1

REVI
EW NOTESI
NPOLI
CEPHOTOGRAPHY

a
.PHOTOGRAPHY photograph. Th e 
came ra o bscur
a (La t
in, l i
tera l
l
y
tran
slat
ingt o" darkroom" )h adbe enine xi
s t
encef o ra t
Etymology : l
e as
tf ourh undredy ears,bu titsusewa sl imit
e dtoi t
s
Thewo r
dp hotographyi sa d eri
vati
veo ft wo purposea sa na i
dt odra wing.I twasd i
s cove r
edt hati fa
Greek wo rd Ph os wh i
ch me ans“ li
ght”a nd Graph i
ar oom wa sc ompletel
yd arken ed,withas i
n gl
eh olei non e
me ani
n gt o“ wr i
te”
.Th ereforep hot
ographyi sb es
t wa l
l
,a ni nv
e r
tedi magewo uldbes eeno nt heoppo sit
e
transl
atedt o“ towr i
tewithlight”(He rsch
el,1839). wa l
l
.Ap ersoni nsi
deo ft her oomc ouldt h
e nt r
acet hi
s
i
ma ge,wh ichwa su ps
ide-d o wn( si
mil
atingt hewa yt h at
Con ventiona lDefini
ti
on: i
ma gesa ctual
lye n
terou re y
e s).
I
n  
the 16th cent
u r
y  
ma ny a rt
is
ts e mployed a
Phot ographyisana r
to rs ci
encewh i
chde al
swi t
hb oxli
ked evi
cek nowna sa Ta bl
etop c amer a obs cura
ther epro ducti
onofi mage st hroughthea cti
ono flight,(Lat
inme aning“ darkroom” )a sana i
dt od e
p i
ctingsp ace
upons en si
tizedma t
eri
als
,wi tht h
ea i
do fac ameraandi t
s withs i
ngle-po i
ntp erspecti
v e.Th iscon sist
e do fabox
accessor i
es ,andt hec hemicalp rocess
esinvolv
edt herei
n withap inhol
eo no nes idea ndagl a
s ss c r
eenont he
(Aquino,1972) . other.Lightc o
min gth r
o ught hi
spi nholep roj
ecteda n
i
ma geon tot h
egl assscree n,wh erethea rtistcou l
de as i
l
y
Mode rnph otography: trac
ei tb yh a
n d.Arti
stss oo nd is
coveredt ha ttheyc ou l
d
obtai
na ne vens harperima geb yu sin
gas ma l
llensi n
Mo d er
np hotography ma yb ed efi
neda sa nyp laceoft hepi nhole.Th ec a me r
ao bscurawa su sedby
me ansf ort hec hemical
,th er
ma l,elec
tri
calore l
ectr
on i
c Renaissancea rti
stssucha sMi chel
angeloa ndLe on ardo
recordin
go fthei magesofs cenes,oro bj
ectsformedby daVi nci
.
somet yp eo fra di
ante nergy,i n
cludi
ngga mmar a y
s,X- 1800 – ( Th omas Wedgewood an d Humph ey Dav y)
rays,Ultra-v i
oletrays,vi
s i
blelightandinfr
a r
edr a
ys.Th i
s i
n vest
igateda ndd is
c ove r
edtheligh tsen si
ti
vityof
defi
n i
ti
oni sb roa de nough t oi nc
luden oton l
yt he sil
vern it
ratea nds ilverc hl
ori
des o l
uti
on .Th ey
conven t
io n
a lme thodo fph otographybuta l
mo s
ta nyn ew ma det hef irs
tk nowna t
temptt oc aptur
et he
processt ha tma yb edeveloped( Scott
,1975). i
ma gei nac ame r
aobs c ur
abyme ansofal ight-
s
ensi
ti
vesubst
ance.He used pa
perorwh
it
e
b.POLI
CEPHOTOGRAPHY l
eat
hert
rea
tedwit
h s
il
vern
it
rat
e.
Poli
cePh otographyisa na rtorscien
cewh ich 1819– (J
ohnF.W.He rsche
l) -Hed isc
overe
d sodi
um
dealswiththestudyoft hep r
in
cipl
eso fPhot
ograp
hy,the thi
osul
fa
te 
to be a sol
vento fs i
lv
er 
hal
ides 
in
prepara
tionofPho t
ogr aphi
ce v
idenc
e,a ndi
tsappli
cat
ion 1819,a ndinfo
rmed Tal
bot a
nd Daguer
re 
ofh i
s
topoli
cewo rk(Aqui
n o,1972). di
scover
y t
hatthi
s"hyposul
phi
teof s
oda"("
h ypo"
)
coul
db eu sedasa  phot
ographi
cf i
xer
,to" fi
x"
Forens
icPh otographyist hea r
to rsci
enceof pi
ctur
es a nd ma ke them p ermanent,a ft
er
photographi
cal
lydoc ume n
ti
ngc ri
mes ceneande vi
dence exper
iment
all
yappl
yingiti
n ear
ly1839.
forlabor
ator
ye xaminationanda nal
ysi
sforthep ur
poseof 1826– (JosephNi c ephoreNi épce)aFr e nchinventor
courttr
ial(
Reds i
cker,2001). who ma de t hef ir
s t perma nentp h
otographic
i
ma ges( hel
iogr a
ph)u si
ngape wterp l
atecoa t
e d
HISTORICALEVOLUTI ONOFPHOTOGRAPHY wi
thbi tumenofJ udeaa ndr equ i
red8h ourst o
ex
p ose. Nié
pc ewa sbor ni nCh alon
-s u
r -
The origi
no fp hot
ograph
yl i
esi na na r
ti
sti
c Saône.Hebe ganh isp hotographye xperi
me nts
techni
quek nowna ss ingl
e-pointorlinea
rpe rspect
ive, wi
thh isbroth erCla udei n 1793,u si
ngl i
ght -
wh i
chwa sdevelopedint heearl
y1400s.Pioneere
dinItal
y se
n si
ti
v ecomp ou nd
so fs i
l
v e
r.
bya r
chit
ectFil
ippoBr une l
l
eschiandother
s,thesyste
mof
si
ngle-poi
ntpe rspecti
vep rov
idedpaint
erswithame t
hod 1835– (Wil
liam Hen ryFoxTal bot )inventedt hef i
rst
fordepict
in
gt hree-dime nsi
onalspace(l
ength,widt
h,and negat
ivei mage .Talbot’
sme tho
di nvolv
edc oati
n g
depthorh e
ight
)o naf latsurf
ace. as heeto fp a perwi t
hl i
ght-se ns
it
ivec hemicals
The inn ov
ations wh ich wo u
ld lead t o the ande xposin
gi ttoli
gh tthroughas implepinhole
devel
o p
me ntofp hotographye x
ist
edlongb ef
o r
ethef i
rs
t camerawh i
chh ec all
edi tph otogen i
cDr awing.
