KD6031

Instrumentation & Control of Dynamical

Systems
Section 2: Generalised Model of Measurement Systems

Daniel Ho
Email: daniel.ho@northumbria.ac.uk
Office Location: E306, Ellison Building
Office Hours: Wednesday 20:00 (CST) – 21:00 (CST)
12:00 (GMT) – 13:00 (GMT)
1
Learning Outcomes

➢Understand the basic measurement system model

➢Relate model (for element of the system) to a system block diagram

➢Identify Sensitivity, Offset, Modifying and Interfering constants from the

system constants

➢Understand how calibration of a measurement system can be made

KD6031 Slides 2
Measurement System Model
➢Previously, we have defined the input (I) and output (O) relationships via:
✓Sensitivity (K)
✓Offset (a)
✓Non-linearity (N(I))
✓Interfering inputs (Ii with related sensitivity Ki)
✓Modifying inputs (Im with related sensitivity Km)

𝑂 = 𝑲𝑰 + 𝒂 + 𝑁(𝐼) + 𝐾𝑚 𝐼𝑚 𝐼 + 𝐾𝑖 𝐼𝑖
➢A modifying input Im causes the linear sensitivity (𝑲) of an element to
change.
➢An interfering input Ii causes the straight line intercept or zero bias (𝒂) to
change.
KD6031 Slides 3
Measurement System element Model

The general measurement system may be written as:

𝑂 = 𝐾 + 𝐾𝑚 𝐼𝑚 𝐼 + 𝑎 + 𝐾𝑖 𝐼𝑖 + 𝑁 𝐼
or 𝑂 = 𝑲𝑰 + 𝒂 + 𝑁(𝐼) + 𝐾𝑚 𝐼𝑚 𝐼 + 𝐾𝑖 𝐼𝑖

➢Additionally, the measurements will have a dynamic response (i.e.

frequency/time dependency)
→ This can then be modelled by a transfer function.

KD6031 Slides 4
Model of an element from a measurement
system: block diagrams
𝑂 = 𝑲𝑰 + 𝒂 + 𝑁(𝐼) + 𝐾𝑚 𝐼𝑚 𝐼 + 𝐾𝑖 𝐼𝑖

O O´

KD6031 Slides 5
General model of element
General model of a strain gauge

𝑅 = 𝐺𝑅𝑜 𝜀 + 𝑅𝑜 + 𝐺𝑅𝑜 𝛼𝑅 𝑇𝑚𝜀 + 𝛼𝑅 𝑅𝑜 𝑇𝑖

Where, 𝜀 is the strain, αR is the coefficient of thermal expansion,
Ro is the unstrained resistance and G is the gauge factor.

If αR = 0.0001oC-1, Ro = 100 Ω, G = 2, then

𝑅 = 200𝜀 + 100 + 0.02𝑇𝑚𝜀 + 0.01𝑇𝑖
Which is of the form:
𝑂 = 𝐾𝐼 + 𝑎 + 𝐾𝑚 𝐼𝑚 𝐼 + 𝐾𝑖 𝐼𝑖

Note: non-linearity and dynamic effect can be neglected.

KD6031 Slides 6
General model of a strain gauge
𝑅 = 200𝜀 + 100 + 0.02𝑇𝑚𝜀 + 0.01𝑇𝑖
(a) Tm(°C) Ti(°C)

𝜀 0.02𝑇𝑚𝜀
0.01𝑇𝑖

(𝜀) (Ω)

200𝜀

100 Ω

KD6031 Slides 7
Other model examples of elements
(b)

Copper-constantan
thermocouple

(c)

Accelerometer

KD6031 Slides 8
Statistical Variations in Values

➢Taking measurement over an extended period can consequently lead to

statistical variations in measured quantity due to random fluctuations in
the inputs Im and Ii.

➢This is referred to as repeatability (or lack of repeatability) in the output O.

➢Thus random effects in I, Im and Ii will combine to give an overall statistical

behaviour.

