LABORATORY MANUAL

STEAM POWER ENGINEERING

LABORATORY

Course Name and Code

THERMAL ENGINEERING LABORATORY-II

(ME- 15204)

Programme

B.Tech. Mechanical Engineering

Vth Semester, 3rd Year

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Motilal Nehru National Institute of Technology Allahabad,
Prayagraj-211004, U.P., India

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About the Course:
The course ‘Thermal Engineering Lab-II (ME15204)’ has been designed to introduce
applications of thermal engineering in ‘Complete Steam Power Plants with its various
components such as Boilers, Steam Turbines, Condensers, and Steam Engine etc.’, ‘Gas
Turbine’ and ‘Air Compressor’. There are total 10 experiments in this course.
This course enables students to apply knowledge of thermal engineering by doing the study
on complete power plant with its analytical performance. Students observe various
components, understand their working principles, and analyze analytical performance by
learning use of measuring instruments.
Experiments and models related to steam power plant and gas turbine are placed in ‘Steam
Power Laboratory’. Whereas, Experiment related to Air-compressor is placed in ‘Internal
Combustion Engine Laboratory’. Both the laboratories i.e. ‘Steam Power Laboratory’ and
‘Internal Combustion (I.C.) Engine Laboratory’ are the part of ‘Heat Engine Laboratory’. The
‘Heat Engine Laboratory’ is one of the laboratories of Mechanical Engineering Department,
MNNIT Allahabad.

Laboratory Officials and Staff:

1. Dr. Bireswar Paul, Office-in-Charge, Steam Power Laboratory
2. Dr. Jitendra N. Gangwar, Office-in-Charge, I.C. Engine Laboratory
3. Mr. Manoj Singh Bonal, Laboratory-in-Charge, Heat Engine Laboratory
4. Mr. Om Prakash , Technical Assistant (Ad-hoc)
Course Objectives:

To impart knowledge about:

1. Power generation, Basic components in steam power plants and steam engine, steam
power plant cycles.
2. Understanding various types of steam generators, mountings and accessories and their
performance parameters.
3. Classification and working of different steam turbines and governing methods.
4. Steam condensing plant, analysis of condenser and cooling tower.
5. Woking principle and components of Gas turbine and reciprocating air-compressor.

Course Outcomes:

CO 1 Describe the working principle of Steam Power Plant.

CO 2 Describe and analyze various components of Steam Power Plant.
CO 3 Measurement of Quality of Steam.
CO 4 Describe basic working principles of Gas Turbine and analyze its performance.
CO 5 Describe the working principle of Vertical Steam Engine and analyze its
performance.
CO 6 Describe the working principle of Air Compressor and analyze its performance.
CO 7 Study of types of various boilers and steam turbines and their models.

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 THERMAL ENGINEERING LABORATORY-II (ME-15204)

List of Experiments

Sr. Title Course Outcomes

No. (CO)
1. Study and performance of complete steam power plant. CO 1
Study and performance of Nestler Boiler (To find the
2. equivalent evaporation, Boiler efficiency and prepare the CO 1, CO 2, CO 7
heat balance).
Study of steam boiler models of Lancashire, Locomotive
3. CO 1, CO 2, CO 7
and Babcock & Wilcox.
4. Study and performance of Steam Turbine. CO 1, CO 2, CO 7
Study of simple Impulse turbine and Parson’s reaction
5. CO 1, CO 7
turbine models.
6. Study and performance of Surface condenser. CO 1, CO 2, CO 7
To find the dryness fraction of wet steam using Separating
7. CO 1, CO 3
& Throttling calorimeter.
8. Study and performance of Vertical steam engine. CO 1, CO 4
Study of 600 Rovers Gas Turbine and to draw the air fuel,
9. CO 5
lubrication and power cycles.
Study and performance of two stage reciprocating air
10. CO 6
compressor.

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General Instructions for Heat Engine Laboratory

Very Important Instructions:

Ensure Your Safety First

Ensure Safety of machines

Then Start the Work

Do not use any experimental setup of the laboratory unnecessarily.

Do not spill the water on the floor.

Do not make your lab dirty. Use dustbins.

Be active and attentive. Maintain silence in the lab.

Do not use bulbs, fans, unnecessarily. Save electricity.

Use measuring instruments carefully.

Wear shoes in the lab.

If anything found alarming, inform the laboratory officials and staff.

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MOTILAL NEHRU NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
ALLAHABAD

THERMAL ENGINEERING LABORATORY-II

(ME-15204)

Experiment No: 01

Study and Performance of Complete Steam Power Plant

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Aim:- Study and performance of complete steam power plant

Introduction:-Steam is an important medium of producing mechanical energy. Steam has the

advantage that, it can be raised from water which is available in abundance it does not react
much with the materials of the equipment of power plant and is stable at the temperature
required in the plant. Steam is used to drive steam engines, steam turbines etc. Steam power
station is most suitable where coal is available in abundance.

Thermal electrical power generation is one of the major methods. Out of total power
developed in India about 60% is thermal. For a thermal power plant the range of pressure
may vary from 10 kg/cm2 to super critical pressures and the range of temperature may be
from 250°C to 660°C.

Fig- coal-fired steam power plant

Essentials of Steam Power Plant Equipment:-

A steam power plant must have following equipment:

(a)A furnace to burn the fuel.
(b) Steam generator or boiler containing water. Heat generated in the furnace is utilized to
convert water into steam.
(c) Main power unit such as an engine or turbine to use the heat energy of steam and perform
work.
(d) Piping system to convey steam and water.
• In addition to the above equipment the plant requires various auxiliaries and
accessories depending upon the availability of water, fuel and the service for which
the plant is intended.

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The flow sheet of a thermal power plant consists of the following four main circuits:
(a)Feed water and steam flow circuit.
(b)Coal and ash circuit.
(c)Air and gas circuit.
(d)Cooling water circuit.
A steam power plant using steam as working substance works basically on Rankine cycle.
Steam is generated in a boiler, expanded in the prime mover and condensed in the condenser
and fed into the boiler again.

T-S Diagram of steam power plant-

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Do-it-Yourself :
Attempt the following Numerical:

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MOTILAL NEHRU NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
ALLAHABAD

THERMAL ENGINEERING LABORATORY-II

(ME-15204)

EXPERIMENT No: 02

Study and Performance of Nestler Boiler (To find the equivalent

evaporation, Boiler efficiency and prepare the heat balance)

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Aim of the experiment:

Study and performance of Nestler boiler (To find the equivalent evaporation, boiler
efficiency and prepare the heat balance).

Apparatus Used:

Nestler boiler

Theory:

Steam Generator:

A steam generator is a form of low water-content boiler, similar to a flash steam boiler. The
usual construction is as a spiral coil of water-tube, arranged as a single, or mono tube, coil.
Circulation is once-through and pumped under pressure, as a forced-circulation boiler. The
narrow-tube construction, without any large-diameter drums or tanks, means that they are
safe from the effects of explosion, even if worked at high pressures. The pump flow rate is
adjustable, according to the quantity of steam required at that time. The burner output is
throttled to maintain a constant working temperature. The burner output required varies
according to the quantity of water being evaporated: this can be either adjusted by open-loop
control according to the pump throughput, or by a closed-loop control to maintain the
measured temperature.

Steam boiler:

It is basically a closed vessel into which water is heated until the water is converted into
steam at required pressure. A boiler or steam generator is used wherever a source of steam is
required. The form and size depends on the application: mobile steam engines such as steam
locomotives, portable engines and steam-powered road vehicles typically use a smaller boiler
that forms an integral part of the vehicle; stationary steam engines, industrial installations and
power stations will usually have a larger separate steam generating facility connected to the
point-of-use by piping.

Classification of boilers:

The boilers may be classified according to following criteria:

1. According to relative position of water and hot gases.

(a) Water tube boiler: A boiler in which the water flows through the tubes which are
surrounded by hot combustion gases i.e. Babcock and Wilcox, Stirling, Benson boilers etc.

(b) Fire tube boiler: The hot combustion gases pass through the boiler tubes, which are
surrounded by water i.e. Lancashire, Cochran, Locomotive boilers etc.