 2
Thisp rodu c edap ape rn ega ti
ve,wh ichh et h e
n In 1935,Ame r
ican  Kod ak in
trod ucedt hef i
rst
usedt oc r
e a t
eap osit
ivei mage .Ta lboth ad mo de rn " integr alt r
ipac k" c o l
or f i
lm a n d c al
le
d
di
fficu l
tya tf irstinp reven t
ingt hep a perf rom it Kod a chrome ,a n ame r e cycledf r
om a ne arli
era n
d
continu i
n gt od ar kenwh ene xposedt ol ight.Asa c ompl e t
elydi ffere ntt wo-c o l
orp rocess .
 Ko dach rome  
h a
d
resul
th i
sme t
ho d wa sn o tinit
ial
lys uc cess ful
.t hr
e el aye rso fe mu lsi
onc o atedonas ingleba se,ea ch
Ho we ver,i n1941i twa sl at
err efi
ne di nt
ot h
el aye rr eco rdingo neo fth et h reea d di
tivepr ima ries,red,
Ca l
oty pepr o cess ,andb ec amet heb as i
sf ormo st green ,an dbl u e.
mo de rnn e ga ti
ve-t o-p os i
ti
vep hot
ogra ph y. 1937–( Edwi nH.Lan d)in trodu ced“ Polaro i
d”t h eon e-
s tepp hot ogr a phy.Itismo stfamou sfori tsinstant
1839 – I ti s ge n erall
yk no wn a st heb irthy ea ro f filmc ame ra s,wh ichr e ache dth ema rketin1948,
pho t
o gra ph y. a ndc on ti
n u edt obet hec o mpa ny'sflags hi
p
• ( Loui sJ ac ques Man deDaguer re)– Fr e n c
h pr odu c tline . 
i
n ve nto ra nd Co n si
d ered a s f a ther of 1962–LASERwa si n ventedma kingpos si
b l
eHo lograms
Ph o t
o gra p hy,a nno unc edh isd eve l
opme nto f (th r
e ed ime n sionalpi c tures)b y Yu riDe ni
syuk  
in
[5]
thef i
rstph otogra phicp rocesss uitablef or th eSo v i
e tUn i
on  
a ndb y Emme ttLe ith andJu r
is
wid es prea d u se . I t wa s c al
le d t h
e Upa tnie ks a tt he 
Un i
ve rsi
tyo fMi ch i
ga n,USA.
Da gu e rreot y
pe ;Da gu erre’sp r
o cessi nvolved 1988–Th ea r
riva lo ft r
ued igitalc ame r
as .
rec ord i
n ga ni ma geo name talp latec oated Th efirstt ru ep or
t abledi gitalcame rat ha t
withs p ecialc hemi ca l
s recorde di ma ge sa sac omp uterizedf i
l
ewa sl i
ke ly
1848 – ( AbelNi epc e de Sai nt-Victor)in tr
o d uceda t he Fu j
i 
DS-1P  o f1988,wh ichr e cordedt oa16  MB
proce sso fn e gativeso ngl a ssu si
nga lbume n( egg inte r
n alme mor yc ar dt hatu s edab at
teryt ok eept hed at
a
Wh it
e )a sb i
n dingme d i
u m. i
nme mo ry.Th isc ame rawa sn e verma rk et
e dint heUn i
ted
1850 – (Loui sDes iri
eBl an quar t-Evard)i ntrod uceda St ates ,an dh a sn o tbe enc o nfirme dtoh aves hippe de ven
pri
n t
ingp ape rc o atedwi tha lbument oa chievea i nJ apa n.
gl
o ssys urfac e. Th efirst por table digitalca merat ha twa sa ctuall
y
1851– (Freder i
c kSc ottAr ch er)–Pu bli
shedawe tpla t
e ma rketedc omme rc iall
ywa ss o l
di nDe c emb er1989i n
proce sswh e nc oll
odio n– av i
scousl i
q uidt h atJ apa n,theDS-Xb yF uji
.
dri
e st oat ou ghf l
e xiblea ndt r
an spare ntf il
m- Th efirstc omme rci
a ll
ya va i
labl
epo rtabledi git
al
replace da l
bu me n . came r
ai nt heUn itedSt ateswa sth eDy camMod el 
1,first
1885–Ge latine mu lsionp ri
n ti
n gp a perwa sc omme r
c i
a l
lys hippe dinNov e mbe r1990.  I
twa sor i
gina l
lyac omme rci
al
i
ntrod uc edba sedf i
lmsi n1889.Th eu s eoft h
ef ai
lureb e ca usei twa sbl acka ndwh it
e,lowi nre solut
ion,
[23]
fi
rstp hot ogra phicf i
lm,p ioneeredb y Ge orge a ndc ostn e arly$1, 000( abo ut$2000i n2014) .  Itlat
e r
Eas t
ma n. sawmo de sts uc ce sswh enitwa sr e-solda s
the Logite ch Fo toma ni n1992.I tu sedaCCDi ma ge
Du ri
n gt h i
stime ;thec ame raswe rec ru de;s en sor,sto redp i
c tu resdi gitall
y,a ndc on necteddi r
e ct
lyto
thele ns esc o uldn otf o rm at rueima ge;a ndt h
e ac omp uterf ordo wn load.
sensitivema te ri
a l
sr e quiredl onge x
p os u r
esa nd In1991,Ko da kbr ough tt oma rkett he  
Kod akDCS
cou l
dn otr ep rodu cec o l
o r
si ns hadeso fgr ay. -100,t hebe ginn ingofal on gl ineo fprofe ssiona l
 Kod ak
DCS  SLRc ame rast h atwe reb asedi np artonf ilmbo dies,
1861 – J ame sCl ar k Ma xwe llr esearchedo nc olors.o ftenNi ko ns.I tu se da1. 3  me ga pixelsens or,ha dab ulky
De mo ns t
r ates a c olorp hotograp hy s ys tem e xterna ldigital sto ra ges yste ma ndwa spr i
ce da t$13, 000.
i
nv ol
v i
n gt hre ebl acka ndwh i
tep h
otogr ap hs,e a c
h PRI NCI PLESOFPHOTOGRAPHY
takent hr oughar ed ,gr e en,o rb l
uef ilter.Th e
pho t
o s we ret u rnedi ntol an t
erns lid e
sa nd Ap h oto gra p hi st heme ch a
n i
ca la ndc hemical
projecte di nr egi s
tratio n wi t
ht h
es ame c olorr esultofph oto gra p hy.Top rod uceaph otogr aph ,li
gh tis
fi
l
te r
s .Th isi st he" colo rse parati
on"me th od. nee deda s idef roms ensit
ize dma terial
s.
