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Chapter 5
THE FUNDAMENTAL UNIT OF LIFE
While examining a thin slice of cork, Robert avoid air bubbles while putting the
Hooke saw that the cork resembled the cover slip with the help of a mounting
structure of a honeycomb consisting of many needle. Ask your teacher for help. We
have prepared a temporary mount of
little compartments. Cork is a substance
onion peel. We can observe this slide
which comes from the bark of a tree. This under low power followed by high
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was in the year 1665 when Hooke made this powers of a compound microscope.
chance observation through a self-designed
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microscope. Robert Hooke called these boxes Eyepiece
cells. Cell is a Latin word for ‘a little room’.
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This may seem to be a very small and
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insignificant incident but it is very important
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Coarse adjustment
in the history of science. This was the very first
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time that someone had observed that living
Fine adjustment
things appear to consist of separate units. The
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use of the word ‘cell’ to describe these units is
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• Let us take a small piece from an onion What do we observe as we look through
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layer) of the onion. This layer can be on an observation sheet? Does it look like
put immediately in a watch-glass Fig. 5.2?
containing water. This will prevent the
peel from getting folded or getting dry.
What do we do with this peel?
• Let us take a glass slide, put a drop of Nucleus
water on it and transfer a small piece
of the peel from the watch glass to the Cells
slide. Make sure that the peel is
perfectly flat on the slide. A thin camel
hair paintbrush might be necessary to
help transfer the peel. Now we put a
drop of safranin solution on this piece
followed by a cover slip. Take care to Fig. 5.2: Cells of an onion peel
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the basic building units of the onion bulb.
• We can try preparing temporary
These structures are called cells. Not only
mounts of leaf peels, tip of roots of
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onions, but all organisms that we observe onion or even peels of onions of different
around are made up of cells. However, there
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sizes.
are also single cells that live on their own. • After performing the above activity, let
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us see what the answers to the following
Cells were first discovered by
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questions would be:
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Robert Hooke in 1665. He observed (a) Do all cells look alike in terms of
shape and size?
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the cells in a cork slice with the help
(b) Do all cells look alike in structure?
of a primitive microscope.
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the cell. Purkinje in 1839 coined the different kinds. Look at the following picture.
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ter m ‘protoplasm’ for the fluid It depicts some cells from the human body.
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The shape and size of cells are related to every cell; plasma membrane, nucleus and
the specific function they perform. Some cells cytoplasm. All activities inside the cell and
like Amoeba have changing shapes. In some interactions of the cell with its environment
cases the cell shape could be more or less are possible due to these features. Let us see
fixed and peculiar for a particular type of cell; how.
for example, nerve cells have a typical shape.
Each living cell has the capacity to 5.2.1 P LASMA MEMBRANE OR CELL
perform certain basic functions that are
MEMBRANE
characteristic of all living forms. How does
a living cell perform these basic functions? This is the outermost covering of the cell that
We know that there is a division of labour in separates the contents of the cell from its
multicellular organisms such as human external environment. The plasma membrane
beings. This means that different parts of allows or permits the entry and exit of some
the human body perform different functions. materials in and out of the cell. It also
The human body has a heart to pump blood, prevents movement of some other materials.
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a stomach to digest food and so on. Similarly, The cell membrane, therefore, is called a
division of labour is also seen within a single selectively permeable membrane.
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cell. In fact, each such cell has got certain How does the movement of substances
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specific components within it known as cell take place into the cell? How do substances
organelles. Each kind of cell organelle move out of the cell?
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performs a special function, such as making Some substances like carbon dioxide or
new material in the cell, clearing up the
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oxygen can move across the cell membrane
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waste material from the cell and so on. A by a process called diffusion. We have studied
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cell is able to live and perfor m all its the process of diffusion in earlier chapters.
functions because of these organelles. These
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called the cell. It is interesting that all cells concentration to a region where its
are found to have the same organelles, no concentration is low.
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matter what their function is or what Something similar to this happens in cells
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organism they are found in. when, for example, some substance like CO2
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structural and functional unit of CO2 is low as compared to that inside the
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is very dilute, the cell will gain water
We can also try a similar activity with dried
by osmosis. Such a solution is known
raisins or apricots.
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as a hypotonic solution.
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Water molecules are free to pass Activity ______________ 5.4
across the cell membrane in both
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directions, but more water will come • Put dried raisins or apricots in plain
into the cell than will leave. The net
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water and leave them for some time.