2. According to water circulation arrangement

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(a) Natural circulation: Water circulates in the boiler due to density difference of hot and
cold water e.g., Babcock and Wilcox boiler, Lancashire boiler, Locomotive boiler etc.

(b) Forced circulation: A water pump forces the water along its path, therefore, the steam
generation rate increases e.g.. Benson, La Mont, boilers etc.

3. According to position of furnaces:

(a) Internally fired: The furnace is located inside the shell e.g., Cochran, Lancashire boilers
etc.

(b) Externally fired: The furnace is located outside the boiler shell i.e. Babcock and Wilcox,
Stirling boilers etc.

Fig. Nestler Boiler

4. According to the use:

Stationary, Portable, Locomotive or marine boiler.

5. According to position of the boilers:

Horizontal, inclined or vertical boilers.

Boiler mountings and accessories:

Boilers are equipped with two categories of components: boiler mountings and boiler
accessories. Boiler mountings are the machine components that are mounted over the body of
the boiler itself for the safety of the boiler and for complete control of the process of steam
generation.

Various boiler mountings are as under:

1) Safety valve

2) Water level indicator

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3) Pressure gauge

4) Fusible plug

5) Feed check valve

6) Blow-off cock

7) Steam stop valve

Boiler accessories are auxiliary parts required to increase the overall efficiency of the plant.

These are

1) Air preheater

2) Super heater

3) Economizer

NESTLER BOILER:

It is an oil-fired, fire tube horizontal boiler having working pressure, temperature and steam
capacity equal to 11.8 bar gauge,238 °C and 545kg/h respectively. Water is fed to the boiler
through a feed-check valve with the help of a multi-stage centrifugal pump run by an electric
motor. When the boiler is in operation, a duplex feed pump run by a steam engine using
superheated steam feeds the water to the boiler to save the first class energy. The light diesel
oil from the tank is pumped by a fuel-pump and it passes through a oil-heater to decrease its
viscosity for better atomization and is finally injected in the combustion chamber of the boiler
by an injector. The air is supplied to the combustion chamber with the help of a centrifugal
blower through swirler for rapid and proper combustion.

The hot flue gases formed as a result of combustion make three passes and finally escape
through the chimney. The number of fire-tube employed is 88.The wet steam formed as a
result of heat taken by water from flue-gases is allowed to pass through the superheater tubes
and finally becomes superheated.

Fig: Schematic of Nestler Boiler

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Specification of Nestler Boiler at MNNIT ALLAHABAD:
Pressure : 160psi
Temperature: 460F
Steam rate : 1200lbs/h
Superheater : Pendant type

BOILER CALCULATIONS:
Performance of the boiler, like efficiency and evaporation ratio reduces with time, due to
poor combustion, heat transfer fouling and poor operation and maintenance. Deterioration of
fuel quality and water quality also leads to poor performance of boiler. Efficiency testing
helps us to find out how far the boiler efficiency drifts away from the best efficiency. Any
observed abnormal deviations could therefore be investigated to pinpoint
the problem area for necessary corrective action.

BOILER EFFICIENCY:
Boiler Efficiency related to the boilers energy output to the boilers energy input can be
expressed as:Boiler efficiency (%) = heat exported by the fluid / heat provided by the fuel x
100

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EQUIVALENT EVAPORATION:

BOILER HEAT BALANCE:

Useful (heat absorbed by steam) =m'(hf +xhfg –hw)
1. Heat loss in dry flue gases
= mg×cpg(tg-tb)
Where mg= Mass of dry flue gases per kg of fuel,
Cpg= Mean specific heat of dry flue gases,
Tg= Temperature of flue gases leaving chimney
Tb= Temp. of boiler room
2. Heat lost in moisture present in the fuel
= mm(hsup-hb) = mm[hg+cp(tg-t) –hb]
= mm[2676 + cp(tg-100) – hb]
Where mm = Mass moister per kg of fuel
Cp= Mean specific heat of superheated steam in flue gases,

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 Hb= Enthalpy of water at boiler room temp.
3. Heat loss due to radiation and convection

Advantages
1. They present extensive user benefits similar to a low down-timer for repair, reduction in
soot evidence, availability of dry steam and simple construction.
2. This boilers present excellent features of large grate area with furnace volume.
3. No intractable work, open bottom design of firebox and balanced draught.
4. Large steam and water volumes.

Disadvantages
1. Circulation was sluggish due to low head, and partial steam disengaging surface prepared
insufficient separation o steam and water reducing steam rate.
2. Insufficient design and faulty fabrication of hand hole caps (cleaning purpose) resulted in
greatly leakage.
3. Bent tube boilers present many advantages over straight-tube boilers.

Do-it-yourself :

Numerical-
1. In a boiler test 1250 kg of coal are consumed in 24 hrs. The mass of water evaporated
is 13000 kg and the mean effective pressure is 7 bar. The feed water temperature was
40°C, heating value of coal is 30000 kJ/kg. The enthalpy of 1 kg of steam at 7 bar is
2570.7 kJ. Determine the Equivalent evaporation per kg of coal and Efficiency of the
boiler.

2. Draw the heat balance sheet from the data given below which boiler generating 500
kg/hr of steam at 10.5 bar pressure and 0.97 dryness fractions.

Fuel used and its calorific value: 75kg/hr and 31500 kJ/kg
Moisture present in the fuel: 6% by mass
Mass of dry flue gases: 10kg/kg of fuel
Temp. of flue gases: 315°C
Specific heat of flue gases: 1.1 kJ/kgK
Temperature of boiler room: 38°C
Feed water temperature: 50°C

Conclusion:
Nestler boiler was studied along with various auxiliaries, accessories and calculations
involved in evaluating evaporation and boiler efficiency.

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 MOTILAL NEHRU NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
ALLAHABAD

THERMAL ENGINEERING LABORATORY-II

(ME-15204)

Experiment No: 03

To study of Steam Boiler Models of Lancashire, Locomotive and Babcock

& Wilcox

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Aim:-To study of steam boiler models of Lancashire locomotive and Babcock & Wilcox.

OBECTIVE: The objective of the study is to know about the working procedure & parts of
the Lancashire Locomotive Babcock & Wilcox Boiler with the help of model.

APPARATUS USED: Model of Lancashire locomotive Babcock & Wilcox Boilers.

Babcock & Wilcox Boilers-

A boiler is a closed vessel in which steam is produced from water by combustion of fuel. The
primary requirements of steam generator or boiler are:

1. Water

2. Water drum

3. Fuel for heating

TYPES OF BOILERS:-

a. Water tube boiler

b. Fire tube boiler

In the water tube boilers, the water are inside the tube & hot gases surrounds the tubes. The
various water tube boiler are following:

(i) Babcock & Wilcox boiler

(ii) Sterling boiler

(iii) Lamont boiler

(iv) Loeffler boiler

(v) Benson boiler

(vi) Velox boiler

The various fire tube boilers are following:

(i) Lancashire boiler

(ii) Locomotive boiler
(iii) Scotch marine
(iv) Cochran boiler
(v) Cornish boiler

BABCOCK & WILCOX BOILER:

The water tube boilers are used exclusively, when pressure above 10bar and capacity in
excess of 7000kg./hr. is required. Babcock & Wilcox boiler with longitudinal drum: It
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consists of a drum connected to a series of front end and rear end header by short riser tubes.
To these headers are connected a series of inclined water tubes of solid drawn mild steel. The
inclination of tubes to the horizontal is about 15 degree or more. A hand hole is provided in
the header in front of each tube for cleaning & inspection of tubes. A feed valve is provided
to fill the drum and level of water indicates by water level indicator. Fire is burnt on the grate.
The hot gases are forced to move upwards between the tubes by baffle plates provided. The
water from the drum flows through the inclined tubes via down take header & goes back into
the steam the steam space of the drum. The steam then enters through the anti-priming pipe
and flows in the super heater tubes where it is further heated and is finally taken out through
the main stop valve and supplied to the engine when needed.

Lankashire Boiler:-

Lancashire Boiler is a horizontal type and stationary fire tube boiler. Before we go further,
let’s know the person who invented this boiler. Lancashire Boiler was invented in the year
1844, by William Fairbairn. But his patent was for the method of firing the furnaces
alternately. Generally, flue gases pass through the fire tube. It is present inside the boiler shell
or body and for this reason, it is a fire tube boiler. Lancashire Boiler is an internally fired
boiler because the furnace uses to present inside the boiler. This boiler generates low-pressure
steam and it is a natural circulation boiler.