KD6031 Slides 9
Statistical Variations in Values
➢These random fluctuations can be assumed to have the normal
distribution or a Gaussian probability density function around the mean
value:

𝑥ҧ = mean or expected value

(specifies centre of distribution)
 = standard deviation
(specifies spread of distribution)

KD6031 Slides 10
Statistical variations in values
➢A dependent variable O is a linear combination of the variables 𝐼, 𝐼𝑚,
and 𝐼𝑖, i.e.
𝑂 = 𝐾𝐼 + 𝑎 + 𝐾𝑚 𝐼𝑚 𝐼 + 𝐾𝑖 𝐼𝑖
➢The overall deviation in a measurement can be defined as:

➢Assuming I, Im, and Ii are independent variables, then the standard

deviation of ΔO can be written as:

2 2 2
𝜕𝑂 2
𝜕𝑂 2
𝜕𝑂
𝜎𝑜 = 𝜎𝐼 + 𝜎𝐼𝑚 + 𝜎𝐼𝑖 2
𝜕𝐼 𝜕𝐼𝑚 𝜕𝐼𝑖
KD6031 Slides 11
Statistical characteristics –
a single element
➢If a calibration test is being performed on the element:

✓ then 𝜎𝑜 can directly be estimated from the experimental results.

✓ where the output mean value is:

𝑂ത = 𝐾𝐼 + 𝑎 + 𝑁 𝐼 ҧ + 𝐾𝑚 𝐼𝑚 𝐼 + 𝐾𝑖 𝐼ഥ𝑖

✓and the corresponding probability density function is:

KD6031 Slides 12
Statistical variations –
a batch of similar elements
➢While designing a system, it is important to consider the variation in
performance per batch of elements: Tolerance

➢This means that values of parameters, such as K and a are distributed

ഥ 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝒂.
statistically about the mean values 𝑲

➢The mean value of output can be written:

𝑂ത = 𝐾. 𝐼 + 𝑎 + 𝑁 𝐼 ҧ + 𝐾𝑚 . 𝐼𝑚 . 𝐼 + 𝐾𝑖 . 𝐼ഥ𝑖

➢The standard deviation σ0 is given by:

2 2 2 2 2
𝜕𝑂 2
𝜕𝑂 2
𝜕𝑂 2
𝜕𝑂 2
𝜕𝑂
𝜎𝑜 = 𝜎𝐼 + 𝜎𝐼𝑚 + 𝜎𝐼𝑖 + 𝜎𝐾 + 𝜎𝑎 2
𝜕𝐼 𝜕𝐼𝑚 𝜕𝐼𝑖 𝜕𝐾 𝜕𝑎
KD6031 Slides 13
Example of tolerance on a PRT
If a manufacturer sets a tolerance limit of ±0.15Ω for R0 (100 Ω) then:

Tolerance limits

with R0 < 99.85 Ω and R0 > 100.15 Ω

KD6031 Slides 14
Overall standard deviation - example

➢A chromium-alumel thermocouple model of the output electromotive

force, e.m.f, (E) for an input (T) range of 50 - 150oC:

Where a0, a1, a2 and TA are parameters of the sensor element.

➢To find the overall standard deviation 𝜎𝐸 of this sensor, we first find the
partial derivatives:

KD6031 Slides 15
Overall standard deviation - example
➢If the individual mean values are:
𝑎0 = 0.00, 𝑎1 = 4.1017‧10-2, 𝑎2 = 4.6‧10-6, 𝑇𝐴 = 10
➢And the individual standard deviations are:
𝜎𝑎0 = 6.93‧10-2, 𝜎𝑎1 = 0.00, 𝜎𝑎2 = 0.00, 𝜎𝑇𝐴 = 6.7
➢The overall standard deviation is:

→ 𝝈𝑬 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟕𝟖𝟓

→ this statistical variation in the voltage is due to statistical variation in the

material constants 𝑎0 (a spread of zero bias values) and reference junction TA
(ambient temperature).

