Introductory Part

This Chapter includes different local and foreign literature and studies that have direct
support for the research study and would serve as a guide and support in the
interpretation and analysis of the data gathered. This research study gives the essence
of the relevant readings done by the researcher related to the present research study.

Western societies have developed and employed diverse technologies to facilitate and
coordinate activities, produce and distribute goods, and organize and administer their
affairs. Modern societies have consequently come to be characterized by considerable
technological complexity. Automated surveillance systems and remote monitoring
devices now constitute an integral part of the prevailing technological infrastructure,
enabling modes of transportation, education, government, and commerce that would
otherwise be unthinkable. CCTV systems have increasingly become part of these larger
infrastructures and are now ubiquitous in many urban centers.

CCTV cameras are primarily used to monitor and record images of what takes place in
specific locations in real-time and today are firmly entrenched in modern society, not just
in terms of their widespread presence in public places, but also as a key part of community
safety, policing, and national public security policy. CCTV has several potential
applications for public safety and has been deployed with the intention variously of
preventing crime, detecting offenses, improving the response to emergencies, assisting
in the management of places, and reducing public fear of crime.
Foreign Literature

In the middle of the 1980s, most private spaces had closed-circuit television (CCTV)
systems installed. It is a more recent phenomenon that these systems started to appear
in locations that are typically regarded as public, and it did so in numerous nations very
quickly. In the last two decades, CCTV surveillance cameras have come to play a central
role in contemporary crime prevention and policing across the world (Goold, 2004;
Weisburd & Majmundar, 2018; Welsh & Farrington, 2009). This growth in CCTV is taking
place both within and across countries. The installation of CCTV in public areas has been
driven by a wide range of goals and objectives, including increased response times,
deterrence, and public safety. In the modern context, managing risks, managing traffic,
managing fires, managing accidents, and preventing crime are the main uses of CCTV in
public spaces (Hempel 2001).

It is no longer the case that a high prevalence of CCTV cameras is associated with one
or two industrialized countries, such as it once was in the United Kingdom (Norris &
McCahill, 2006). Camera systems are now being widely used in cities in industrialized
and developing countries across all of the populated continents, with the largest growth
being experienced in Asia, Europe, North America, and South America. In many of the
large cities—for example, Beijing, Chicago, London, and Rio de Janeiro—the camera
systems are highly sophisticated, incorporating emerging technologies, such as
networked camera systems, facial recognition applications, and license plate reader
technology (Hier, 2010). Effects of CCTV cameras vary across various contextual factors,
including geographical setting, crime type, camera monitoring strategy, who is monitoring,
use of other interventions, and even country of origin (Piza et al., 2019).

Provided by Welsh (2008), Closed Circuit Television Cameras (CCTV) have a modest,
but significant, desirable effect on crime prevention, are most effective in reducing crime
in car parks, and are most effective when targeted at vehicle crimes (largely a function of
the successful car park schemes) and is more effective in reducing crime in the United
Kingdom than in other countries. These results lend support for the continued use of
CCTV to prevent crime in public spaces but suggest that it be more narrowly targeted
than its present use would indicate. Added by Vella (2013), CCTV has become a highly
significant security measure in security. Recent literature illustrates the importance of
CCTV which makes it possible for shop owners, business managers, and the police to
deter and respond to incidents of crime alerted by such technology. A major function of
CCTV surveillance is that of storing images of incidents of crime and anti-social behavior
to facilitate post-incident analysis during investigations.

In a study conducted by Ashby (2017), CCTV surveillance cameras are widely used for
safety, but that use is controversial. The United Kingdom (UK) government has described
CCTV as “vital” for detecting offenders (Porter 2016), while the Washington, DC,
Metropolitan Police Department argued that it is often “invaluable to police investigations”.
On the other side of the debate, the campaign group (Liberty 2016) argued that extensive
use of CCTV “poses a threat to our way of life” and that “widespread visual surveillance
may well have a chilling effect on free speech and activity”. Similarly, the American Civil
Liberties Union claimed that public CCTV surveillance creates “an almost Orwellian
potential for surveillance and virtually invite[s] abuse.” In line with this study, Tony Lawson
(2018) expounded that situational crime prevention and interventions such as CCTV and
improved street lighting are widely used as ways to put off crime.