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Working of Lancashire Boiler:-

This boiler consists of a horizontal cylindrical shell filled with water. It uses to surround by
two large fire tubes. Heat exchanging is the basic working principle of this boiler. It is has a
shell and tube type heat exchanging system. Generally, the flue gases pass through the fire
tubes and water flows through the shell. By this way, the heat is transfer from flue gases to
the water. It is a low pressure, internally fired, natural water circulation boiler. That’s means
this boiler uses the natural current to flow the water inside the boiler during its operation.

Locomotive Boiler:-

A locomotive boiler is a Fire Tube Boiler. It is a horizontal drum axis, multi-tubular boiler.
Because this boiler has 116 general fire tube and 38 super-heated fire tube. Locomotive
Boiler is an internally fired boiler. That’s means boiler furnace located inside the main boiler
shell or barrel. This boiler uses solid fuel like coal. It is also a forced circulation, mobile or
portable type, and medium pressure fire tube boiler. The most common use of this boiler is in
railway locomotive engines and in the marine sector because of its mobility. This boiler has a
high steam generation rate.in the marine sector because of its mobility. This boiler has a high
steam generation rate.

Working of Locomotive Boiler:-

Before we learn about the Locomotive Boiler at first we should learn what is it means by this
name. The locomotive is a self-propelled vehicle and it can be powered by Diesel, Electricity
or Steam. But this type of Locomotive Steam engine was famous in the railway sector. You
may see several Locomotives in historical Hollywood Movie where engine operator throwing
solid coal inside the boiler furnace. And boiler is a part of Locomotive where steam
isgenerated to power the Locomotive engine.

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 Fig- working of locomotive boiler

Mountings of boiler:-There are different fittings and device which are necessary for the
operation and safety of a boiler. The various mountings used on the boiler:-

1. Water level indicator:-The function of a water level indicator is to indicate the level
of water in the level constantly. It is also called water gauge.

2. Pressure gauge:- The function of a pressure gauge is to measure the pressure exerted
inside the vessels. It is usually constructed to indicate upto double the maximum working
pressure. Its dial is graduated to read pressure in kgf/cm2 gauge.

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There are two type of pressure gauges:-

(i) Bourdon tube type pressure gauge

(ii) Diaphragm tube type pressure gauge

Safety valves:- The function of a safety valve is to release the excess steam when the
pressure of steam inside the boiler exceeds the rated pressure. The various type of safety
valve is:-

(i) Dead weight safety valve

(ii) Spring loaded safety valve
(iii) High steam & low water safety valve

1. Fusible plug:- The function of a fusible plug is to prevent the boiler against damage due
to overheating for low water level.

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5. Blow off cock:- A blow off cock or valve performs the two functions:-
(i) It may discharge a portion of water when the boiler is in operation to blow out mud scale
or sediments periodically.
(ii) It may empty the boiler when necessary for cleaning, inspection and repair.

Fig- Blow off cock

2. Feed check valve:- The function of a feed check valve is to control the supply of water to
the boiler and to prevent the exception of water from the boiler when the pump pressure is
less as pump is stopped.

Fig- feed check valve

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7. Stop valve or Junction valve:- A junction valve is a valve which is placed directly over a
boiler and connected to a steam pipe which carries steam to the engine. If a valve is placed in
the steam pipe leading steam to the engine and placed near the engine. It usually termed as
stop valve. The larger sizes are called Junction valve and smaller sizes Stop valve.

Accessories of boiler:- There are auxiliary plants required for steam boiler for their proper
operation & for increase of their efficiency. The various accessories are:-
1. Feed pump:- The feed pump is a pump which is used to deliver feed water to the
boiler . It is desirable that the quantity of water supplied should be at least equal to
that evaporated and supplied to the engine. Two type of pumps which are commonly
used as feed pump are :-

(i) Reciprocating pump

(ii) Rotary pump

2. Economizer:- An Economiser is a device in which the waste heat of the flue gases is
utilized for heating the feed water. Economiser is very important part of the boiler, with the
help the economiser the efficiency of the boiler increased and the evaporative capacity of the
boiler is increased. Economiser is of two type:-
(i) Independent type
(ii) Integral type

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 2. Air-preheater:- The function of air pre-heater is to increase the temperature of air
before is enters the furnace. It is generally placed after the economiser. So that flue
gases pass through the economiser and then to air preheat. Usually, there are three
types of pre-heater:-
(i) Tubular type
(ii) Plate type
(iii) Regenerative type

3. Super heater:- The function of a super heater is to increase the temperature of the
steam above its saturation point.

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 4. Injector:- The function of an injector is to feed water in to the boiler. It is commonly
employed for vertical and locomotive boiler and does not find its applications in large
capacity high pressure boiler.

Do-it-yourself :

Study and include two fire tube boilers and two water tube boilers in your report from the
following boilers :
1. Simple Vertical Boiler
2. Cochran Boiler
3. Cornish Bolier
4. Scotch Boiler
5. Stirling Boiler
6. La Mont Boiler
7. Loeffler Boiler
8. Benson Bolier
9. Velox Boiler

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MOTILAL NEHRU NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
ALLAHABAD

THERMAL ENGINEERING LABORATORY-II

(ME-15204)

EXPERIMENT No: 04

Study and Performance of Steam Turbine- De-Laval Impulse

Turbine

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DE-LAVAL TURBINE

AIM- Study the performance of steam turbine – De-Laval Turbine model.

Objectives- To know the following-

1-Various parts

2-Working principle.

3-Function of various components.

4-Materials of various parts

PRINCIPLE-

De Laval turbine changes the direction of flow of a high velocity steam. The resulting
impulse spins the turbine and leaves the fluid flow with diminished kinetic energy. There is
no pressure change of the fluid or gas in the turbine blades as in the case of a steam or gas
turbine, all the pressure drop takes place in the nozzles. Before reaching the turbine, the
steam pressure head is changed to velocity head by accelerating the fluid with a nozzle.

PARTS AND COMPONENTS

(A) BLADES;-The blades are the most important part of turbine. Their design is crucial
in capturing as much energy from steam as possible and converting it into rotational
energy by spinning the rotor round. All turbines have a set of rotating blades
attached to the rotor and spin it around as steam hits them. The blades and rotor are
completely enclosed in a very sturdy, ALLOY STEEL outer case (are capable of
withstanding high pressure and temperature).

Material of blades:-material of blades should be such that it withstands high

temperature. Steel, Nickel-alloys, Alloy steel are used for this purpose.

(B) ROTOR:-Rotor is fixed over shaft ass of which the power is available. It is a
turning part of turbine on which moving blades are fixed.
(C) Nozzle - Nozzles direct steam against the blades and turn the rotor. The energy to
rotate an impulse turbine is derived from the kinetic energy of the steam
flowing through the nozzles.
(D) Casing: - casing is outside cover of turbine. It is fixed by a fixed nozzle.

De- laval impulse steam turbine:-

Steam enters on one side of the turbine through the nozzles, pointing at the surface of the
turbine blades, and leaves from the opposite side of the wheel. The impact of the steam on the
curved turbine blades causes the turbine to turn.

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 Fig. Velocity Diagram

(Vw = Whirl velocity, Vb = Blade velocity, V2, V1 = Absolute velocity of steam, Vr = Relative
velocity of steam, Va = Axial velocity of steam)

WORKING

Steam jets are directed at the turbine's bucket shaped rotor blades. The pressure exerted by
the jets causes the rotor to rotate. The velocity of the steam to reduce as it imparts its kinetic
energy to the blades. The blades in turn change the direction of flow of the steam however its
pressure remains constant as it passes through the rotor blades since the cross section of the

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chamber between the blades is constant. Impulse turbines are therefore also known as
constant pressure turbines.