1890–F u l
lc orre ctedl en seswe rei ntr
od uc
e d. Li ghtr ef l
e ct edo rr a diated byas ub jectmu st
1906– ap latewa sp l
a cedo nt hema r
k ett h atc o ul
dr eacht hes en si
tize dma terialswh il
ea lloth erligh t
smu st
reprodu cea llc ol
o rsine quivalentshad esofgr a y. b e e x c
lud ed . Th e e xclus i
o n o fa l
lu nwa nted a n
d
1907 – Lu mmi e r
ec olo rp ro cess wa si ntrod uced ,a u nn ece s
s aryl igh tsi sa ch i
e vedbyp l
acingt hes ensi
tize
d
pan chro ma ticf il
m wa su sedb utwithb l
u e,gr e e
n ma terialinsideac a me ra.
andr edf il
te r.Th ef irstc omme r
ci
a l
lys u cce ssful Th ea mo un to fligh tont hes ensiti
zedma teri
al
colorpr oc ess ,th eLu mi ère Au t
o c
hrome ,i nventeda ftere xp osu rei sn o ti mme diatelyv i
siblet ot hee yes.To
byt heF renc h Lumiè reb rot
he r
s,r e ac hedt h
e ma ket hef or me di ma ge v i
s i
ble,i tmu s tu n dergo t he
ma rketi n1907. dev el
op me ntp roc e ss .Th ev i
su ale ff
ec tth atre sultsfrom
1935–Co lorpr oc es sc a meo utto getherwithe l
e ctronic t hec h emi calpr oc e ssi
ngi s de pende ntu pon on t he
fl
ash
. qua nti
tya ndq u ali
tyo fth ee x posingl i
gh t.Mor el ightwi l
l
 3
yi
e l
da no paqueo rblacks had eo nthes ensiti
z edma te
ria
la na bso rpti
v es ubsta nc e,the i
re n ergyi stran sferredin t
o
afterdevelopme nt.To oli
ttlewi l
lproduceat ra nspare ntorh ea t.
 Th us,y ouc a nt e llwhe nas ubs ta nceh asa bs orbed
wh i
tes hade.Th ev ar
yings ha deo fgr aywi l
lf i
nall
yf or
m ligh tbe c aus eith eatsu p.
 
thec ompleteima ge .
2.Re fl
e cti
on
LIGHT Re flectiono cc urswh e nl i
gh tbou nc esof fas hi
n y
Ligh tiso neo fan umbe rofk n ownf ormsof s urfa ce. Th ea ngleo fr efl
ectioni se q u altoa ngleof
radi
a n
te l
e ct
roma gn et
ice ne r
gy wh icht rav eli n wa vein cide nce.Th i
si sth eLa wofRe flect i
o n.
mo t
ion.Th isformo fe nergyt ravel
sa tas pee do fa bout Re flecti
on ss hou l
db ee venmo r
ef a mili
a rtoy ou. 
186,000 mi l
espe rs econ d or300, 000 k i
lome te rpe r Youpr ob ablyu seami rrorev eryd a yt os eey o ur
secondi na i
r,bu ttheydifferinwa ve l
engtha ndf re
q ue ncy
.r efl
e ction. Youma yh a vea l
s on otice dpo o l
sofwa t
er
Wa vel
e n
gthi sth edi s
tancef romt hec r
est( high estpoi nt
)r efl
e ctingt h es kyorame t
al refl
e ctingba llmi rrori
n gthe
tot he wa vet ot hen exts ucceedingc res twh il
et hes urrou nd i
ngga r
d en. 
Frequencyi st hen umb ero fwa vesp ass i
ngi nagi ven
pointino nes econd .Thep r
od ucto fthetwoi st hes peed 3.Tr a nsmi ssion
oftravel
. Tra nsmi ssiono ccur
swh enl igh tpa ss est hrougha
Wa vel
engthi sme a suredb yt hea ngst rom u nitor sub stan ceu ncha n
ge d,a ss hown .Ligh ti stra nsmi t
t ed
i
nt ermso fmi ll
i-mic r
ons( En gl
ishSy stemo fMe asu re)ort hrou ghs u bsta nces( s uc hasgl ass)wh i
chwet h i
nkofa s
Na n
ome ter( Me tr
ic Sy ste m o f Me asu r
e ) wh ich i st r
a ns paren t.
  
equival
entt ooneov eronemi l
li
ontho fami ll
ime t er
.
4.Re fraction
Fou rPh otographicr aysinMode rnPh ot ogra phy Re frac t
iono cc urswh e nt hel igh trayc han ges
• X-r ays–r adiat
ionh a v
ingawa vel
e ngthbe twe en me diu ms .Ligh tt r
av eli
n gt hr
ou gha ira n dt he ngo ing
.
01t o30n m.Th eya rep r
o ducedb yp assi
n ga n t hrou ghwa te risa ne xa mp l
eofal i
gh tra yc ha nging
electri
cc urrentthroughas pecialtypeo fva cu um me d i
u m.Th es p eedoft heligh trayc h ange swh eni t
tub e. ente rsadi fferentme dium.Inmo stc as est hedi rec t
iono f
• Ul tra-vi
ol etrays–r adiat
ionh avi
ngawa vele ngth thel i
gh ta lsoc hange s.
of30t o400n m.Iti su sedtop hotogra p h Wh e nwh i
tel igh tp asse sth rou ghapr ism,t he
fi
n gerpr
in t
so nmu lti
-c ol
oredb ackgro un d, dif
f eren tcol orsofl igh twh ichma keu pt hewh i
telighta re
do cume ntsthata r
ea l
teredc hemicall
y ,o rove r ben ta td if
fe renta ngl es .
