Supervac P124 fan and HOv
portable generator, carried on first-line appliances.
Figure D3
5/570/83 Merseysi de Fi re Bri gade - Stowage of Supervac P124 fan
in a first-line appliance locker.
I
Figure D4
5/571/83 livef1XXll Salvage Corps - Supervac P200SE2 fan with
semi-rigid wcting attached to the inlet face and laynat
polythene wcting on the exhaust face.
Figure 05
5/573/83 livef1XXll Salvage Corps - Spitznas Axial fan - easily
carried in one hand.
I
Fi~re D6
5/627/83 LIlfHkln salvage Corps - Woods fan showing the modified
handles lIdIich enable the fan to be carried and stowed
more easily.
Fi~re D7
5/626/83 London Salvage Corps - Braclcet designed to keep the
free end of 1~f1at polythene ducting from closing or
being blown about in adverse weather conditions .
I
APPOOIX E
SUPPLIERS Nfj MANUFACllJRERS IF PORTABLE SIO(E EXTRACTIM EQUIPIOT
TYPE 1 - FANS
a) Electrical rotors.
I SUPERVAC Dale Emergency Products Ltd., Faraday House, Eastfiel d, Scarborough,

Yorks. YOll 3UT.
WOODS AEROFO IL Woods of Colchester Ltd., Tufnell Way, Colchester, Essex.
b ) Petrol / Di ese1 mtors.
SUPERVAC Can be supplied with petrol motors.
c) Water ~tors.
ELTA Elta Fans Ltd., Wintersells Rd., Byfleet, Surrey.
TURBEX HI EX Angus Fire Armour Ltd., Thame Park Rd., Thame, Oxfordshire.
FOAM GENERATOR
C(}!PACT GENERATOR Symtol Engineering Ltd., Unit 9A Cowley Rd., Blyth Ind. Est., Blyth
HI EX FOAM Northumberl and, NE24 5TF.
d) ec..>ressed ai r mtors.
COPPUS George Meller Ltd., Orion Park, Northfield Ave., Ealing, London W13
9SJ.
TYPE 2 - AIR ENTRAIIfIENT DEVICES
a) Into water.
ANETI A. Dubois &Co., 29 Rue de la Plaine, 75020, Paris.

NOBLE EJECTOR Hughes Engineering Co. Ltd., Briton St., Leicester.
PUMP
b) Into air.
BRAUER AIRMOVERS HMC-Brauer Ltd., Dawson Rd., Mount Farm Estate, Bletchley, Milton
Keynes, Bucks. MKl IJP.
COPPUS JECTAIR George Meller Ltd., Orion Park, Northfield Ave., Ealing, London W13
9SJ.
I
APPOOIX F
CALIBRATIIJi IF stU£ DENSITY I£TERING E~IMNT
Section 7.3.2 describes the smoke density metering equipment, its cal ibration and use
during smoke clearance tests.
The maker's cal ibration in terms of percentage obscuration was refined by an

experimental calibration in terms of optical density.
Calibration was carried out after the projector/receiver units had been installed in the
test room and connected to the indicators in the mobile laboratory. The cal ibration was
checked before every smoke tes~
The cal ibration procedure was for one operator to pl ace a neutral density fil ter between
the projector and receiver, while a second operator read and recorded the reading of
percentage obscuration given by the indicator in the mobile laboratory. Communication
between the operators was maintained using battery operated headset~
Each meter was calibrated with six neutral density filters of optical densities 0.5, 1.0,
1.5,2.0,2.5 and 3.0. During calibration the UV recorder was run so that calibration
lines were produced on the chart recor~
From the resul ts cal ibration graphs (see bel owl were produced, relating the indicated
percentage obscuration to the optical density, and this was used to convert the
experimental results of the smoke tests.
The calibration curves illustrate the limitations of the smoke density meters in terms of
the reading accuracy of the instruments at the higher optical densitie~
CeUbration chart for red smoke density meter
------I
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I
APPENDIX G
GRAPHS OF TESTS OF SMOKE CLEARANCE PROCEDURES, 'INDUSTRIAL B' BUILDING, FIRST FLOOR
Figure G1 Test 5
Log-linear graph of Optical Density against Clearance Time

for four smoke density meters
~
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Figure G2 Test 6

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Figure G3 Test 7
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Figure G4 Test 8

