Machine Design 2

Lecture 9: Stress concentration factor

Firma convenzione
Politecnico di Milano e Veneranda Fabbrica
S. Beretta, M. del
Giglio, L. Vergani
Duomo di Milano
Aula Magna – Rettorato
Mercoledì 27 maggio 2015
 The function of notches

If we compare a real component with a scheme

• Shape
• Constraints
• Applied loads

are usually different from those assumed in nominal structural models (beam, truss, plate,
rings, etc.)

Examples:
• Holes in beams, plates, disks
• Welding
• Keyholes
• Splines, threads
• Shoulders, fillets
• Shrink fits
• ….

Machine Design 2, Lesson 8

 Example - Pressure Vessel

• Different geometries connected:

cylindrical shells, ends, covers, flanges
• Welding
• Nozzle openings

Machine Design 2, Lesson 8

 Example - Bolts

Stress distribution is modified at

transitions:
• Head – Shank
• Shank – Thread
• Thread
• Thread - Nut

Standard bolt Bolt with higher fatigue resistance

Machine Design 2, Lesson 8

 Example - Shrink fit

It is common to heat the outer component (hub) to expand it beyond the interference and slip it over the
inner component (shaft)

Stresses at or near a discontinuity are higher than if the

discontinuity did not exist.
Stress raiser is any discontinuity that alters the stress distribution.
Stress concentration is the region in which stress raisers are
present.
Stress concentration factor is the factor to relate the maximum
stress at the discontinuity to the average stress without
discontinuity 𝐾! = 𝜎"#$ ⁄𝑆

Machine Design 2, Lesson 8

 Example - Shrink fit

FEM model of a shrink fit

Machine Design 2, Lesson 8

 Example - Geometrical fits

Keys

Splines

Machine Design 2, Lesson 8

 Example - Friction fits

key

conical

Machine Design 2, Lesson 8

 Examples

Machine Design 2, Lesson 8

 Notch effect

Notches, discontinuities determine local overstresses

Approaches:
σ max
Nominal stress and notch factor Kt =
σ nom
Analytical method Numerical method Experimental method

Machine Design 2, Lesson 8

 Stress distribution

Near notches:
• Nominal stress à calculated neglecting the presence of local overstress (De Saint
Venant)
• Real stress à real distribution of stresses

Real stress

Machine Design 2, Lesson 8

 Notch effect

To quantify the effect:

σ ε max
Kσ = max Kε =
σ nom ε nom

In linear elastic field:

Kσ = Kε = K t

Theoretical stress concentration factor depends on geometry and load type

Machine Design 2, Lesson 8

 Plate with hole subject to internal pressure
Case 1

8
< r = rA2 + 2C
= rA2 + 2C
S :
r =0

8 2

=0 <𝜎
> = r⇥ 1 ⇥

For 𝑟 → ∞ > !
r
2𝐶
2⇥
⇥2
= ⇥ 2
=2
0 + r ⇥r

:𝜎" = 0 ⇥2
r = r12
⇥
⇥
1
r ⇥ r⇥

For 𝑟 = 𝑎 𝜎! = 𝑆 𝐴 = 𝑆𝑎#
8 #
> 𝑎 ⇥2
< 𝜎! =r 𝑆=# r2 ⇥ 2 +
Finally, the solution for a plate with hole subject to 𝑟 ⇥2
=# ⇥ 2
internal pressure is: >
: 𝜎 = −S 𝑎 1 ⇥
" r = #
𝑟 r2 ⇥

Machine Design 2, Lesson 8

 Plate with hole subject to biaxial stresses
Case 2

S
For 𝑟 = 𝑎 𝜎! = 0
y 𝐴
r From the previous equation we obtain: 2𝐶 = − #
𝑎
S
𝜃
S
8 𝐴 𝐴 ⇥2
x >
< 𝜎! =r𝑟 #=− #r 2 ⇥ 2 +
1 ⇥
𝑎 ⇥2 r ⇥r
2a General = 𝐴⇥ 2
solution > 𝐴
:𝜎" = − + 1 ⇥ 1 ⇥2
: r 𝑟 # =𝑎 #r 2 ⇥ r ⇥r⇥
S

For 𝑟 → ∞ 𝜎! = 𝜎" = 𝑆 𝐴 = −𝑆𝑎#

(
a2
Finally, the solution for a plate with hole subject to r = S(1 r 22 )
biaxial stresses is: a
= S(1 + r2 )