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Then place them into a concentrated
(overall) result is that water enters the
solution of sugar or salt. You will
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cell. The cell is likely to swell up. observe the following:
2. If the medium has exactly the same
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concentration of water than the cell, molecules move in and out of the cell
meaning that it is a very concentrated through a type of transport requiring use
solution, the cell will lose water by of energy.
osmosis. Such a solution is known as The plasma membrane is flexible and is
a hypertonic solution. made up of organic molecules called lipids
and proteins. However, we can observe the
Again, water crosses the cell
structure of the plasma membrane only
membrane in both directions, but this
through an electron microscope.
time more water leaves the cell than The flexibility of the cell membrane also
enters it. Therefore the cell will shrink. enables the cell to engulf in food and other
Thus, osmosis is a special case of diffusion material from its external environment. Such
through a selectively permeable membrane. processes are known as endocytosis. Amoeba
Now let us try out the following activity: acquires its food through such processes.
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Q
by osmosis. The cell swells, building up
1. How do substances like CO2 and pressure against the cell wall. The wall exerts
water move in and out of the cell? an equal pressure against the swollen cell.
Discuss. Because of their walls, such cells can
2. Why is the plasma membrane withstand much greater changes in the
called a selectively permeable
surrounding medium than animal cells.
membrane?
5.2.3 NUCLEUS
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5.2.2 CELL WALL
Remember the temporary mount of onion peel
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Plant cells, in addition to the plasma we prepared? We had put iodine solution on
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membrane, have another rigid outer covering the peel. Why? What would we see if we tried
called the cell wall. The cell wall lies outside
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observing the peel without putting the iodine
the plasma membrane. The plant cell wall is
mainly composed of cellulose. Cellulose is a ut
solution? Try it and see what the difference
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is. Further, when we put iodine solution on
complex substance and provides structural
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strength to plants. the peel, did each cell get evenly coloured?
According to their chemical composition
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contraction of the contents of the cell away differentially. Some regions appear darker
from the cell wall. This phenomenon is known than other regions. Apart from iodine solution
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phenomenon by performing the following methylene blue solution to stain the cells.
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the high power of a microscope. Note • Let us take a glass slide with a drop of
the small green granules, called water on it. Using an ice-cream spoon
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chloroplasts. They contain a green gently scrape the inside surface of the
substance called chlorophyll. Put a cheek. Does any material get stuck on
strong solution of sugar or salt on the the spoon? With the help of a needle
mounted leaf on the slide. Wait for a we can transfer this material and
minute and observe under a spread it evenly on the glass slide kept
microscope. What do we see? ready for this. To colour the material
• Now place some Rhoeo leaves in boiling
we can put a drop of methylene blue
water for a few minutes. This kills the
solution on it. Now the material is ready
cells. Then mount one leaf on a slide
and observe it under a microscope. Put for observation under microscope. Do
a strong solution of sugar or salt on not forget to put a cover-slip on it!
the mounted leaf on the slide. Wait for • What do we observe? What is the shape
a minute and observe it again. What of the cells we see? Draw it on the
do we find? Did plasmolysis occur now? observation sheet.
• Was there a darkly coloured, spherical present in eukaryotic cells. Many of the
or oval, dot-like structure near the functions of such organelles are also
centre of each cell? This structure is performed by poorly organised parts of the
called nucleus. Were there similar cytoplasm (see section 5.2.4). The chlorophyll
structures in onion peel cells? in photosynthetic prokaryotic bacteria is
The nucleus has a double layered covering associated with membranous vesicles (bag
called nuclear membrane. The nuclear like structures) but not with plastids as in
membrane has pores which allow the transfer eukaryotic cells (see section 5.2.5).
of material from inside the nucleus to its
outside, that is, to the cytoplasm (which we
will talk about in section 5.2.4). Ribosomes
Plasma
The nucleus contains chromosomes, membrane
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inheritance of characters from parents to next Nucleoid
generation in the form of DNA (Deoxyribo
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Nucleic Acid) molecules. Chromosomes are
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composed of DNA and protein. DNA molecules
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contain the information necessary for
constructing and organising cells. Functional
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segments of DNA are called genes. In a cell
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which is not dividing, this DNA is present as
part of chromatin material. Chromatin
5.2.4 CYTOPLASM
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cell divides and forms two new cells. It also The cytoplasm is the fluid content inside the
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plays a crucial part, along with the plasma membrane. It also contains many
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environment, in determining the way the cell specialised cell organelles. Each of these
organelles performs a specific function for the
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_______________ well defined and various places in the cell depending on need,
_______________ surrounded by a using the ER. The SER helps in the
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and known as__ nuclear membrane manufacture of fat molecules, or lipids,
important for cell function. Some of these
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3. Chromosome: 3. More than one proteins and lipids help in building the cell
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single chromosome membrane. This pr ocess is known as
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membrane biogenesis. Some other proteins
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4. Membrane-bound 4. _______________ and lipids function as enzymes and
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cell organelles _______________ hormones. Although the ER varies greatly in
absent _______________ appearance in different cells, it always forms a
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network system.