 Sot heyc omeo uts e para t
elya nd
writi
ngs,a ndd etectiono fse c
retewr it
in gs. arev isiblea sar ainb owofc olo r
s .
 Alth ought het ermmi ght
• Vi sibl
eligh t–r aysh a v
ingawa velen gthof400 b el es sf ami l
iartoy o u ,y oud ea lwithr efractiono na
to700n m. regu l
a rb asis. 
Ra i
n bo wsa ret here s ultofr efrac t
e dl i
gh t,a sa ret he
R–700 n m sma llerr ai
n bo wswh ichc omeou to fpr i
sms . 
O–620n m Re frac t
ioni sa l
sor esp on s
iblef ort hewa yt he
Y–580n m han dleoft hes poons e emst obeb rok eni ntot wopi eces
G- 530n m i
nt h ei ma ge .
B- 475n m Re pr oductionofCol or
I- 450n m
V- 400n m Col ori sprod uc tofligh t
.Aph e no me nonr e sult
ing
toav isu alpe rceptiont hate na bleso net od i
ffere nti
ate
4.Infr
a-redr ays–r a
d i
ati
o nh avi
ngawa vel en gthof700 o bje ct.
to1000n m.Itisu sedi ntakin
gp ho tograph s Th eme di
aa n dme tho dsu se dt or e prod ucec olor
ofo b l
i
teratedwr iti
ngs,b ur
nto rd i
rty i
n cludec olo rpa inti
n gs ,p ri
ntingpr es se s,c olorf i
lm,c olor
docu me nts
,o rb l
a c
k outphotogra ph y. mo n i
tor s,c ol
orp rin ters,e t
ca reb a seo nt wo ba sic
proc essc all
e da dditivea ndSu btractivec olormi xt
u re
.
BehaviorofLi ghts

Lightisc on
stantl
yinmo v
e mentandwhenli
ght
comesi nc ont
actwi t
has urf
ace,itmayb eabsor
bed,
ref
le
c ted,tr
a n
smi t
ted,andref
ract
e d.
 Thetypeofli
ght Addi
ti
veColorMixt
ure
whichisr ef
lect
edf r
o mas urf
aced et
ermi
n e
sour Thea d
dit
ivec ol
ors y
s t
eminv
olv
eslightemit
ted
perc
e pti
ono fthatsu r
face'
scolor
.   di
rec
tlyfr
omas ource,befor
ea nobj
ectr
efl
ectsth
elight
.
1.Abs or
ption Theaddi
tiv
ereproduc
tionp r
ocessmi
xesvar
iousamou n
ts
Abs or
ptiono ccu
rswh enl
ightcomesinconta
ct ofred,greena n
db luel i
ghtt opr
oduceo th
erc ol
ors
.
wit
has ubstancea ndisengul
fed.
 Wh enli
ghtwavesstr
ik
e Combini
ng oneo fth es
ea ddi
ti
vepri
maryc ol
orswith
 4
anotherp roducest h
es e
c on
d a
ryc olor
sc yan,ma gent
a,
yel
low. • Br
ightSu nli
ght– a l i
ghti
ngc ondi
ti
on
To i l
lus
tratea ddi
tiv
ec ol
o r
,I fwe ge tthree whereo bjectsina no pens pacec as
ta
proj
ectorswi t
hb eamso fl
ightsproj
e ct
in
gind i
vi
duall
yblue
, deepandu n i
for
mord i
sti
nctshadow.
greenan dr e
da ndh avethethreeb eamso verl
apoverthe • Hazys unli
gh t– o bj
ec tinop ens pace
other
,wewi l
lnotethatt hep ort
ionwh er
et hebluea nd ca
stsat ransparentshadow.
greenli
gh tsme r
ge sovertheo t
h e
r,itwil
lproduceac yan • Dul
lSu n l
i
gh t– obj ectsinope ns pace
col
o r
;gr eena ndr edli
ghtsay el
lowc olor
;a ndreda nd ca
stn os hadow.
bl
u eama gentacolor
.Att hecenterwh er
eth eblu
e,green • Cl oudyBr ight– obj ectsino pen
andr edl ight
swe r
ec ombinedi np roperrati
o,wes ee spacec astn osh a
do wbu tobject
s
whiteli
gh t.I
nt hi
sa spect
,c yan,yell
owa ndma gentaare atfard i
stancear
ec l
ear
lyvisi
bl
e.
knowna st hethreesecondaryco l
orsofli
ght.Forpract
ic
al • Cl oudy Dul l– obj ect
si no pen
purpose,wh i
teisthep r
esenceo fallcol
ors
. spacec a
stn os hadow andv is
ibl
y
Televi
si
ona ndcomp ut
ermonitor
screatecol
or of di st
anto bj
ectsa re a lr
eady
usi
ngthep r
imarycolor
sofligh
t.Eachpixelonamon i
tor l
imited.
scr
eenstart
so utasblack
.Wh enthered,gre
e nandbl
ue
phosph
orsofap i
xelar
eil
luminat
edsimult
aneousl
y,t
hat B.Ar
ti
fi
ci
alLi
ghtSou
rce
pi
xelbecomeswh it
e.Thi
sp henomenoniscal
ledaddi
ti
ve
col
or. 1.Con t
inuousRadi
ati
on– In
candes
centLamps,
Fl
uor
escen
tlamps,phot
ofl
oodl
amps,et
c.,
Su
btr
act
iv
ecol
orMi
xt
ure 2.Sh or
tdu r
ati
on–Ch emi
calf
la
sh(fl
ashbu
lb)or
El
ect
ron
icfl
ash.