ANALYTICAL ANALYSIS OF STEAM TURBINE

STAGE EFFICIENCY- A stage of an impulse turbine consists of a nozzle and moving

wheel. The stage efficiency defines relationship between enthalpy drop in the nozzle and the
work done in the stage.
Work done on the blade(s) m(Vw1  Vw 2 )u (Vw1  Vw 2 )u
Stage efficiency = = =
Total energy supplied per stage m( H 1 − H 2 ) Hd

Fig: Velocity Diagram

BLADE EFFICIENCY-It can be defined as the ratio of work done on the blade to kinetic
energy supplied to the flui .

Work done on the blade(s) m(Vw1  Vw 2 )u 2u (Vw1  Vw 2 )u

Blade efficiency = = = 2
Energy supplied to the blade(s) 1 2 V1
mV1
2
m(Vw1  Vw 2 )u
Power developed by the turbine = kW
1000

ADVANTAGES
1) The arrangement has less number of stages and hence less initial cost
2) The arrangement requires less space
3) The system is reliable and easy to operate
4) The fall of pressure in the nozzle is considerable, so the turbine itself need not work in
high pressure surroundings and the turbine housing need not be very strong

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DISADVANTAGES
1. Since all the KE of the high velocity steam has to be absorbed in only one ring of
moving blades, the velocity of the turbine is too high i.e. up to 30000 RPM for
practical purposes.
2. The velocity of the steam at exit is sufficiently high which means that there is a
considerable loss of KE.

LOSSES IN TURBINE

➢ Residual velocity loss

➢ Losses in regulating valves
➢ Loss due to steam friction in nozzle
➢ Loss due to leakage
➢ Loss due to mechanical friction
➢ Loss due to wetness of steam
➢ Radiation loss

Do-it-Yourself :
Attempt the following numerical:

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MOTILAL NEHRU NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
ALLAHABAD

THERMAL ENGINEERING LABORATORY-II

(ME-15204)

EXPERIMENT No: 05

To Study the Working of Impulse and Reaction Steam Turbines.

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Objective: To Study the working of Impulse and Reaction steam turbines.

Apparatus: Model of Impulse and Reaction steam turbines.

Theory: The steam turbine is a prime mover in which the potential energy of steam is
transformed into kinetic energy and latter in its turn is transformed into the mechanical
energy of the rotation of the turbine shaft.
Classification of steam turbine: With respect to the action of steam, turbines are classified
as:
1. Impulse turbine
2. Reaction turbine
Impulse turbines: There is no change in the pressure of the steam as it passes through the
moving blades. There is change only in the velocity of the steam flow. An impulse turbine
has fixed nozzles that orient the steam flow into high speed jets. These jets contain significant
kinetic energy, which is converted into shaft rotation by the bucket-like shaped rotor blades,
as the steam jet changes direction. A pressure drop occurs across only the stationary blades,
with a net increase in steam velocity across the stage. As the steam flows through the nozzle
its pressure falls from inlet pressure to the exit pressure (atmospheric pressure, or more
usually, the condenser vacuum). Due to this high ratio of expansion of steam, the steam
leaves the nozzle with a very high velocity. The steam leaving the moving blades has a large
portion of the maximum velocity of the steam when leaving the nozzle. The loss of energy
due to this higher exit velocity is commonly called the carry over velocity or leaving loss.

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Reaction turbines: There is change in both pressure and velocity as the steam flows through
the moving blades. In the reaction turbine, the rotor blades themselves are arranged to form
convergent nozzles. This type of turbine makes use of the reaction force produced as the
steam accelerates through the nozzles formed by the rotor. Steam is directed onto the rotor by
the fixed vanes of the stator. It leaves the stator as a jet that fills the entire circumference of
the rotor. The steam then changes direction and increases its speed relative to the speed of the
blades. A pressure drop occurs across both the stator and the rotor, with steam accelerating
through the stator and decelerating through the rotor, with no net change in steam velocity
across the stage but with a decrease in both pressure and temperature, reflecting the work
performed in the driving of the rotor.

Compounding of steam turbines: It is the method in which energy from the steam is
extracted in a number of stages rather than a single stage in a turbine. A compounded steam

Page | 34
turbine has multiple stages i.e. it has more than one set of nozzles and rotors, in series, keyed
to the shaft or fixed to the casing, so that either the steam pressure or the jet velocity is
absorbed by the turbine in number of stages.

Velocity compounding of impulse turbine: The velocity compounded Impulse turbine was
first proposed by C G Curtis to solve the problem of single stage Impulse turbine for use of
high pressure and temperature steam. The rings of moving blades are separated by rings of
fixed blades. The moving blades are keyed to the turbine shaft and the fixed blades are fixed
to the casing. The high pressure steam coming from the boiler is expanded in the nozzle first.
The Nozzle converts the pressure energy of the steam into kinetic energy. It is interesting to
note that the total enthalpy drop and hence the pressure drop occurs in the nozzle. Hence, the
pressure thereafter remains constant. This high velocity steam is directed on to the first set
(ring) of moving blades. As the steam flows over the blades, due the shape of the blades, it
imparts some of its momentum to the blades and losses some velocity. Only a part of the high
kinetic energy is absorbed by these blades. The remainder is exhausted on to the next ring of
fixed blade. The function of the fixed blades is to redirect the steam leaving from the first
ring moving blades to the second ring of moving blades. There is no change in the velocity of
the steam as it passes through the fixed blades. The steam then enters the next ring of moving
blades; this process is repeated until practically all the energy of the steam has been absorbed.

Page | 35
A schematic diagram of the Curtis stage impulse turbine, with two rings of moving blades
one ring of fixed blades is shown in figure. The figure also shows the changes in the pressure
and the absolute steam velocity as it passes through the stages.

where,

Pi = pressure of steam at inlet

Vi = velocity of steam at inlet

Po = pressure of steam at outlet

Vo = velocity of steam at outlet

In the above figure there are two rings of moving blades separated by a single of ring of fixed
blades. As discussed earlier the entire pressure drop occurs in the nozzle, and there are no
subsequent pressure losses in any of the following stages. Velocity drop occurs in the moving
blades and not in fixed blades.

Pressure compounding is the method in which pressure in a steam turbine is made to drop in
a number of stages rather than in a single nozzle. The arrangement consists of a number of
simple impulse turbines in series mounted on a common shaft. The exit steam from one
turbine is made to enter the nozzle of the succeeding turbine. Each of the simple impulse
turbines would then be termed a "stage" of the turbine. Each stage comprises its ring of
nozzle and blades. The steam from the boiler passes through the first nozzle ring where its
pressure drops and velocity increases. The high velocity jet steam is directed onto the first
moving blades wherein nearly all of its velocity is absorbed. The steam pressure remains
unaltered. The steam from the first ring of moving blades enters the second ring of nozzles
where its pressure is further reduced. The next ring of moving blades absorbs the velocity
obtained from this second ring nozzle. The process is repeated in the remaining rings until the
whole of the pressure has been absorbed.

Page | 36
Pressure-velocity compounding:- It is a combination of the above two types of
compounding. The total pressure drop of the steam is divided into a number of stages. Each
stage consists of rings of fixed and moving blades. Each set of rings of moving blades is
separated by a single ring of fixed blades. In each stage there is one ring of fixed blades and
3-4 rings of moving blades. Each stage acts as a velocity compounded impulse turbine. The
fixed blades act as nozzles. The steam coming from the boiler is passed to the first ring of
fixed blades, where it gets partially expanded. The pressure partially decreases and the
velocity rises correspondingly. The velocity is absorbed by the following rings of
movingblades until s the next ring of fixed blades and the whole process is repeated once
again.

Page | 37
Conclusion: Thus, the study is completed for the working of Impulse and Reaction steam
turbines.

Do-it-yourself:

Q. The first stage of an impulse turbine is compounded for velocity and has two rows of
moving blades and one ring of fixed blades. The nozzle angle is 15º and the leaving angles of
blades are respectively, first-moving 30º, fixed 20º ; second-moving 30º. The velocity of
steam leaving the nozzle is 540 m/s. The friction loss in each blade row is 10% of the
relatives velocity. Steam leaves the second row of moving blades axially. Find: (i) Blade
velocity, (ii) blade efficiency, (iii) Specific Steam consumption.