CCTV's potential crime prevention effect is in the technology’s ability to reduce the types
of situational cues that rational choice (Cornish & Clarke, 1986) and routine activities
(Cohen & Felson, 1979) models assert are necessary for crime commission. From a
routine activities perspective, CCTV can provide the necessary guardianship to prevent
motivated offenders from taking advantage of criminal opportunities. The crime
prevention mechanisms suggested by both rational choice and routine activities might be
generated via increased “formal surveillance” within specific, designated areas targeted
by CCTV cameras (Cornish & Clarke, 2003). Another view holds that the presence of
CCTV can convince citizens to better safeguard their property and promote increased
usage of public places, which can increase “natural surveillance” in target areas (Gill &
Spriggs, 2005). A better understanding of how CCTV effects differ across countries may
allow for the identification of countries that could benefit from closer integration of
emerging technologies or, conversely, whether certain countries have little to gain from
introducing additional technologies into their surveillance infrastructures. Research is
extensive on this but as Cozens and Love (2015) recently note, approaches continually
need to adapt to changing demographic patterns, lifestyles, and technology. However,
adding new approaches and responding to changing urban circumstances is costly for
the agencies involved, and difficult choices must be made to ensure crime prevention,
security, and safety.

Local Literature

The use of CCTV cameras in the Philippines has helped in capturing thieves, violators,
employees, and even suspects of killings. For over 20 years, businesses, individuals, and
commercial and residential associations have embraced video surveillance technology
as a means to protect residential privacy and property against intrusion and other forms
of crime (Marcus, 2010).

A number of LGUs have already passed ordinances requiring businessmen to install

CCTV equipment. Among them are the cities of Iloilo, Pasig, Mandaue, Muntinlupa, Iligan,
and Quezon (Department of Interior and Local Government). In community consultations
exploring situational crime prevention alternatives, CCTV is often suggested as a solution
that would make them feel safer (Crime Prevention Victoria, 2011). According to Alipala
(2011), the government installed closed circuit television (CCTV) cameras in the seaport,
market areas, and the main business areas where banks and other commercial
establishments, and government offices are worth 2.5 million pesos.

The investigative program used the hidden camera as an effective tool to gather accurate
reports. In Bontoc, Mountain Province, Close circuit television (CCTV) cameras are also
becoming an effective tool in identifying criminals in the Municipality. In 2011, police
officers arrested three robbery suspects who robbed a drug store at night. One of the
suspects was identified through the footage recorded in the CCTV camera installed inside
the establishment (Doga-ong, 2011). CCTV is often spoken of as if it is a solution that will
immediately reduce crime and cure fear of crime. With the recorded incidence of crimes
in the locality, business establishments started to install CCTV cameras within their
business premises with the aim of securing the same against crime. The LGU also of
Samal began installing the system in certain public areas with the aim of monitoring the
public and aiding in crime prevention and control. However, the evidence for CCTV as a
solution for fear of crime and as a crime reduction tool is conflicting and still open for
debate (Sherman et al., 2009). In relation to the present study, CCTV cameras are used
by Current Affairs program to offer credible evidence pertaining to different crimes
nowadays (Epino, 2007). Due to increased terrors and crimes, the use of the video
surveillance camera system is increasing, and it has been operated for public interest
such as the prevention of crimes and fly-tipping by the police and local government, but
private information such as faces, or behavior patterns can be recorded in CCTV. When
the recorded video data is exposed, it may cause an invasion of privacy and crimes. In
relation to the present study, the researchers believe that CCTV has a negative impact
on privacy exposure (Soccoro et al., 2011)

Foreign Studies

Many European countries now employ public video surveillance as a primary tool to
monitor population movements and prevent terrorism. The United Kingdom (UK) relies
extensively on video surveillance as a tool to fight crime and prevent terrorism. According
to some researchers, the camera surveillance systems in the UK are discouraging and
thus prevent crime. Public video surveillance in the UK began very unassumingly in 1986,
on a single square mile industrial estate outside the English town of Kings Lynn. Three
CCTV video surveillance cameras were used, and their impact was immediate.