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Figure G5 Test 9
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Time (minutes)
Figure G6 Test 10
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Figure G9 Test 13
log-linear graph of Optical Density against Clearance Time

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Figure G10 Test 14

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Figure G11 Test 15

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Figure G12 Test 16

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Figure G15 Test 19

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Figure G16 Test 20
I Log-linear graph of Optical Density against Clearance Time

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Time (minutes)
I
APPENDIX H
I GRAPHS Of TESTS Of SMOKE CLEARANCE PROCEDURES, 'INDUSTRIAl B' BUILDING, BASEMENT
Figure H1 Test 22
Log-linear graph of Optical Den sity against Clearance Time for three smoke density meters'
3 .0
• Heights of meters
D~
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Figure H2 Test 23
log·Unear graph of Optical Density against Clearance Time for three smoke density meters
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o 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 IS 16 17
Time (minutes)
Figure H3 Test 24
Log-linear graph of Optical Den sity against Cl earance Time for thre e smoke density me ters
._.- ...._. ._ .... _ . __ ...... _.-4 ._ ....,
3.0
-.- - ........ - .. - --4
,
,
~ .,
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Time ( minut e s)
Figure H4 Test 25
Log-linea r graph of Optical Density agai nst Clearance Time for three smoke density meters
3 ~~~~~=r:~:~~ ~-='::~'h I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
I ." "'. -', T I I I I T I I I T T
2.0~ I
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... < '
: I I I I I I I ,I I I I I Heights 71
meters
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o 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
Tim e !min utes)
Figure H5 Test 26
log-linear graph of Oplical Density agai nst Clearance Time for three smoke density meters I
p-- . _ _ . - p.- ._ _.,
... - t-- ........, ~ ..... I

3 .,
~ ~\..
"10" Heighls of meters
2 .0
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o 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 .4 '5 '6 17
Time (minutes)
Figure H6 Test 27
log-linear graph of Optical Density against Clearance Time for three smoke density meters,
0-.'--.--< - ......- .--< -·--·--<o-·-..... ·--<r· .....-·-r·.....-·-r·-.-·- .... ·-<O-·-"""·- ... ·--<r· .........·--<r·-oo--·
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15.
IHeights of meters
0 ... 2.5m
6 2.0m
~ 1.2m
0.1
051 I'
o 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
Time (minutes)
Figure H7 Test 28
Log-linear graph of Optical Den sity against Clearance Time tor three smoke density meters.
.....
-~ . - ~ . --- . - . ~ . -~
'--~ -- -- ...... - - - -",:,:-, I

3 ,
2 )
~~'~i, Heights of meters
~.
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o 2 3 , 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
Time (minu tes)
Figure HB Test 29
Log-linear graph of Optical Density against Clearance Time for three smoke density meters
. _....- r ·- ...·- .
3.:.0
- _..A __
:---~- - •
"\
,
Heights of me ters
2..0
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- - - - - - - - - - - - ~ - ~
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o 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
Time (minutes]
Figure H9 Test 30
Log-lin ear graph of Opticid Density against Clearance Time for three smoke density meters
-.--.~ _._o_ .-<