Page | 38
MOTILAL NEHRU NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
ALLAHABAD

THERMAL ENGINEERING LABORATORY-II

(ME-15204)

EXPERIMENT No: 06

To Study and Performance of Surface Condenser

Page | 39
Aim: To study and performance of surface condenser.

Theory: Condenser is a closed space into which steam exits the turbine and is forced to give
up its latent heat of vaporization. It is a necessary component of a steam power plant because
of two reasons. It converts dead steam into live feed water. It lowers the cost of supply of
cleaning and treating of working fluid. It is far easier to pump a liquid than a steam. It
increases the efficiency of the cycle by allowing the plant to operate on largest possible
temperature difference between source and sink. The steam’s latent heat of condensation is
passed to the water flowing through the tubes of condenser. After steam condenses, the
saturated water continues to transfer heat to cooling water as it falls to the bottom of the
condenser called, hot well.

Types of condenser -

1. Jet condenser

2. Surface condenser

Jet condenser:- In jet condenser the exhaust steam and water come in direct contact with
each other and temperature of the condensate is same as that of cooling water leaving the
condenser. The cooling water is usually sprayed into the exhaust steam to cause, rapid
condensate. Surface condenser:- In surface condenser the exhaust steam and water do not
come into direct contact. The steam passes over outer surface of tubes through which a
supply of cooling water is maintained. There may be single-pass or double-pass. In single
pass condenser the water flow in one direction only through all the tubes, while in two-pass
condenser the water flow in one direction through the tubes and returns through the
remainder.

surface condenser& Jet condenser –

The steam condensers are broadly classified into two types:

• Surface condensers (or non-mixing type condensers). In surface condensers, there is
no direct contact between the exhaust steam and the cooling water.
• Jet condensers (or mixing type condensers). In jet condensers there is direct contact
between the exhaust steam and cooling water.

SURFACE CONDENSER-

The surface condenser is designed to condense and deaerate the exhaust steam from the main
turbine and provide a heat sink for the turbine bypass system. In surface condensers, there
is no direct contact between the exhaust steam and the cooling water. The exhausted steam
from the LP turbines is condensed by passing over tubes containing water from the cooling
system. The steam condenses when it comes in contact with the cold surface of the tubes and
due to the heat transfer to cooling water by conduction and convection. These tubes are
usually made of stainless steel, copper alloys, or titanium depending on several selection
criteria (such as thermal conductivity or corrosion resistance). Titanium condenser tubes are
usually the best technical choice, however titanium is very expensive material and the use of

Page | 40
titanium condenser tubes is associated with very high initial costs. In general, there are two
types of surface condensers:
• water-cooled surface condenser
• air-cooled surface condenser
In thermal power plants, where cooling water is in short supply, an air-cooled condenser can
be used. An air-cooled condenser is however, significantly more expensive and cannot
achieve as low a steam turbine exhaust pressure (and temperature) as a water-cooled surface
condenser.

DOWN-FLOW TYPE:
The cooling water enters the shell at the lower half section and after traveling through the
upper half section comes out through the outlet. The exhaust steam entering shell from the
top flows down over the tubes and gets condensed and is finally removed by an extraction
pump. Due to the fact that steam flows in a direction right angle to the direction of flow of
water, it is also called cross-surface condenser.
CENTRAL FLOW TYPE:
In this type of condenser, the suction pipe of the air extraction pump is located in the centre
of the tubes which results in radial flow of the steam. The better contact between the outer
surface of the tubes and steam is ensured; due to large passages the pressure drop of steam is
reduced.

Page | 41
INVERTED FLOW TYPE:This type of condenser has the air suction at the top, the steam
after entering at the bottom rises up and then again flows down to the bottom of
thecondenser, by following a path near the outer surface of the condenser. The condensate
extraction pump is at the bottom.

REGENERATIVE TYPE:
This type is applied to condensers adopting a regenerative method of heating of the
condensate. After leaving the tube nest, the condensate is passed through the entering exhaust
steam from the steam engine or turbine thus raising the temperature of the condensate, for use
as feed water for the boiler.

Page | 42
Fig- flow chart of vacuum systems with surface condensers and liquid ring vacuum pump

Page | 43
Condenser efficiency:-

It is defined as the ratio of the difference between outlet and inlet temperature of cooling
water to the difference between temperature corresponding to the vacuum in the condenser
and inlet temperature of cooling water i.e.,

Condenser efficiency = Rise in temp. of cooling water/ (temp. correspondence to vacuum) -

(inlet temp. of cooling water in condenser)

Applications of surface condensers:-

-Vacuum evaporation

-Vacuum refrigeration

-Ocean Thermal Energy (OTEC)

-Replacing barometric condensers in steam-driven ejector systems

-Geothermal energy recovery

-Desalination systems

Vacuum system:-
For water-cooled surface condensers, the shell's internal vacuum is most commonly supplied
by and maintained by an external steam jet ejector system. Such an ejector system uses steam
as the motive fluid to remove any non-condensible gases that may be present in the surface
condenser. The Venturi effect, which is a particular case of Bernoulli's principle, applies to
the operation of steam jet ejectors.

Page | 44
 Fig- steam injector

Vacuum pump:-

Thermal performance analysis:-Performance of the condenser is analysed based on

logarithmic mean temperature difference (LMTD) method. Based on LMTD, the heat transfer
equation can be expressed as

Page | 45
 Q =kA ( dTm) (1)

Where,

k-heat transfer coefficient

A-tube surface area

Q-heat transfer rate

Page | 46
Based on energy balance, heat to cold side flow ( Q12) and heat from hot side flow ( Q345) is
given by;

eqn (2&3)

where m˙, mass flow rate;

h, enthalpy;

T, temperature.

Subscript 1, 2, 3, 4 &5 denotes the state point as shown in Fig. 1.

From equation (1) & (2)

eqn (4)

Considering no heat loss is taking place, Q = Q12 = Q345

LMTD ( dTm) from eqn(1), can be derived by using following expression ineqn (5)

eqn (5)

whereTsat, saturation temperature of steam inlet to condenser

As the cooling system is an open cycle system, usually deposition takes place on the tubes in
the water side. Fouling on water side decreases the thermal performance of steam condenser.
When there is no change in the operational mode and water quality is stabilized then the
velocity of water is the only factor which affect rate of deposition in tube.

To determine the CW flow rate, velocity traversing method is used. As the diameter of the
pipe is known, the measured average velocity is used to calculate the CW flow rate using the
eqn(6).

CW flow rate,

eqn (6)

where ρ is density of water, U is the velocity.

In order to validate the measured flow using ultrasonic flow meter, CW flow rate is also
computed based on the heat balance method. In this a detailed heat balance calculation is
performed in turbine cycle for determining the condenser duty as given in eqn (7).

Page | 47
eqn (7)

The CW flow rate is calculated taking the measured CW inlet & outlet temperature and
condenser duty using eqn (8)

eqn (8)

The effectiveness can be expressed as a function of surface area, CW flow rate, heat transfer
coefficient and specific heat of water or as a ratio of temperature differences.

eqn (9)

where T is temperature and subscript 1 and 2 denotes the state point as shown in Fig. 2.

Fig .2-Effect of CW temperature on condenser pressure and heat transfer coefficient

Page | 48
Fig .3-Effect of CW flow rate on condenser pressure and heat transfer coefficient.

Results and discussion:-The theory of condenser operation is reasonably straight forward.

Heat transfer in condenser and latent heat removal from the exhaust vapor depends on
condenser pressure, CW temperature and flow rate. At a given unit load, variation in CW
parameters (flowrate and temperature) affect the condenser pressure as well as turbine cycle
heat rate.

Do-it-yourself:

Q. A surface condenser is required to deal with 20000 kg of steam per hour, and the air
leakage is estimated at 0.3 kg per 1000 kg of steam. The steam enters the condenser dry
saturated at 38 ºC. The condensate is extracted at the lowest point of the condenser at a
temperature of 36 ºC. The condensate loss is made up with water at 7 ºC. It is required to find
the saving in condensate and the saving in heat supplied in the boiler, by fitting a separate air
extraction pump which draws the air over an air cooler. Assume that the air leaves the cooler
at 27 ºC. The pressure in the condenser can be assumed to remain constant.