A very significant study was conducted by Jerry Ratcliffe (2006), wherein he stated that
"CCTV system is not a physical barrier. It does not limit access to certain areas, make an
object harder to steal or a person more difficult to assault and rob. This does not mean it
is not an example of situational crime prevention. Although CCTV has many functions,
the primary preventative utility is to trigger a perceptual mechanism in a potential offender.
It seeks to change offender perception so the offender believes if he commits a crime, he
will be caught. In other words, CCTV aims to increase the perceived risk of capture, a
factor which, assuming the offender is behaving in a rational (or limited rational) manner,
will de-motivate the potential offender". And according to him, for the crime prevention
process to succeed there are two elements that must exist: (1) The offender must be
aware of the cameras' presence and (2) The offender must believe the cameras present
enough risk of capture to negate the rewards of the intended crime. As to his evaluation
of CCTV, establishing if CCTV reduces crime is often difficult because a problem-oriented
policing solution is rarely implemented without incident or without other crime prevention
measures being applied at the same time. The implementation can often run into
problems and commence late or in a piecemeal fashion; crime rates naturally vary and
show evidence of seasonality and long- and short-term trends; offenders are not
necessarily aware of the system or become aware at different times (a theoretically crucial
mechanism to CCTV success); and there are quantitative challenges to the measurement
and detection of displacement and diffusion of benefits. These issues make it difficult to
detect the impact of CCTV alone. In addition to that, he also stresses that assessing the
impact of CCTV is also complicated by the system's design. CCTV is designed to see
crime. As a result, the cameras may detect offenses that police would not otherwise
notice. This may inadvertently increase the crime rate, especially for offenses that have
low reporting rates (Siason et.al, 2020).

The use of the pilot CCTV surveillance system in the Johannesburg CBD in its first four
months of operation (April-July 2000) had resulted in the detection of an average of 40
criminal activities a month, with 70% of them leading to criminal prosecution, the Gauteng
premier, Mbhazima Shilowa, reported in the provincial legislature in October 2000. The
project partners developed a strategy to install additional cameras by the end of the year
as a result of this apparent success (Own Correspondent, 2000c). The Johannesburg
CBD CCTV system reported a 90% decrease in muggings during the first year of
operation and a 48% decrease in all reported crimes. In April 2004, City Manager Pascal
Moloi reported that the crime rate was down, occupancy rates were up, new businesses
were being opened in the area, and investor confidence was growing. In other words,
Moloi said that "the Johannesburg CBD is alive and vibrant." By mid-2004, not only the
CCTV but also the rejuvenation plans were reported to be showing "substantial
progresses in turning around the troubled central business district."
According to Barry Donbavand's assessment, which was published in March 2014 and
was titled "Privacy Impact Assessment for CCTV in the Towns of Bridgwater, Bumham-
On-Sea, Highbridge, Taunton, Wellington, and Yeovil," "CCTV is a proven tool in
detecting crimes, as well as the perpetrators of them. When investigating allegations, the
police service can save time and money by using CCTV. It is also well known that untrue
accusations are leveled, and CCTV can help rebut some of these. CCTV records actual
events without being influenced by interpretation or other circumstances.

Based on the study conducted by Welsh and Farrington (2002), "Crime prevention effects
of CCTV: a systematic review", of the 22 included evaluations, 11 found a desirable effect
on crime and 5 found an undesirable effect on crime. Five evaluations found a null effect
on crime (i.e., clear evidence of no effect), while the remaining one was classified as
finding an uncertain effect on crime (i.e., unclear evidence of an effect). Results from the
meta-analysis provide a clear picture of the crime prevention effectiveness of CCTV.
From 18 evaluations four did not provide the needed data to be included in the meta-
analysis. It was concluded that CCTV had a significant desirable effect on crime, although
the overall reduction in crime was a very small four percent. Half of the studies showed
evidence of a desirable effect of CCTV on crime. All nine of the studies were carried out
in the U.K. Conversely, the other nine studies showed no evidence of any desirable effect
of CCTV on crime.