KD6031 Slides 16
Other model example
– mV to mA converter

Standard deviation of the output can be identified from a batch of such converters
KD6031 Slides 17
Identifying static characteristics –
Calibration
➢The static characteristics of an element can be found experimentally by
measuring I, O, Im and Ii, when I is at a constant or slowly changing.

environmental inputs

input output

➢Measurements must be accurate using standards (see figure)

KD6031 Slides 18
Calibration Experiment

The calibration experiment is divided into three main parts:

1. Output (O) versus input (I) with Im=Ii=0

✓Held under “standard” environmental conditions

2. O versus Im, Ii at constant I

✓Independently identifying interfering and modifying inputs

3. Repeatability test
✓carried out in-situ (in the normal working environment of the
element/system).

KD6031 Slides 19
Part 1 - O vs. I with Im=Ii=0

1. Increase I slowly from Imin to Imax at 10% interval of the span (i.e.
11 readings) and measure O,

2. Allow stabilisation time to avoid “dynamic effects”,

3. Then for decreasing I from Imax to Imin, 11 more readings should be

recorded,

4. Repeat this process twice (leading to a set of 33 (I↑) and 33 (I↓).

KD6031 Slides 20
Part 1 - O vs. I with Im=Ii=0

➢The “best fit” polynomial equations have to be fitted separately for (I↑)
and (I↓), to detect hysteresis, in the form:
i=n
i
, i = 1, 2, . . . , n

➢Aim for achieving the lowest of the square of the deviations.

→Either manually solving a set of linear equations (using matrices)
→Or using least mean square method in regression software such as
MATLAB.

KD6031 Slides 21
If the hysteresis is significant…

This is true if the separation of the 2

curves are larger than the scatter of the
points on each curve.
→ H(I) can be defined.

KD6031 Slides 22
If the hysteresis is NOT significant

This is true if the scatter of points is larger than the

separation of the 2 curves.
→ Combined all points into a single polynomial.
→ Define N(I) compared with ideal linear response.

KD6031 Slides 23
Part 2 - O vs. Im , Ii at constant I

1. I is kept constant at Imin, while 1 environmental input is changed:

➢ If ΔO is generated, then it is a Ii with Ki= ΔO/ΔIi.
➢ Otherwise, switch to different environmental input and repeat
process.

2. Once all interfering input found, set I to mid-range and each

environmental input is varied in turn to identify its effect of the
sensitivity:
➢ Km= 1/I × (ΔO/ΔIm); I = 1/2 × (Imin + Imax)

Note: the environmental input can be interfering and modifying!

KD6031 Slides 24
Part 3 - Repeatability test

The signal input I should be held constant at mid-range value and the
output O measured over an extended period, yielding a set of values Ok, k
= 1, 2, . . . , N.
→ use a Gaussian probability density function :

The mean value of the set can be found using

𝑁
1
𝑂ത = ෍ 𝑂𝑘
𝑁
𝑘=1
and the standard deviation (root mean square of deviations from the
mean) is found using
1 𝑁
𝜎0 = σ (𝑂 ത 2
− 𝑂)
𝑁 𝑘=1 𝑘

KD6031 Slides 25
Example using MATLAB -
Non-linear Thermocouple
The e.m.f. at a thermocouple junction is 645μV at the steam point,
3375μV at the zinc point and 9149μV at the silver point. Given that the
e.m.f.–temperature relationship is of the form E(T) = a1T + a2T 2 + a3T
3 (T in °C), find a1, a2 and a3.
>> clear ALL
syms a1 a2 a3
Ts= 100; % melting point of steam (°C)
Tz= 419.527; % melting point of zinc (°C)
Tw= 961.78; % melting point of silver (°C)
eqn1= a1*Ts+a2*Ts^2+a3*Ts^3 == 645;
eqn2 = a1*Tz+a2*Tz^2+a3*Tz^3 == 3375;
eqn3= a1*Tw+a2*Tw^2+a3*Tw^3 == 9149;
eqn = [eqn1, eqn2, eqn3];
vars = [a1, a2, a3];
[Sa1,Sa2,Sa3] = solve(eqn, vars);
digits(10); % 10 significant figures (s.f.)
vpa([Sa1,Sa2,Sa3])

ans =
[ 5.839697178, 0.006368084187, -0.000002650559673]
KD6031 Slides 26
Summarising
➢Individual elements of an Instrumentation Systems can be modelled
using the generalised model.

➢Statistical characteristics enable repeatability and tolerance to be

established.

➢Instrumentation system’s response can be calibrated experimentally

within a given operating range.

➢A care must be taken to minimise the environmental effects of

modifying and interfering inputs.

KD6031 Slides 27