Page | 49
 MOTILAL NEHRU NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
ALLAHABAD

THERMAL ENGINEERING LABORATORY-II

(ME-15204)

EXPERIMENT No: 07

To find Dryness Fraction of Steam by Separating and Throttling

Calorimeter

(http://vmt-
iitg.vlabs.ac.in/Separating_and_Throttling_Calorimeter(theory).html)

Page | 50
Introduction

The temperature change of a gas or liquid when it is forced through a valve or porous plug
while kept insulated so that no heat is exchanged with the environment. This procedure is
called a Throttling process. This temperature can be described by the “Joule–Thomson
effect” or “Joule–Kelvin effect” or “Kelvin–Joule effect” or “Joule–Thomson expansion”. In
the Joule experiment, the gas expands in a vacuum and the temperature drop of the system is
zero, if the gas were ideal. In this process there is no change in enthalpy from state one to
state two, h1 = h2; no work is done, W = 0; and the process is adiabatic, Q = 0. Let’s take an
example of a throttling process is an ideal gas flowing through a valve in mid position. We
can observe that: Pin > Pout, velin < velout (where P = pressure and vel = velocity). These
observations confirm the theory that hin = hout.

Remember h = u + pv (v = specific volume), so if pressure decreases then specific volume

must increase if enthalpy is to remain constant (assuming u is constant). Because mass flow is
constant, the change in specific volume is observed as an increase in gas velocity. The theory
also states W = 0. Our observations again confirm this to be true as clearly no "work" has
been done by the throttling process. Finally, the theory states that an ideal throttling process
is adiabatic.

Separating Calorimeter

It consists of two concentric chambers, the inner chamber and the outer chamber, which
communicates with each other through an opening at the top. As the steam discharges
through the metal basket, which has a large number of holes, the water particles due to their
heavier momentum get separated from the steam and collect in the chamber. The
comparatively dry steam in the inner chamber moves up and then down aging through the
annular space between the two chambers and enters the Throttling Calorimeter.

It is a vessel used initially to separate some of the moisture from the steam, to ensure
superheat conditions after throttling. The steam is made to change direction suddenly; the
moisture droplets, being heavier than the vapor, drop out of suspension and are collected at
the bottom of the vessel.

Throttling Calorimeter

It consists a narrow throat (Orifice). Pressure and temperature are measured by pressure
gauge and thermometer. The steam after throttling process passes through the heat exchanger
and condensate is collected. Steam Generator is also provided to supply the saturated steam
(Max) at 2kg/cm2 pressure. There is no need of boiler.

It is a vessel with a needle valve fitted on the inlet side. The steam is throttled through the
needle valve and exhausted to the condenser.

Page | 51
 Fig. Combined Separating and Throttling Calorimeter

Fig: Representation of two processes of separating-throttling calorimeter on T-s and h-s

diagrams.

Dryness Factor

The quality of wet steam is usually defined by its dryness fraction. When the dryness
fraction, pressure and temperature of the steam are known, then the state of wet steam is fully
defined. In a steam plant it is at times necessary to know the state of the steam. For wet
steam, this entails finding the dryness fraction. When the steam is very wet, we make use of a
separating calorimeter.

Page | 52
Combined Calorimeter

Separating calorimeter does not give an accurate result and the throttling calorimeter fails if
the steam is not superheated after throttling. A combination of separating and throttling
calorimeter is therefore found most suitable for accurate measurement of dryness of steam.

Calculations of dryness fraction of wet steam X:

• Partial dryness fraction of wet steam coming from main steam pipe, measured by
separating calorimeter alone,

Wd
x1 =
W + Wd

• Dryness fraction of steam entering into throttling calorimeter from separating

calorimeter through throttling valve, measured by throttling calorimeter alone

hsup,c − h f , B
x2 =
h fg , B

Where,

hf,B is enthalpy of saturated water at p1 (from steam tables) , kJ/kg.

hfg,B is Latent heat of vapouization at p1 (from steam tables),kJ/kg

• hsup,C (= h g , B + c p , steam (t sup − t sat )) is enthalpy of a throttled superheated steam

corresponding to pressure p2 and temperature tsup,C (from superheated steam table),
kJ/kg .
• Mass of dry steam in the wet steam sample collected from main steam pipe = the
mass of dry steam entering the throttling calorimeter = x2 . Wd

Finally, The total dryness fraction of wet steam collected from main steam pipe measure by
Combined Separating and Throttling Calorimeter

Massofdrystea min totalmassofwetsteamsamplecolle ctedfromsteampipe Wd .x2

x= =
Totalmassofwetsteamsamplecolle ctedfrommainsteampipe Wd + W

By using above equation, we have

x = x1.x2

This shows that the dryness fraction of steam measured from combined separating and
throttling calorimeter is the product of dryness fraction x1 and x2 measured by separating and
throttling calorimeter respectively.

Page | 53
PROCEEDURE

1. Cleaning the setup: Firstly clean the setup and fill your setup with distilled water.
2. Temperature set: Set the temperature of steam generator up to 400 K.
3. Maintain the pressure: Now slowly open the needle valve, maintain the constant gauge
pressure.
4. Steady state is reached: When steady state is reached note the pressure difference from
manometer and Temperature after throttling by thermometer.
5. Collecting the moisture: Collect the suspended moisture from the separating and throttling
calorimeter then Weigh it.
6. Now at last calculate the dryness factor by the given formulae.

Utilities Required

1. Water supply continuous for heat exchanger

2.Space required: 1.0 m x 1.0 m
3.Electricity supply: Single phase 220 V AC and 4 kW
4.Electronic balance say 1 kg
5.Steam table for calculation.

Dryness Factor

Term dryness factor refers to wet steam. It is defined as ration of mass of dry steam actually
present to the mass of wet steam, which contains it.
Let in sample of wet steam
X=Wd/ (Wd+W)
Where
X= Dryness factor of sample,
Wd =Weigh of dry steam in kg
W=Weigh of water vapour in suspension

Separating and Throttling Calorimeter

The steam passing out from a separating calorimeter may still contain some vapours in it. In
others words it may not absolutely dry. Again in a throttling calorimeter steam after passing
through throttle valve must be superheated or at least dry saturated. This limits the extent of
dryness factor. It can be reliably measured, depend on the pressure of the steam in the main
steam pipe. If sample of steam which may still wet after passing through the throttle valve i.e.
it will not be superheated. To overcome the difficulties we make use of combined separating
and throttling. First steam is passed through separating calorimeter where it loses most part of
the it’s moisture and become comparatively drier. It is then passed through the throttling
calorimeter where superheating takes place without change of total heat. The temperature and
pressure of the steam after throttling are measured by using a thermometer and manometer
separately.

Experimental Calculation

Temperature after throttling: T1

Gauge pressure of Steam Generator: P1

Page | 54
Gauge Pressure before Throttling: P

Manometer difference: H

Volume of moisture collected: W

Volume of dry steam collected after throttling: Wd

Observations:

Calculation for 2nd reading.

1) Dryness fraction of separating calorimeter:

X1 = Wd/(W+Wd) = 0.61

2) Pressure of superheated steam: P2= 101.325 + 13.6*9.81*18/1000 = 103.73 KPa

3) Specific heat of steam: Cp = 2081.6645 J/Kg

4) Sensible heat of water at pressure P (From steam table):HW1 = 449961 Joule

5) Latent heat of wet steam entering throttling calorimeter (Steam Table):L1 = 2237790 J/Kg

6) Total heat of dry steam at pressure P2 (Steam table):H2= 2655180 Joule

7) Saturation temperature at P2 (Steam table):T2 = 99.94 0C

8) Dryness fraction from throttling calorimeter: X2 = (H2+Cp(t1-t2)-Hw1)/L1= 0.976

(9) Dryness factor of sample, X = X1. X2 = 0.595

Do-it-yourself:

Open the following virtual lab and study.

http://vmt-iitg.vlabs.ac.in/Separating_and_Throttling_Calorimeter(theory).html

Page | 55
MOTILAL NEHRU NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
ALLAHABAD

THERMAL ENGINEERING LABORATORY-II

(ME-15204)

EXPERIMENT No: 08

Study and Performance of Vertical Steam Engine

Page | 56
 VERTICAL STEAM ENGINE

Objective: To study the performance of vertical steam engine with respect to:-
3. Variation of brake power with indicated power and then to find mechanical efficiency
variation with brake power.
4. Load variation with pressure at the inlet to the slide valve.