Machine Design 2, Lesson 8

 Plat subject to shear stresses
Case 3

S S

y
r B S
A
𝜃
x

2a
2a

S
8 4 2
>
> a a
>
> ⇥r = S 1 + 3 4 4 2 sin 2
>
> r r
<
a4
> ⇥ = S 1 + 3 4 ) sin 2
>
> r
>
> 4 2
> a
: ⇥r = S 1 3 + 2 a
4 2
cos 2
r r

Machine Design 2, Lesson 8

 Plate with hole subject to uniaxial stress
Case 4

I
y Now, let us consider a plate subject to a
r
remote uniaxial stress S. We can see it as the
A
S !
II S superposition of two load cases.
B x The first one is the axisymmetric problem
previously solved (Case 1) the second one,
2a
instead, is the plate subjected to shear
stresses considering 𝜃 = 0 (Case 3).
0.5 S
0.5 S

0.5 S 0.5 S
+ 0.5 S 0.5 S

0.5 S 0.5 S

Machine Design 2, Lesson 8

 Plate subject to shear stresses

A plate subject to biaxial stresses rotated

corresponds to a plate subject to shear stresses.
0.5 S
S
5
0. S
5
0.

0.5 S 0.5 S

S
5
0. S
5
0.
0.5 S
⇡
✓= ✓=0
4
sin(2✓ + ⇡/2) = cos(2✓) cos(2✓ + ⇡/2) = sin(2✓)
Machine Design 2, Lesson 8
 Plate with circular hole loaded by tension
Case 4

The stress expressions are:

1 𝑎" 1 4𝑎" 3𝑎#
𝜎! = 𝑆 1 − " + 𝑆 1 − " + # 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃
2 𝑟 2 𝑟 𝑟
S S 1 𝑎" 1 3𝑎#
𝜎$ = 𝑆 1 + " − 𝑆 1 + # 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃
2 𝑟 2 𝑟
1 2𝑎" 3𝑎#
𝜏!$ = − 𝑆 1 + " − # 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃
2 𝑟 𝑟

On the contour of the hole:

𝜎! = 0
S S 𝜎$ = 𝑆 1 − 2𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃
𝜏!$ = 0

Machine Design 2, Lesson 8

 Hole in a infinite plate

I
y
r 3
A !" / S
!
S II S !r / S
B x 2.5

2a
2

!"/ S, !r/ S
I-I path 1.5

✓ 2 4
◆
3 a a 1
r = S 2
2 r r4
✓ 2 4
◆
1 a a 0.5
= S 2+ 2 +3 4
2 r r
0
⇥r = 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
r/a

Machine Design 2, Lesson 8

 Hole in a infinite plate

I
y
r 1
A
!" / S
! 0.8
S II S !r / S
B x
0.6

2a
0.4

0.2
!"/ S, !r / S
Ii path 0

−0.2
✓ 2 4
◆
1 a a
r = S 2 5 2 +3 4 −0.4
2 r r
✓ 2 ◆ −0.6
1 a a4
= S 2 3 4 −0.8
2 r r
−1
⇥r = 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
r/a

Machine Design 2, Lesson 8

 Hole in infinite plate

σ max
Kt =
σ nom

P
σ nom =
(H − d)h
i.e. evaluated over the net section

Machine Design 2, Lesson 8

 Superposition of the effects of different forces

In this case, P and M generate the same type of stress component

Machine Design 2, Lesson 8

 Superposition of the effects of different forces

Whereas here we have two different stress

components

Machine Design 2, Lesson 8

 Superposition of the effects of different forces

Similarly, the other stress

components can be
evaluated, based on the
corresponding stress
concentration factors

Summation is possible only

for normal stress
components.

For the assessment of the

strength, the normal and
shear stress components
need being combined using
an appropriate criterion.