Sub t
racti
v eco l
orinv ol
vesc ol
orantsan dr efle
cted
l
igh t.Itu sescyan ,ma gentaa ndy el
lowp i
gme ntsord y
es SENSI TIZEDMATERI ALS
tos u btractpo r
ti
o nsofwh i
tel i
ghtil
luminati
nga no bjectto FI LMS
produ c eo thercolors.Wh enc omb inedineq uala mou nts,
pu r
es u bt
racti
vep r
ima r
yc olorsp r
od uc
et hea ppe arance fil
mi sas heeto fplasti
c(po l
yest
er,nit
ro cel
lul
ose
ofb lac k. o
rc e l
l
ulosea ce t
a t
e)c oatedwi thane mu l
sionc on t
ain
ing
Toi l
lust
ra t
es ubtrac t
ivep r
o cess
,t h
el igh tb eams li
gh t
-se nsit
ives i
l
v erh ali
des a l
ts(bondedbyge lati
n)with
oft h et h r
eep r
ojectorswi llb ec overede achwi thc yanv ariabl
ec ry
stals i
zest hatd etermin
et hes ensit
ivi
ty
,
fi
lter,y ell
owf il
ter,andma ge nt
af i
lt
e randh avet hebe ams con t
rasta ndr eso l
uti
onoft hef il
m.Wh ent hee mu ls
ionis
ofl i
gh tp r
ojectedo neo ve rtheo ther.Thec ya nf il
terwillsuffi
c i
ently e xpo sed t o l ight( o ro therf orms of
tr
a ns mitb luea ndgr eenligh tbuta bsorbsredf r
o m wh it
ee lectroma gneti
cr adiatio
ns ucha sX-r a
ys),itf ormsa
l
ight .Ay ell
owf il
terwi l
lt ransmitgr eenan dre dl i
gh tb u
tl at
e nt(invisi
ble
)i ma ge.Ch emicalprocessesc ant henbe
abs orbsb l
uef rom wh i
tel i
gh t
.Simi l
arl
y,ama ge ntaf i
lte
ra ppliedt ot hefil
mt oc reateav i
si
bleimage,inapr ocess
willt r
a nsmitr eda ndb l
uel i
ghtb uta bsorbsgr e enf rom calle
df il
mde vel
o pin
g.
wh i
tel igh t
.Att hec ent
erwh eret hethreeb eamsofl i
ght
areme r
ge dt oge t
herwi llp roduceb l
ack.F o rp ract
ical A bl acka nd wh i
tef i
l
m i sb as
ical
lyma de u p of
pu r
pos e,blackist hea bsen ceo fallcol
orso rthea bsencee mu lsi
on ,grayora nti-h al
ati
onb ackingands uppo rtbase.
ofligh t.
Ifanob jectre f
lectsa l
lthewh it
elightb a ckt othe • Emu lsi
on– c ons i
sto fcrystal
so fli
ght-s ensi
ti
ve
vi
e we r,ita ppearswh it
e.Ifa no b j
ecta bs
o r
b s( subtracts) compo un ds ( sil
vern it
rate)e venl
y di s
tri
buted
allth elightil
lumin at
ingit,n oli
gh tisrefl
ectedb a ckt othe throughou tthep last
icb asema ter
ial
.
vi
e we ra n dita ppearsb l
a ck.Itist hesubtracti
v epr ocess
thata llowse verydayo bjectsa roundu stos howc olor. • Gr ayorAn t
i-Ha lat
ionBa cki
ng– Th isl ayeris
Ther angeo fc olorswh i
chc anb ep rod ucedby placebe twe ent hee mu ls
iona ndthepla sti
cba se
sub trac t
ivemi xtureoft h r
e ed yesi sq uitel arge sa nd ofaf il
mt op reventwh ateverli
ghtt hatpa sses
ma ke s i tp o s
sible t he mo d er
n p r
oces s o fc ol
or throught hee mu ls
iona ndr efl
ectedb yt heba se
ph otogr aphywh ichd epend so nthes ubtr
acti
v ep rinci
ple. ba cktoth ee mu l
s i
onwh ichformsa“ h
alo”.
• Ba
se-Ge ner
al
lyfi
l
mb a
sea r
ema deofpl
ast
ic
mat
eri
al
.Th
eyser
veasasuppo
rtoft
heemu
lsi
on.
SOURCESOFLIGHTS
• Na t
uralLi
ghtSou rc
e– Th os
ec omingfrom Chara
cter
is
ti
cofB&W f i
l
ms
n
atur
el iket hes un,mo on
,s tars,othe
r
h
eavenl
ybo di
es,li
ghtn
ing,fi
re,et
c.,butonl
y 1.Emu l
si
onSpeed( Sensi
ti
vi
tyoffi
lmtoligh
t)– Th e
on
ec h
a r
act
eri
sti
cisc onsi
der
ed–t h eki
ndof fol
l
owingar
eindi
cat
ors;
s
hadowc as
tedb yanobjecti
no pe
ns pace
. • ASA( Ameri
canSt
anda
rdsAssoc
iat
ion
)
 5
ratin
g. Th is i s e xpres
sed i n ap osit
iveima geort ranspar
encyo fproject
ionvi
e wing.
arith
me t
ic
alval
ue. Examp les:Ko dachrome ,Ek tachr
o me ,F uj
echrome ,
• DI N ( De ut
cheI ndust
ru No rmen) Agfac h
rome ,e t
c.
ratin
g wh i
ch i s e xpress
e d in Ph ot ographi
cPa pers(B&W)
l
o gari
thmi
cv al
ue Basical
lyc omp osedo fal i
ghts ensit
iv
ec oa t
ing
• I SO (I
nter
nati
onal Standar
d( Emu lsi
on)onap aperba seofs upport
.Th ee mu l
sion
Or gani
zat
ion
) r at
in
g wh i
ch i ss uspe ndedo nage l
ati
ni sgenerall
yma deofs i
lv
erh al
ide
exp r
essed i n t he c ombin
eds al
ts.To wi thstandt her igorsofs oaki
n ginc hemic al
arith
me t
ic
alandlogari
th
micv al
ue. sol
u ti
onsa ndwa terdu ri
ngp rocessi
nga n dwa shi
ng,a s
wella sthev ari
etyofde greeinhumidit
ya n dtemperature,
Th
efol
l
owin
gar
edif
ferentemuls
ionspeedrati
ng t
h eb aseisma deo fwoo dp ul
p.
Wh enp hotograph i
cpa perise xpo se
dt olighti t
ASA 12 DIN 12º I SO 12/12 captu r
esal ate n
ti maget hatisthende velopedtofo rma
ASA 25 DIN 15º I SO 25/15 vi
siblei mage .Th el i
ght-sensi
ti
v elayeroft h
epa pe ris
ASA 50 DIN 18º I SO 50/18 cal
ledt hee mu l
sion.Th e pr i
nti mage i st r
adit
ionall
y
ASA 100 DI N 21º I SO 100/21 p rodu cedb yinterposi
ngap hotograph
icn egati
vebetwe en
ASA 200 DI N 24º I SO 200/24 t h el i
ghts ourcea ndthep aper
,e i
therb ydirectco nt
ac t
ASA 400 DI N 27º I SO 400/27 wi thal a r
gen egati
ve( f
ormingac on t
ac tpri
nt)orby
ASA 800 DI N 30º I SO 800/30 p roj
e cti
ngt hes hadow o ft hen egat
iveon t
ot hepa pe r
ASA 1600 DI N 33º I SO 1600/33 (p r
o ducinga ne nl
argeme nt)
.