1\
3.1.0
__ .A. __
- - ........ - - \
• I
,,
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o 2 3 • 5 6 7 8 9
Time (minutes)
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
Figure H10 Test HS4
Log-linear graph of Optical Density against Clearan ce Time for three smoke density meters '
F--+·--·f-'-·t --·f·--t--·~F---f·---F--~-·--f~-:."'''''' ~ nn _
3.0~---~----;;:----;- -- - ~---- __ ----::::--nn-u;-- --~ n___ 1 t '-'-.~ +
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u H eIghts of meters
o ... 2.Sm
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011 I I I I I In
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o 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
Time (mlnules)
Figure H11 Test HS5
Log·linear graph of Optical Density against Clearance TIme for three smoke density meters
'- . .,! •
30 u......:-:~i::-c--,=- 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I I I
.
I ' ~',:~- --_._ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
, r-._ ---
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.osIf----+---+---+---+---+---+---t---f--+--+---t---t---+--+---+-- -+-- -+-
o 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
Time (minutes)
Figure H12 Test HS6
~-:~~,,-!--~--- - .. I I I J I I
--'.
3. 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
'I "T' . , . ~, , I I I
..... , '
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-
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W~
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11 1 1 ..
o 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
Time (minutes)
Figure H13 Test HS7
Log·linear graph of Optical Density against Clearance Time 10r three smoke density meters.
-._- ......:
3.0
t--...~
,_~_ . "".
t ...
20~ --- ~ -~""~r-.... I ! I I I I I + I I I I IHeights ?' meters
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TJme (minutes)
Figure H14 Test HS8
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3
"
, "
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2 0
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Tim e (minutes)
I
I APPENDIX J
GRAPHS OF COMPARATIVE TESTS OF EXTRACTORS. ' INDUSTRIAL B' BUILDING. BASEMENT
I
Figure J1 Test C1 Fan: Supervac P164 SEZ SRDB Code No: 4
,
Log-linear graph at Optical Density against Clearance Time for three smoke density meters
.- ....- . '--_'-',
......... _),.
t:.-~--
3
•
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i"(~'v ~ _. -
Heights of meters
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,
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12 13
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15
Figure J2 Test C2 Fan: Supervac P164 SEZ SROB Code No: 4
r- .-a-.- t-.---.,
--~-- - -~- -,
3
,~ .
2 .0
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to 2.5m
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o 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 13 14 15
"
Figure J3 Test C3 Fan: Supervac P164 SEZ SRDB Code No: 4
log-linear graph of Optical Density against Clearance T ime for three smoke density meters
1'-.-0- .-1-.---.,
3
- - -- ....... -
20
~.'\. Heigh ts of meters
.:. 2.Sm
r~,
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o 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
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9 10 :"'" " 12 13 14 15
Figure J4 Test C4 Fan: Supervac P164 SE SRDB Code No: 3
log-linear graph of Optical Density against Clearance Time for three!smoke density meters
_--.
. . . . . .....
3
f---._ --.....:~ •
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~...--:- r--. . Heights of meters
20
" ~ '. a ......... .......

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----
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o 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 17 .3 14 15
Time (minutes)
l' I
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Figure J6 Test C6 Fan: Woods Aerofoil SRDB Code No: 6
Log-linear graph of Optical Density against Clearan ce Time for three sm oke density meters
__ ~ __ 1_~ . . ,
30 1 I
\~~
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I Heights of meters
i\
\~
20
I 6 2.Sm
... 2.0m -----
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2 3 • 5 6 7 8
1\: .\ .
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9 10 17 13 ,. 15
"
Figure J7 Test C7 Fan: Woods Aerofoil SRDB Code No: 6
for three smoke density meters
i
-_ ......,
I
30
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.. f· - --- .
I
,
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Heights
2.0 '~. • . - . - --
of meters
,
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1\
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Tim e (minute s)
Figure J8 Test C8 Fan: Compact Generator SRDB Code No: 1
-- ........ -- ..
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; ~- - -: - - ------,------'Ir--:-~-g-~-r----
l -----
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0 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Time (minutes)
I
Figure J9 Test C9 Fan: Compact Generator SRDB Code No: 1
--.-----.~.\
---....- -
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, \.t..
I
i
>\'.
3.0
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,\ I I Heights
I I of meters
2.0 '. -
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1.2m _._ ._.
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o 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Time ( minut"s)
I
I
I
Figure J1 0 Test C1 0 Fan: Angus Turbex SRDB Cpde No: 2
Log-linear grpph of Optical Density against Cl ea rance Time for three smoke density met e rs
. _ .... _ ......_.&.._ . .
,.... , ....•
f- ~ - - -~-- I
30
20
~ "
~ " .. H ei ghts of meters
~ """'.
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• L2m - .-.-.
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- -- - - -
, , • , • 7 R Q 10 11
" "
,. 15
Figure J11 Test C11 Fan: Angus Turbe x SRDB Code No: 2
Log· linea r graph of Optical Density against Clearance Time for three smoke density meters
p-._ .... . - •
-,.........
3
~--~-- ~,
~ ., ,
~'
.
. '.
',a., Heights of meters
20
~ ~ 2.5m
~ Ko.,".
• 2.0m -----
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- - - - - --- -
o 2 3 • 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 ,. 15
Time (minutes)
Figure J12 Test C12 Fan: Aneti SRDB Code No: 7
Log-linear graph of Optical Density against C le aranc e Time for three smoke density meters
._ -- .- r- ---'- ~ ' -IIl.. . • 1