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little kitchen of this hospital, which he had
converted into a laboratory. However, the
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work of greatest importance, which Golgi
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carried out was a revolutionary method of
staining individual nerve and cell structures.
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This method is referred to as the ‘black
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reaction’. This method uses a weak solution
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of silver nitrate and is particularly valuable
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in tracing the processes and most delicate
ramifications of cells. All through his life,
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5.2.5 (ii) GOLGI APPARATUS Ramony Cajal for their work on the structure
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damaged, lysosomes may burst and the In plant cells vacuoles are full of cell sap
enzymes digest their own cell. Therefore, and provide turgidity and rigidity to the cell.
lysosomes are also known as the ‘suicide bags’ Many substances of importance in the life of
of a cell. the plant cell are stored in vacuoles. These
include amino acids, sugars, various organic
5.2.5 (iv) MITOCHONDRIA acids and some proteins. In single-celled
organisms like Amoeba, the food vacuole
Mitochondria are known as the powerhouses
contains the food items that the Amoeba has
of the cell. Mitochondria have two membrane
consumed. In some unicellular organisms,
coverings. The outer membrane is porous
specialised vacuoles also play important roles
while the inner membrane is deeply folded.
in expelling excess water and some wastes
These folds increase surface area for ATP-
from the cell.
generating chemical reactions. The energy
required for various chemical activities needed
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for life is released by mitochondria in the form
of ATP (Adenosine triphopshate) molecules.
1. Can you name the two
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ATP is known as the energy currency of the
cell. The body uses energy stored in ATP for organelles we have studied that
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making new chemical compounds and for contain their own genetic
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mechanical work. material?
Mitochondria are strange organelles in the 2. If the organisation of a cell is
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sense that they have their own DNA and destroyed due to some physical
ribosomes. Therefore, mitochondria are able
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to make some of their own proteins. happen?
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suicide bags?
Plastids are present only in plant cells. There 4. Where are proteins synthesised
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colourless plastids). Chromoplasts containing Each cell thus acquires its structure and
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the pigment chlorophyll are known as ability to function because of the organisation
of its membrane and organelles in specific
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contain various yellow or orange pigments in organisation. This helps the cells to perform
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The internal organisation of the Chloroplast Thus, the cell is the fundamental structural
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consists of numerous membrane layers unit of living organisms. It is also the basic
embedded in a material called the stroma. These functional unit of life.
are similar to mitochondria in external Cell Division
structure. Like the mitochondria, plastids also
have their own DNA and ribosomes. New cells are formed in organisms in order to
grow, to replace old, dead and injured cells,
5.2.5 (vi) VACUOLES and to form gametes required for reproduction.
The process by which new cells are made is
Vacuoles are storage sacs for solid or liquid called cell division. There are two main types
contents. Vacuoles are small sized in animal of cell division: mitosis and meiosis.
cells while plant cells have very large vacuoles. The process of cell division by which most
The central vacuole of some plant cells may of the cells divide for growth is called mitosis.
occupy 50-90% of the cell volume. In this process, each cell called mother cell
divides to form two identical daughter cells offspring. They divide by a different process
(Fig. 5.7). The daughter cells have the same called meiosis which involves two consecutive
number of chromosomes as mother cell. It divisions. When a cell divides by meiosis it
helps in growth and repair of tissues in produces four new cells instead of just two (Fig.
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organisms. 5.8). The new cells only have half the number
Specific cells of reproductive organs or of chromosomes than that of the mother cells.
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tissues in animals and plants divide to form Can you think as to why the chromosome
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gametes, which after fertilisation give rise to number has reduced to half in daughter cells?
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What ut
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you have
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learnt
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and proteins.
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Exercises
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1. Make a comparison and write down ways in which plant
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cells are different from animal cells.
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2. How is a prokaryotic cell different from a eukaryotic cell?
3. What would happen if the plasma membrane ruptures or
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breaks down?
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4. What would happen to the life of a cell if there was no Golgi
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apparatus?
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8. What is osmosis?
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Take four peeled potato halves and scoos each one out to
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