2.Spectralsen siti
vi
ty( colororwav elength) Ch
ara
cter
ist
icofPh ot ogr aph i
cpa per
Th efo l
lowi nga reclassif
icati
o noff il
ms
asa cco rdi
ngt oitss p ec
trals
e nsi
ti
vit
y; • Emul si
onSpeed
• Ch lor i
depa pe r– h asas lows pe eda nd
• Bl ues e nsit
iveFi l
m–s ensit
ivetou ltr
a vi
oletr ays i
ss uite df orc on tactp ri
n t
ing.
andb l
uel i
ghto nly. • Br omi depa pe r–h asaf a
s ts pe eda ndis
• Or thoc hroma ti
cFi lm–s ensit
ivetoUVr ays ,to recomme n
d edf orpr ojecti
o np rinti
ngor
Bluea ndgr eenb utn otsensi
tiv
et ored . enl
a rgin g.
• Pa nc hroma ti
cFi lm – Se n
siti
vet oUV r a ys,t o • Ch lor o-br omi depa pe r-i smu lt
i-speed
blu
e ,gre ena ndr edo rallcol
ors. andc ou l
d be u se di nb ot hc onta
ct
• I n f
ra-r edFi l
m–s e nsi
ti
vetoUVr ays,Blue,gr ee n
, pri
ntin ga nde n l
arging.
reda ndi nfr
aredr a ys.
• Ex posurean dDev elopmen tLat i
tude
3.Granulari
tyorGr aini
n ess Lati
tu d ei st he de gr eeo ra mo untof
Thisr eferstoth es izeofme t
a l
li
cs i
l
ve rgrainst hat whichyouc a nde vi
atef romt h eide ale xp osureof
aref or
me da fter de velopme nto fa ne x po s
edf il
m. devel
opme ntwi th outa ppre ci
a bleo fp ri
n tqu al
ity
.
General
ly,thes i
z eofme t
a l
li
cs i
lv
ergr ai
na rede pen dent
ont hee mu lsions pe edo fthef i
lma ndt het ypedof • Ex pos ureLa titu
de
devel
opings o l
utionthati su sedinp r
o cessi
ng.Th er ulei s
: Ge ne r
all
y ,ph otogr aphicp ape rs do
th
elowe rt hee mu lsi
ons pe edrati
ngo fthef il
m,t h ef i
ner not h av e a wi dee xpo s ur
el a t
itude s o
i
st hegr aina ndc onve rsel
y,t heh i
ghe rthee mu lsions expos ur
emu stb ec ri
tical ata l
ltime s.
speedr ati
n go ft hef i
lm,t heb i
gge ra ret he gra ins
.
Li
kewise,af il
md e
velope rwi l
lproduc
eaf i
nergr aint hana • De ve lopme n tLa ti
tude
paperdev e
lop erwh enu se df orfi
l
mp roce s
sing. Pa pers t h at do n ot c hange
appre c i
a bl
ei nc ontr
a sta n di ma get one
TypesofCol orFi l
ms withr e ason ablev a r
iationsind e velopment
• Negat iveorNon -r evers
alFil
m has goo dl atit
u de.Howe ver,f orbe s
t
Thes uff
ix“ color”isgivent onega tiv
eo rn on quali
t yt h ede vel
o pi
n gt imes h ou l
dbea s
-reversalf i
lm.Th isf il
my i
eldseitheran e gati
v eora neara st hosep rescribedbyma n ufactur
er.
positi
vei ma ged epen dingo nhowi tisused .Exa mpl es: • Con tras
tgr a deorr an geisi ndica t
e db yNu mbe rs.
Koda color,fu j
i
color,Agf acolor
,etc.
, #1 #2 #3#4#5
• Rev er salFil
m • Ph ysi
calCh a ra cteristic-We igh t(single ,do ubl
e);
I
nph ot
ogr aph y,reversalfil
mi sat ypeof Surf
ace( gl
os s y,s emi -ma tte,ma tt
e)Col or( Wh i
te,
photogra phicf i
l
mt h atp roducesap osit
ivei mageo na Cream).
tr
ans parentb ase.Th es uff
ix“chrome ”isa ppli
edt o
rev
e rsalma t
e r
ial
.Th isf i
lmwh enp rocessedpr o du ced CAMERA
 6
4.Hol derofs e
nsiti
zed ma teri
al
s– l o
ca t
eda tt he
Came r
a–i sal ight-ti
ghtbox;wit
hal enstofor
m opposi
tesideo fthelens.I
tsfunct
ionistohold
anima ge;withas h
u t
te randd iaphr
agm toc ontr
olthe fi
rml
yt hesens i
ti
zedma ter
ia
linit
spl acedur
in
g
ent
ryo ftheima ge;ame anso fh ol
di
ngaf il
mt or e
cord expos
u r
etop rev
enttheformati
onofamu l
ti
ple
th
ei ma ge/andav i
ewe ro rviewfi
ndertos howt he orbl
urredima geofthes ub
ject
.
phot
ograp h
erwh attheima geis. 5.Viewfi
nder– itisame anso fdeter
mini
ngt hefi
el
dof
HOWDOCAMERASWORK? vi
ew oft he camera ort he exte
nto ft he
cove
ri
n gofth elens
.
Ab as
iccame r
awo rksalotli
keyoure y
es.A
camerad oesthesamet h i
ng,butithasas hu
tteri
nstead Cl a
s s
ifi
cat
ionofCa me raaccordi
ngt othes izeoffil
m
ofeyel
ids.Wh e
ny outakeap hotogr
aph,theshutt
er used;
qui
ckl
yo pensa ndshuts.Wh il
ethes h
utte
riso pen
,the
camera“ see
s”a nimage ,mu chl
ikeyoureyes.The • Lar geformatc amera
camerac apt
uresthi
sp i
c tur
e . Thesec amerash aveb el
l
ows a ndu se
Thep r
inci
ple
so fp h
otograph
yd e
riv
edf r
om she etfilmsi nt hes i
ze4x 5,5x 7,a nd8x 10.
s
cien
cea ndthei magesonthefi
lmo rpape
rma debythe • Medi umf or matCamer a
r
ayso rli
ghtthroughthecame r
aa redependentonthe So meoft h esec ame raa ref oldingt ype
s
amege nerall
awswh i
chpro
d uc
ei mageupont h
eret
ina wi t
hb e l
lowsa n ds omea rer igid-bo dywi thf i
lm
t
hrou
ght hel
e n
soft heeye
. sizeo f120,220,70mm.Th edo ublel ensr efl
e x
ca me raf all
su nde rth i
sc a t
ego ry.