Instrument: Tachometer, Scale, Wax paper, Planimeter

Theory: Vertical Steam engine is a form of heat engine where heat is converted into
mechanical work due to the action of steam upon a reciprocating piston. The steam engine
finds their applications in locomotive ships and in the other fields where small power and low
speeds are required. Its main advantage is that the engine speed can be reversed. However, it
has a low thermal efficiency.
Classification of Steam Engines:
1. According to class of service:
-Stationary -Locomotive
-Marine -Pumping or hoisting
2. According to speed (rotating):
-High speed (>300 rpm) -Medium (125-300 rpm)
-Low speed (<125 rpm)

3. According to arrangement of cylinder:

-Vertical -Inclined
-Horizontal
4. According to type of valve design:
-Simple D valve -Balanced plate valve
-Piston valve -Riding cut off valve
-Poppet valve -Corliss valve

5. According to method of governing:

-Manual or Automatic Throttle or cut-off governor
-Centrifugal or Inertia type of governor

Page | 57
6. According to number of cylinders:
- Single cylinder Engine
-Multi-Cylinder Engine

Parts of Steam Engine:

1. Engine Cylinder
It is made up of cast iron and bored out perfectly true. The Casting of Cylinder consists of
two chambers – cylinder, value chamber or value chest.
2. Steam Chest
Steam Chest is a Reservoir of steam from which the steam is admitted into the cylinder
during the admission stroke of piston, it is covered with the cover known as steam chest
cover through which the slide value rod passes.
3. Piston
The Function of piston is to convert the pressure energy of steam into its reciprocating
movement. It is made of cast iron or steel.

4. Crosshead & Guide

It connects the outer end of the piston rod plus small end of the connecting rod. It is made of
wrought iron, forged steel.
5. Connecting Rods
The Function of a connecting rod is to convert the reciprocating motion of the piston rod and
cross head into angular motion of crank shaft. Its motion is oscillating .It’s one end is
connected to crosshead by means of pin known as Gudgeon Pin and the other to crank by
crankpin .
6. Eccentric
It converts the rotary motion of the crank shaft into reciprocating motion of the slide value. It
is fixed on the crankshaft .An Eccentric consists of “Sheave “&”Strap”.
7. Flywheel
It is used to maintain the constant angular motion of the crank during the stroke of engine.
8. Governor
It is used to keep the speed of the crankshaft over a period when there is variation of load on
engine.

Page | 58
Working of the Engine
In the cycle ,water is heated and transformed into steam within a boiler operating at
a high pressure .When expanded through piston ,mechanical work is done .The reduced
pressure steam is then condensed and pumped back into the boiler.
In general uses, the term steam engine can refer to the piston either the integrated steam
plants (including boilers etc.) such as a railway steam locomotives and portable engine and
may refer to the piston and turbine machinery.
The vertical steam engine is a double acting steam engine where steam is entered
through D-slide valves alternatively during a cycle .The piston cylinder arrangement is made
vertical and thee crank shaft is arranged horizontally that supports the mechanism of the D-
slide valve also. A speed controlling flywheel is also mounted on the same shaft for load
measurement at the dial gauges. An indicator diagram is also plotted with the help of an
arrangement for measurement of work done in one cycle.

Hypothetical or Theoretical Indicator Diagram

An Indicator diagram is the plot of variation of steam pressure and volume of the
steam in the cylinder during the cycle of operation.Theoretical indicator diagram or
hypothetical indicator diagram is defined by the modified Rankin cycle define by pressure-
volume curve. We can see, there is no pressure in the engine cylinder, so clearance is zero but
practically it is impossible, shown in the line diagram.

Assumptions:
1. Steam is admitted to the cylinder at boiler pressure and exhausted condenser pressure.
2. There is instantaneous opening and closing of part.
3. The Expansion is hyperbolic (PV=constant).

Page | 59
4. No pressure drop due to condensation of steam due to difference in temperature of steam
and cylinder walls.

Actual Indicator Diagram

1. It is different from theoretical due to the timing of the valve action and the pressure
drop due to friction in admission part.
2. Valve action gives rounding to the diagram since process can’t be started or
terminated instantaneously
3. The exhaust process must begin before the end of the stroke to allow the time required
for blow down (i.e. release of pressure).

Formula Used:
(𝑤1 −𝑤2 )
2𝜋𝑁 𝑟𝑓
2
1. Brake Power (𝐵𝑃 ) = KW
1000
𝐴𝑑
2. Mean Effective Pressure = 𝑃𝑚 = 𝑙𝑑
200𝑃𝑚 LAN
3. Indicated Power (IP) = KW
1000
𝐵𝑟𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 (𝐵𝑃)
4. Mechanical Efficiency = 𝜂𝑀𝑒𝑐ℎ = 𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 (𝐼𝑃)

Page | 60
Do-it-yourself:
Attempt a Numerical on Vertical Steam Engine for its performance analysis.

Page | 61
 MOTILAL NEHRU NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
ALLAHABAD

THERMAL ENGINEERING LABORATORY-II

(ME-15204)

EXPERIMENT No: 09

Study of 600 Rovers Gas Turbine and to draw the air fuel, lubrication and
power cycles.

Page | 62
Objective: Study of 600 Rovers Gas Turbine and to draw the air fuel, lubrication and power cycles.

Equipment: Rover’s Gas Turbine

Description:

Introduction: Gas turbine is a rotary type internal combustion thermal prime mover. The Gas Turbine
plant work on a gas power cycle. The gas turbine obtains its power by utilizing the energy of a jet of
burnt gases and air, the velocity of jet being absorbed as it flows over several rings of moving, blades,
which are fixed on a rotor mounted on a common shaft. The essential difference between a
reciprocating internal combustion engine and a gas turbine, apart from the difference in reciprocating
and rotary motion, is that in the I.C. engine, compression, combustion and expansion take place in a
single component (cylinder), while in gas turbine, each of these operations is produced in a separate
components.

Gas Turbine components:

• Inlet system Collects and directs air into the gas turbine. Often, an air cleaner and
silencer are part of the inlet system. It is designated for a minimum pressure drop
while maximizing clean airflow into the gas turbine.
• Compressor Provides compression, and, thus, increases the air density for the
combustion process. The higher the compression ratio, the higher the total gas turbine
efficiency. Low compressor efficiencies result in high compressor discharge
temperatures, therefore, lower gas turbine output power.
• Combustor Adds heat energy to the airflow. The output power of the gas turbine is
directly proportional to the combustor firing temperature; i.e., the combustor is
designed to increase the air temperature up to the material limits of the gas turbine
while maintaining a reasonable pressure drop.
• Gas Producer Turbine Expands the air and absorbs just enough energy from the
flow to drive the compressor. The higher the gas producer discharge temperature
and pressure, the more energy is available to drive the power turbine, therefore,
creating shaft work.
• Power Turbine: Converts the remaining flow energy from the gas producer into
useful shaft output work. The higher the temperature difference across the power
turbine, the more shaft output power is available.
• Exhaust System: Directs exhaust flow away from the gas turbine inlet. Often a
silencer is part of the exhaust system. Similar to the inlet system, the exhaust system
is designed for minimum pressure losses.

The main operations of a gas turbine plant consists of:

1. Compression of cool air in a rotary compressor.
2. Heating of this air by the combustion of fuel in the combustion chamber.
3. Expansion of this hot high pressure gas in a turbine.

Classification: Gas turbine plants can be classified according to the following factors:
• Combustion: Continuous-combustion or constant pressure gas turbine and explosive type
combustion or constant volume gas turbine.

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• Thermodynamic Cycle: Brayton or Joule cycle (for constant volume gas turbines and
Ericsson cycle (for constant pressure gas turbine with large number of intercooling and
reheating.)
• Cycle of Operation: Open cycle, closed cycle, or semi-closed cycle gas turbine.
Continuous-combustion (constant pressure) gas turbine may work with open or closed
cycle. Constant volume gas turbine works with open cycle. Closed cycle gas turbine is an
external combustion engine while open cycle gas turbine is an internal combustion engine.
• Arrangement of Shaft : Single shaft gas turbines (compressor is run by power turbine) and
Multi shaft gas turbines (separate compressor turbine and power turbine), Series flow gas
turbine sand Parallel flow gas turbines, etc.
• Fuel : Liquid fuel, gaseous fuel or solid fuel gas turbine.
• Application: Stationary, automotive, locomotive, marine and air-craft gas turbine.