__ . _ _ . _ _ _ _ .... _ _-I-
_-4- _ ....- ._ .
3
•
~ '- -""'-
~:~:~
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20
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Research Report 26 - The Use of Smoke Extracting Equipment in Fire Brigade Operations (Reprint of SRDB Publication 37 - 84)

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Research Report 26 - The Use of Smoke Extracting Equipment in Fire Brigade Operations (Reprint of SRDB Publication 37 - 84)

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THE USE OF SMOKE EXTRACTING

EQUIPMENT IN FIRE BRIGADE OPERATIONS

Research Report No.26

Central Fire Brigades

Prepared by:· Fiona E Smith

Home Office Scientific Research and Development Branch

This IS a re·print of SRDB publication No 37/84 © Crown COPYrig ht 1985

Printed by Rank Xerox (Copy Bureaux) Ltd" London SW1

I 3. PREVIOUS WORK ON THE PRODUCTION AND MOVEMENT OF SMOKE.

3.1 Fixed systems for forced ventilation.

3.3 Model studies on smoke movement at Leeds Polytechnic School of Architecture.

3.4 University of Edinburgh MSc. Dissertation.

4. INTRODUCTION TO THE PRODUCTION AND MOVEMENT OF SMOKE.

IJ 4.1 Volume of smoke produced.

4.3 Smoke production.

I 4.4 Ventilation requirements.

4.5 Basic ventilation practice.

5. OPERATIONAL USE OF EXTRACTORS.

5.1 The use of extractors in Overseas Brigades.

5.2 Survey of smoke extraction equipment in U.K.

5.3 Visits to U.K. Brigades and Salvage Corps.

5.3.1 Devon Fire Brigade.

5.3.2 Merseyside Fire Brigade.

5.3.3 Liverpool Salvage Corps.

5.3.4 London Salvage Corps.

6. COMMERCIALLY AVAILABLE SMOKE EXTRACTORS.

6.1 Types of extractors available.

6.2 Extractors purchased for test.

6.3 Use of ducting with smoke extractors.

6.4 Tests on the extractors purchased.

7. CONDUCT OF SMOKE CLEARANCE TESTS IN 'INDUSTRIAL B' BUILDING.

7.2 Smoke production for tests .

7.2.1 Cold smoke.

7.2.2 Hot smoke.

7. 3.2 Smoke density metering equipment.

7. 3.3 Visibility monitoring equipment.

7.3.4 Temperature measuring equipment.

7.3.5 Wind speed and direction monitoring .

8. TESTS OF SMOKE CLEARANCE PROCEDURES IN 'INDUSTRIAL B' BUILDING, FIRST FLOOR.

8.1 Description of test room.

reduced natural ventilation.

8.4.5 Effect of baffling the fans.

9. TESTS OF SMOKE CLEARANCE PROCEDURES IN 'INDUSTRIAL B' BUILDING, BASEMENT.

9.1 Description of test room.

9.4.1 Natural ventilation.

9.4.2 Effect of wind speed.

9.4.3 Forced ventilation.

(il 'Cold smoke' tests .

10. t-EASUREMENT OF FAN PERFORMANCE.

10.1 Measurements of air movement patterns.

10.2 Measurement of performance using the methods of a British Standard.

10.3 Comparative tests of fans in smoke clearance in 'Industrial B' building

10. 3.2 Method.

11. HANDLING CHARACTERISTICS OF EXTRACTORS.

11.1 Observations from comparative extraction tests.

12. ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF FANS.

14. SUGGESTED GUIDELINES ON THE USE OF SMOKE EXTRACTORS.

Figure 1 - Production of smoke in a fire.

Figure 2 - Comparison of published visibility measurements.

Fi gure 3 - Smoke Extractor SRBD Code No.1 Compact Generator.

Figure 4 - Smoke Extractor SRDB Code No.2 Angus Turbex.

Figure 5 - Smoke Extractor SRDB Code No.3 Supervac P164 SE.

Figure 27 Diagrams of wind direction and speed in ventilation operations

Figure 28 - Diagrams of wind direction and speed in ventilation operations

Figure 33 - Diagrams of wind direction and speed in ventilation operations

Figure 34 - Diagrams of wind direction and speed in ventilation operations