I
nma nya sp ects,th eey eisl i
keac ame ra.Th e • Smal lf ormatCamer as
eyei so fo rga ni
ce volut
io n,wh il
et h ec ame rai s of Th oswi thf i
lms ize 126,110,35mm,
technological evolut
ion 16mm,a nd8mm.
ANATOMYOFCAMERA Classi
fi
ca ti
onofCa me raa c cordingt oi t
sde signa nd
functi
on
Wh eny o utakep hotograph,thef i
lmi se xpos edt o
l
ight.Th eq u al
ityo fp hoto graphd epen dso nh owmu ch • Vi ewCamer a
l
ightr eachest hef i
lma ndh owl ongt hef i
lmi se xpos e
dt o • Sy stemCamer a
l
ight.Twoma jorpa rtofth ec ame r
ac ontrolsthee x
po sure, It
s r
igidb ody d esi
gn a c cepts a wi de
apertures i
zea nds hu t
ters peed.Th es i
z eo fthea pe rt
u re va r
ietyo fl en ses ,v i
ewe rs,f il
m ba cks,a nd
control
st h ea mo unto fl i
gh tre achest hef i
lm.Asy o u ac ces sori
e s( hun dredo fthem)c a nbea ttachedor
i
n cr
ea sethes i
zeo ft hea perture
,y ouincrea sethea mou nt i
n tegr ated t o a da ptt o s cientif
ic,t echnica l
,
oflightt hatc anr eacht hef i
lm.I ta l
sod eterminest he arch i
t e
c tural,as trono mica l
,un de rwa ter
,a ndma n y
photogra phs’de ptho ffiel
d ,thatish owma nyob j
e cta t othe rk inds ofp hotography .Ex .Si ngle Le n s
varyi
ngdi stan cesr ema ininf ocus.Sma l
l
e ra pertur
es ize Re fl
e xCa me ra
produce sgr ea t
e rd epthoff iel
d,mo reo bjectr ema i
ni n
focus. • Di gitalCamer as
Shutters pe eda l
soc ontrole xp osure,a s low • Th ose wi thf ixedMe mo ry
shutters peeda ll
owsmor el i
ghtst hatc anr eacht of ilm. • Th osewi thr emov a
b l
eMe mor y
Shutters pee da l
soc ontrolmo v i
ngo bj
ec t
.F a stmo vi
n g
objecta ppea rblurredifitist akenb ys l
ows hut
te rspee d. Di gi
talph otogr aph y
Thee xpo surei sc ontr
o lb ya c omb inati
on of
shutterspe eda n dap ert
u r
es i
zetop roduc efinalima ge. I
tu s esa na rrayo fe lectr
o n i
c ph otode t
ecto rs
Partsoft heCa me raa ndFu n ct
ions; withi
nd i
gitalc a me rat oc a pturet heima gef oc usedbyt he
l
en s
,a sop pos edt oa ne xp osureo np hotogr aph i
cf il
m.
1.Boxorl igh ttightbox–s uggestsa ne nclosured evoid Thec apt uredi ma gei st h endi giti
ze da n ds toreda sa
oflight.Ane nclosurewh ichwo ul
dp rev entli
gh tc ompu t
erf il
er e ad yf ord i
gitalp rocess i
n g,v i
ewi ng,digital
f
ro me xpo si
ngt hes ensiti
zedma te
rialsi nsi
d ep ubli
shi
ngo rp rint
in g.
t
h ec ame ra. Un ti
lt hea dve nto fs ucht echn ology ,ph otograph s
2.Le ns– t hef uncti
onoft helensi st of ocust hel i
gh t we r
ema deb ye x
p os i
ngl i
gh ts en s
it
ivep h otograph i
cf il
m,
comi ngfro ms ubje c
t.Itisc hi
efl
yr espo nsi
blef ora ndu sedc h emi calph oto grap hi
cpr oc essingt ode velop
t
h es harpnesso ft hei ma gef o r
me dt hrough a nds ta
b il
izet hei ma ge.Byc ontrast
,d i
git a
lph otograph s
whichl i
gh tpass esd ur
ingt hee xposure. can be di splaye d, pr inted, s tore d, ma nipul
ate d,
3.Sh utter– i su sedt oa ll
owl ightt oe ntert hrought he tr
a n
sm i
tted,a n d archiv ed u si
ng digitala nd co mpu t
e r
l
en sa n dr eacht h efil
mf orap re-d etermine dt echni
que s,wi t
h outc h emi cal proc e
ssing.
i
nte r
va l
soft ime ,wh i
c hlightisa gainb locke d Digita lphot ogra ph yison eo fs e veral f
or mso f
offfromt h efil
m. di
g i
tali
m ag i
n g. Di
g italim ag es can be m ade b ys canning
 7
oth
e rphotograp hi
ci mages.Ad i
gitali
magei sanu me r
ic 3.Shut
terReleaseBut
ton-Thi
sisthe"
tri
gger"ofth
e
repr
e sent
ation(n or
ma ll
yb i
nary
)o fatwo-d i
me n
sional camera
.Inmos tcamer
as,ah
alf
-pre
ssacti
vate
sa nd
i
ma ge. l
ockstheauto-focu
s,andaf
ull
pres
sini
ti
atesthei
ma ge
Theq ual
it
yo fad igi
tali
ma geisac ompos i
teo f capt
uri
ngprocess.
var
iousf act
ors,ma n yofwh i
cha r
es i
milart othoseoff i
lm
came r
a s
.Pixe lcount(typi
call
yli
stedinme gapi
xels, 4.ModeDi al-Con tai
nsseve ralsy
mbo l
s(sli
ghtlydi
ffer
ent
mil
li
on sofp i
xels)iso nl
yo neofthema jorf act
ors,though onv ar
iou
sc ame r
amo del
s),th i
sdialal
lo
wsy out oselec
ta
i
tisth emos th eavi
lyma rket
edf i
gureofme ri
t. shooti
ngmo de,automati
co rma nualorac hoicebetween
Res ol
utioninp i
x e
lsisnottheo n
lyme asureo f oneoft h
epr e-defi
nedsetti
n gs.