Machine Design 2, Lesson 8

 Superposition of notches

In the case of a hole of small diameter

in a shaft (e.g. for lubrication purposes),
given the torsional stress concentration
factor Ktt, which depends on the geometry
of the shaft, by superposition the effect of the
small hole results into
Kt = 4 Ktt

Machine Design 2, Lesson 8

 Membrane with elliptical hole

Another expression for Kt:

where t = a and r is the curvature in A

i.e. r = b2 / a

Machine Design 2, Lesson 8

 Equivalent ellipse

The exact value of Kt can be approximated by the solution for an elliptical

Notch shape tangent to the root of the actual notch

a
Kt ≅ 1 + 2
ρA

Machine Design 2, Lesson 8

27
 Semi-circular notch on the edge of a membrane

Whereas the correct value is

Machine Design 2, Lesson 8

 Circular hole tangent to the edge of a semi-infinite membrane

Whereas the correct value is

Machine Design 2, Lesson 8

 Elasticity: multiscale approach

If the second smaller notch is small enough, it will be subjected to a nominal

stress equal to the local stress generated by the first larger notch, i.e.

Therefore, the resulting stress concentration factor is

Machine Design 2, Lesson 8

30
 Elasticity: multiscale approach

A micro-lattice material is a cellular material based on a regular micro-structure called

unit cell that is periodically repeated to obtain a meta-material characterized by a
regular combination of slender beams joined together.

Machine Design 2, Lesson 8

 - The use of lattice structures is strongly increased due to the advancements in
additive manufacturing.

- Thanks to their multi-functional properties, lattice materials have been considered

in several applications:
- medical industry (maximising surface areas production of scaffolds optimised for
tissue and bone replacement)
- automotive industry and aerospace and aeronautic industries (increase weight
reduction - thermal management and thermal conduction - load-bearing and energy-
absorbing objects)

Sectioned femur

Architectural
‘spider’ bracket

Machine Design 2, Lesson 8

 Elastic behaviour
Homogenization (1)

Homogenization needed for

For the lattice to behave as a designing with metamaterials
material, the wavelength of
any loading is much longer
than that of the lattice
elements.

In contrast, the lattice

behaves as a ‘structure’ when
it contains a relatively small
number of lattice elements,
and the length scale of the
loading is comparable to that
of the lattice elements.

Machine Design 2, Lesson 8

 Fatigue of cellular materials
Modelling and fatigue criterion (1)

CT scan FE model FE analysis 3

2
• Resolution: • The mesh of • The software 1
8 µm/voxel the sample is Abaqus is used 0
Multiaxial

z
obtained by to study the Local stress

Failure

Failure
-1

using the convergence of -2 HCF criterion

softwares the results and -3 BCC 5

Mimics and to perform FE -4

FCC 12
FCC 9

3-Matic analyses -5
-1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5
a,eq
/s -1

(a)

Mesh size: 30-40 µm Convergence analysis

Number of elements: 5-6x106 by comparing the FEA
results with DIC (c)

results in vertical
struts Figure 14: a) Equivalent stress amplitude in BCC and FCC
hydrostatic stress, (-) values: a(i),eq with negative hydrosta
Machine Design 2, Lesson 8 specimens: BCC5 tested at F = 1350N , N = 107 cycles, F
FCCL 9 tested at F = 1315N , N = 7.9 ⇥ 106 cycles. b) Eq
Machine Design 2, Lesson 8
 Exercise: shaft with shoulder

40 mm

ε3
y
ε2
A

ε1
A
q
x

A steel shaft of diameter D = 50 mm has a shoulder with a fillet radius of 1 mm.

It is subjected to unknown bending moment and torque.
Strain are measured far from the notch at point A using a rosette with 3 grids at 45°.

Recorded strain values are:

𝜀% = -187.5 με; 𝜀" = 625 με; 𝜀& = 625 με

Machine Design 2, Lesson 8

 Exercise: shaft with shoulder

Using the equation expressing the strain value in each grid of rosette, we derive the 𝜀'' , 𝜀((
and 𝛾'( strain components

Substituting 𝜃% = 0, 𝜃" = 𝜋/4, 𝜃& = 𝜋/2, we obtain

Machine Design 2, Lesson 8

 Exercise: shaft with shoulder

Solving for 𝜀'' , 𝜀(( and 𝛾'( we obtain

By applying the linear elastic stress-strain relationships

We obtain the nominal stresses acting in the section with diameter d

Machine Design 2, Lesson 8

 Exercise: shaft with shoulder

Bending Torsion
D/d = 1.25 Kt,b = 2.3 D/d = 1.25 Kt,t = 1.75
r/d = 0.025 r/D = 0.025

Machine Design 2, Lesson 8

 Exercise: shaft with shoulder

Finally, the stress state at the notch is

Machine Design 2, Lesson 8