The perceived crime prevention benefits of CCTV have led to the widespread adoption of
the technology over recent decades. Armitage (2002) traced the early growth of CCTV in
the United Kingdom, noting that in 1990 there were only 100 cameras dispersed
throughout three separate town centers and by 1997, there were an estimated 5,238
cameras in 167 different schemes across the country. CCTV use has continued to spread
rapidly throughout the UK, with estimates ranging from 4 to 5.9 million (Barrett, 2013).
After the rapid expansion in the UK, CCTV emerged as a popular crime prevention tool
in the US. A survey of US police agencies conducted in 2013 found 49% of local US
police departments report using CCTV, according to the most recent figures collected by
the Bureau of Justice Statistics (Reaves, 2015). Reported use rises to 87% for agencies
serving jurisdictions with populations of at least 250,000 persons.
Local Studies

The Philippines is referred to as the Pearl of the Orient, with its exotic and tropical islands,
valuable and rare natural resources, breathtaking natural wonders, warm and welcoming
people, and rising national status in the world. However, despite all of these raves, the
nation is not immune to the dangers the rest of the world poses. Regardless of its natural
beauty, the nation is constantly at risk from terrorist threats and attacks. The workplace
is expanding and becoming more complex as time goes on, and the communications and
information technology industries are also booming. In the cities, suburbs, and rural areas
of the nation, crimes abound. This harsh reality goes hand in hand with the country's
wonders and delights, it is a fact.

CCTV (closed-circuit television) systems have become increasingly popular in the

Philippines as a means of surveillance and security. Local studies on the use of CCTV in
the country have examined a range of issues, including its effectiveness in crime
prevention, its potential impact on privacy, and its cost-benefit analysis. One study,
conducted by researchers at the University of the Philippines, found that the use of CCTV
systems in Manila resulted in a significant reduction in crime rates. The study analyzed
data from over 1,000 CCTV cameras installed in various locations throughout the city and
found that the presence of these cameras led to a 26% reduction in crime. This reduction
was particularly significant in areas where the cameras were actively monitored,
suggesting that the deterrent effect of CCTV may be enhanced when it is accompanied
by active monitoring.

Another study, conducted by the Philippine National Police, also found that CCTV
systems can be effective in reducing crime. This study analyzed the use of CCTV in
selected neighborhoods in Cebu City and found that the presence of cameras was
associated with a decrease in the incidence of robbery and theft. While the use of CCTV
systems in the Philippines has been shown to be effective in reducing crime, there are
also concerns about the potential impact on privacy. Some critics argue that the
widespread use of CCTV cameras can lead to a loss of privacy and the erosion of civil
liberties. In response to these concerns, the Philippine government has implemented
guidelines for the use of CCTV systems, including the requirement that cameras be
installed in visible locations and that their use is limited to specific purposes, such as the
prevention of crime and the protection of public safety. Despite these guidelines, some
studies have raised concerns about the potential for abuse of CCTV systems in the
Philippines. For example, a study by the Philippine Human Rights Commission found that
CCTV cameras were sometimes used to monitor and intimidate employees in the
workplace, raising concerns about the potential for abuse of these systems.

In addition, Sunstar Davao (2023) published news related to the investigation of reported
crimes in the city, the Davao City Police Office (DCPO) is urging business establishments
to help in the gathering of evidence by turning over closed-circuit television or CCTV
footage that they may possess related to an incident. This call came after the supposed
lack of surveillance videos to supplement data on several high-profile criminal cases was
questioned on social media. DCPO spokesperson PMaj Catherine Dela Rey, in an
interview with the Madayaw Davao program aired over the Davao City Disaster Radio on
Monday, admitted that there is still no law that compels civilian parties to turn over CCTV
footage of a criminal incident.

Overall, local studies on the use of CCTV in the Philippines suggest that these systems
can be effective in reducing crime and improving public safety. However, it is important
to carefully consider the potential impacts on privacy and civil liberties and to ensure that
CCTV systems are used in accordance with established guidelines and regulations.