ROVER’S GAS TURBINE

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 ✓ The Gas Turbine in our lab is IS/60 Rover’s Gas Turbine which is an
Open Cycle Gas Turbine .

Theory: The open gas-turbine cycle can be modelled as a closed cycle, using the air-standard
assumption.

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 FIGURE: AN OPEN CYCLE GAS TURBINE ENGINE .

FIGURE: A CLOSED CYCLE GAS TURBINE ENGINE .

Working Principle: The ideal cycle that the working fluid undergoes in the closed loop is the
Brayton cycle. It is made up of four internally reversible processes:

1-2 Isentropic compression;

2-3 Constant-pressure heat addition;
3-4 Isentropic expansion
4-1 Constant-pressure heat rejection.

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 FIG: T-S AND P-V DIAGRAMS OF IDEAL BRAYTON CYCLE

• B.H.P: Brake Horse power is the measure of an engine horse power before the loss in
power is caused by gearbox (Alternator), differential, water pump and auxiliary
components. It is measured by the resistance of an applied brake.
• Air Mass Flow Rate: This is the amount of fluid which must be handled per unit of power
output. This is a criterion of the size of the plant. The air rate is usually expressed in terms
of kg per second of air inducted by the compressor per unit power output. Thus,

1
Air Mass Flow Rate =
Net output per unit mass flow rate of air

• Compressor efficiency: It is defined as the ratio of actual work consumed by the

compressor to the work it would consume when it compresses the air isentropically.
• Thermal efficiency:

Where,

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 rp = pressure ratio (p2/p1)

k = Specific heat ratio for air

• Work Ratio: Work ratio of a gas turbine plant is defined as the ratio of net work output
(difference of turbine work and compressor work) and work done by the turbine. Thus,

𝒏𝒆𝒕 𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕

Work ratio= 𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝒅𝒐𝒏𝒆 𝒃𝒚 𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒃𝒊𝒏𝒆

• Compression ratio: It is defined as

rp= v1/v2

• Expansion ratio: It is defined as

re = v4/v3

• Turbine efficiency: It is defined as the ratio of actual brake output of the turbine to the
ideal work output (work it would produce when the working fluid expanded isentropically
and no losses are present)

• Flow coefficient of turbine: It is defined as the ratio of axial component

of velocity of jet striking the turbine blade to the blade velocity.

• Specific fuel consumption: It is defined as the mass of fuel required to obtain unit kWh of
power output.

• Combustion efficiency: It is defined as

Applications of gas turbine:

• Drive pumps, compressors and high speed cars.

• Aircraft and ships.
• Power generation (used for peak load and as stand-by unit).
Advantages:

• Light weight and size: Its weight to power output ratio is low which makes it suitable for
several applications.
• Fuel flexibility: Any type of hydrocarbon fuel from high octane gasoline to heavy diesel oil
and pulverized coal can also be used here.
• Ash disposal: With Thermal power plant it is a problem but with gas turbine it is not.
• No boiler or condenser required.
• No feedwater supply is required.
• Low cost of installation compared to thermal power plant.

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 • There is also a scope of cogeneration in the gas turbine as its exhaust can be used for the
same.
Disadvantages:

• Highly sensitive to component efficiency like efficiencies of turbine and compressor.

• The efficiency depends upon ambient conditions.
• Compressor work required is large which lowers the efficiency.
• Air and gas filters have to be of very high quality so that no dust could erode the blades of
turbine.

SOLVED NUMERICAL:

Question-

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Do-it-yourself:

Q. A Gas turbine unit has a pressure ratio of 6:1 and maximum cycle temperature of 610 ºC. The
isentropic efficiencies of the compressor and turbine are 0.80 and 0.82 respectively. Calculate the
power output in kW of an electric generator geared to the turbine when the air enters the compressor
at 15 ºC at the rate of 16 kg/s.

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MOTILAL NEHRU NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
ALLAHABAD

THERMAL ENGINEERING LABORATORY

(ME-15204)

Experiment- 10

Study and Performance of Two Stage Reciprocating Air Compressor.

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Aim:-To study and find volumetric efficiency of a Reciprocating air compressor.

Theory:-
This may be regarded as a machine which compresses or which is used to increase the
pressure of air by reducing its volume.
Reciprocating compressor:- This is a machine which compresses air by means of piston
reciprocating inside a cylinder.

Working:-
It consist a piston which is enclosed within a cylinder and equipped with suction and
discharge valve. The piston receives the power from the main shaft through a crank shaft and
connecting rod. A fly wheel is fitted on the main shaft to ensure turning moment to be
supplied throughout the cycle of operations.

The volumetric efficiency of a compressor is the ratio of the actual free air delivered to the
displacement of the compressor. The expression for a single stage reciprocating compressor
can be derived as follows-
Let,

ηv=Volumetric efficiency
Vs=Swept volume
Va=Actual volume
Vc=Clearance volume
ηv=Volumetric efficiency
Vs=Swept volume
Va=Actual volume
Vc=Clearance volume

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The volumetric efficiency is given by the expression,

Rotary compressor may be classified as:-

1. Positive displacement compressor
2. Non – positive displacement compressor

Positive displacement compressors are future classified as:-

(a) Roots blower
(b) Crescent or Vane blower
c) Lysholm compressor
(d) Screw compressor
Non – positive compressor are classified as:-
(a) Centrifugal compressor
(b) Axial flow compressor

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1. Positive displacement compressor:- It have two sets of mutually engaging cam surface or
lobes. The air is trapped between the lobes and the pressure rise take place either be back
blow of air from receive by squeezing action and back blow of air.
(a) Roots blower:- in which back flow of high pressure air from the receive creates rise in
pressure.
(b) Vane blower:- in which combined squeezing action and back flow of air creates rise in
pressure.

2. Non – positive displacement compressor: - The pressure rise in these machine is not due
to space reduction or back blow action of the high pressure air from the receive as in the case
of positive compressor but is due to transfer of K. E. of the fluid to the pressure energy by
one or more rotating rings of curved blades known as ‘Impeller’.
(a) Centrifugal compressor:- The rotating member known as the Impeller consist a large
number of blades and is mounted on the compressor shaft inside stationary casting. As the
impeller rotates the pressure in the region a falls and hence the air enters through the eye and
flow radially outwards through the impeller blades as of the compressor. Both velocity and
pressure increase as the air flow through the cylinder or impeller blades. Air enters through
the convergent passage formed by the diffuse blades.
(b) Axial flow compressor:- It is more commonly used, the air flows in an axial direction
right from the intake to the delivery. The working principle is illustrated in fig. The stator
encloses the rotor both of which are provided with rings of blades. As the air enters in the
direction it flows through the alternately arranged stator and rotor blade ring the air gets
compressed successively. For efficient operation the blades are made of aerofoil section
based on aero-dynamic theory. The annular area is made divergent as shown in order to keep
the flow velocity constant throughout the length of compressor.

Fig- two stage reciprocating air compressor with p-v diagram

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“A two stage reciprocating air compressor is ideal for demanding, industrial applications.
They are much tougher than single stage compressors and can handle more pressure and more
capacity (cfm).”

Fig-Two stage reciprocating air compressor

Do-it-yourself:

Q. In a triple stage reciprocating compressor of single acting type the air enters at 1bar, 27
ºC. The compressor has low pressure cylinder with bore of 30 cm and stroke of 20 cm.
Clearance volume of LP cylinder is 4% of the swept volume. The final discharge from
compressor takes place at 20 bar. The expansion and compression index may be taken
uniformly as 1.25 for all the stages. The intercooling between the stages may be
considered to be at optimum intercooling pressure and perfect intercooling. Determine
the interstage pressures, effective swept volume of low pressure cylinder, temperature
and volume of air delivered in each stroke and the work done per kg of air.
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