Crime Prevention

Closed-circuit television utilizes video cameras in the surveillance of a particular area

using a limited number of surveillance monitors. Almost all video cameras fit in the usage
as the CCTV cameras, although the ones used must have a high definition for accuracy
in monitoring mainly in banks, supermarkets, casinos, airports, military institutions, and
convenience stores. In most cases, the cameras function in deterring crime from
occurrence and minimizing the levels in places where it cannot stop completely.
According to Jewitt (2007), in many parts of America, Europe, and Asia, CCTV
surveillance proved one of the best ways of crime prevention as criminal cases decreased
proportionately as more cameras came into existence. However, the comfort from their
use lasted not long as the people soon went back to the old ways. Old crimes started to
resurface thus a good number of people began to lose faith in the cameras. This paper
evaluates how effectively CCTV can help deal with criminal cases with the goal of
determining the relevance and benefits of their application and use.

On the face of it, CCTV appears as one of the most effective ways to prevent the
occurrence of crimes. People with plans to undertake criminal activities cannot go ahead
because they can appear on the monitoring screens and face trial. Evidence deems
circumstantial and accurate when the CCTVs function in security. Crimes can also reduce
due to the feeling of security among the people that eradicates fear thus CCTVs yield
more results that are positive. However, CCTV security can yield enormous setbacks,
especially where they do not have sufficient monitoring. Consequently, the CCTVs show
the best protection and security beef although they should not function to replace but
rather to supplement the existing security systems.

Security

Video surveillance, closed-circuit TV, and IP camera systems become virtually

omnipresent and indispensable for many organizations, businesses, and users. Their
main purpose is to provide physical security, increase safety, and prevent crime. They
also became increasingly complex, comprising many communications means, embedded
hardware, and non-trivial firmware. However, most research to date focused mainly on
the privacy aspects of such systems and did not fully address their issues related to cyber-
security in general, and visual layer (i.e., imagery semantics) attacks. In this paper, we
conduct a systematic review of existing and novel threats in video surveillance, closed-
circuit TV, and IP camera systems based on publicly available data. The insights can then
be used to better understand and identify the security and privacy risks associated with
the development, deployment, and use of the systems. We study existing and novel
threats, along with their existing or possible countermeasures, and summarize this
knowledge into a comprehensive table that can be used in a practical way as a security
checklist when assessing the cyber-security level of existing or new CCTV designs and
deployments. We also provide a set of recommendations and mitigations that can help
improve the security and privacy levels provided by the hardware, the firmware, the
network communications, and the operation of video surveillance systems. We hope the
findings in this paper will provide valuable knowledge of the threat landscape that such
systems are exposed to, as well as promote further research and widen the scope of this
field beyond its current boundaries.

Safety

Millions of closed-circuit television (CCTV) cameras are installed in streets and

businesses throughout the world with the stated goal of reducing crime and increasing
public safety. CCTV cameras also have the potential of creating unintended effects, good
and bad. The “halo effect” refers to the potential for greater security in areas outside the
view of cameras; this could be offset by the “displacement effect,” which pushes antisocial
activity to other parts of the city. Cameras could also promote a false sense of security
and lead citizens to take fewer precautions, or they could also cause more crimes to be
reported, and thus lead to a perceived increase in crime. These days safety in public
places is extremely important and requires the most accurate measures to find and
eliminate possible threats. And, of course, the main benefit of city CCTV surveillance is
ensuring public safety efficiently and cost-effectively. It helps lower crime rates by acting
as a deterrent. No attacks or robberies in the city park means no expenses on the
investigation.
No vandals ruining common property, monuments and graffitiing buildings means no
damage or replacement costs to the city. While protecting lives and property is the
priority, city CCTV surveillance is also good for post-incident investigation as it helps
prosecutors by providing them with video footage of the incidents.

Once again, it saves lives of law enforcement officers dispatched to the scene, as they
can quickly review the video from the scene online and evaluate the situation. Surely, the
right software that can handle the needs for the public safety of a big city is the heart of
the city CCTV surveillance. Moreover, it’s important that the software support cameras of
various manufacturers, not just single-branded cameras, and of different types, to
efficiently integrate businesses’ cameras into the system. Plus, it should be easily
upgradable to avoid getting the system outdated and no longer meeting the requirements
of today’s world.