i
ma geq uali
ty.Al ar
ge rsensorwit
ht hesamen umbe rof 5.Viewfi
nder-As mallv
iewin gwindowthats howsthe
pi
xelsge neral
lyprod ucesab ett
erimaget h anas malle
r i
ma gethatthec amera
'sima gingsensorsees.Th i
scan
one. ei
therbea nop t
ical
viewfinde r
,whichshowst hea ct
ual
Then u mbe rofp i
xel
sforagi ve
nma xi
mum i
ma geinfrontofthecame rat hr
oughap eeph oleor
res
o l
utionisthepr od uc
tofh ori
zontalpi
xelsa ndvertic
al th
roughmi rr
ors,oranelect
ron i
cv i
ewf i
nderwh ichi
s
pi
xels.Thiswo uldme an,acame r
awi t
h1. 92MPi s si
mp l
yas ma l
lLCDdi s
play.
consist
edo f1,920, 000p i
xels. 6.Apert
ureRing-Foundaro
undtheol
dma nual
lensof
SLRc a
me r
athisisu
sedtosel
ecta
na pe
rtu
reopeni
n g.I
n
For
mul
a: modernlen
ses,th
eapert
urei
scont
rol
l
ede l
ect
roni
cal
ly
n =wxh th
roughthebody.
n=Thenumberofpi
xel
s
w=hori
zon
talpi
xel
s 7.Foc
usingRi
ng-Th
iscana
lsobef
ounda
rou
ndthe
h=ver
ti
calpi
xel
s l
ensofaDSLRc a
mer
a.Th
isi
stur
nedtoma
nual
l
yfoc
us
th
elens.
f
ora
nimageof1.
92me ga
pix
el 8.LCDDispl
ay-Insomecompactcamera
sth i
sact
sa s
w=1600pix
els th
ev i
ewf
inde
r.Thi
sisasmal
lscr
een(us
uall
y1.8"
h=1200pi
xel
s di
agonal
l
yorbigger
)att
hebackofth
ec amerawhic
hc an
beusedforf
ramin
gorforr
evi
ewin
gtherecordedpi
ctu
res.
n=1600x1200
9.Fl
ash-Buil
t-i
no nth
eb odyofmos
tc ompactand
n=1,
920,
000MP
someDSLRcame ra
sthi
sc a
ne i
the
rbefix
e dorfl
i
ptype
,
i
tp r
ovi
desa
nin s
tant
aneou
sbu r
stofbr
ightli
ghtt
o
Se
nsor
san
dst
ora
ge
i
ll
umina
teapoorl
yli
tscene.
Ima ges ensorsreadtheintensi
tyofli
ght,and 10.ControlBut t
on s-Us uall
yincl
udesas etofdi r
ectiona
l
di
gitalme mo ryd evi
cesstorethed i
git
alimageinfor
ma t
ion keysandaf ewo therbutton
stoa cti
vatece rt
ainfun
c ti
ons
asRGBc o l
o rspaceora sra wd at
a. andme nus,thi
si su se
dt oletusersint
eractwiththe
Th et woma intypeso fsensor
sa rechar
ge - camera'
sc omp utersystem.
coupledd evices(CCD) ,andc omplementar
y 11.PowerSwi tc h-Tu rnsOnorOf fthecame ra.Thi
s
me t
al–ox i
de –s emiconduct
orCMOSo racti
vepixel maya l
soc ontainaRe cord/Pl ayMod eselectorons ome
sensors. cameras.
Ne arlya l
ldi
gital
ca merasuseb ui
lt
-inand/or 12.ZoomCon trol-Us u al
l
yma rkedwithWa ndT,wh i
ch
removables o l
idstat
ef l
ashme mo r
y.Digit
altapel
ess sta
ndsfor" Wide "and" Tel
e"respecti
vely
,th i
sisusedt o
camc or
d erst hatdoubleasad i
gi
talst
ill
came r
asu sefl
ash contr
olt
hec ame ra
'slensestozoo m-inorz oom-out.For
me mory,disc sandin t
ernalharddri
ves.Cert
ain20th DSLRc ame r
a s,thezoomi su s
ua l
l
yc ontr
ol
ledbyaz oom
centur
yd igitalcame ra
ss ucha sth
eSo nyMa vi
car a
n ge ri
nginthel e
n s
.
usedfloppyd i
sksa ndmini-CDs . 13.Batt
er yCompar t
men t-Hol dstheb at
teri
es.
Dependi
ngo nthec ame ramo de
l,thi
sv ar
iesins i
zean d
MAJ
ORPARTSOFDI
GITALCAMERA shape.
14.MemoryCardSlot-Th i
siswher
ee xpansi
onme mor
y
1.Body-Ma deo fhighgr adeplast
ico rmetal
,thi
sholds car
dsareins
ert
ed.Theproperpos
iti
onoft h
ec ar
dare
al
ltheotherp ar
tstoge t
hera swellasp ro
videprot
ecti
on oft
enindi
cat
ed.Ame ch
anicalc
atc
hu su
allyhol
dsthecar
d
tothedelic
ateinter
na lpar
tso fthec a
me ra. i
np l
aceandas pr
in
gh el
psitej
ect
.
2.Lens-Apr opertermf orthi
sp artshoul
db eLens
Assembly,thi
sconsistsofse ver
alla
y er
so fl
e n
sesof 15.Fl
ashMoun
t( Hot
-Shoe)-St
andar
dholde
rwi
th
var
yingpropert
iespro v
idi
ngz oom,fo cusi
ng,and cont
actpl
at
esforopt
ion
alFla
shacc
essor
y.
di
stor
tioncorrect
ion.Th e
sel ens
esa reme chani
cal
ly 16.Di
opterAdjust
er-Usua
ll
yavai
labl
einmidtohi
ghend
i
nter
co n
n ect
eda nda djus
tme nti
sc ontr
o l
l
ede l
ectr
oni
call
y sub-c
ompa ctcamera
sandDSLRslocat
edbesi
desth
e
bytheca mera'
sbod y. vi
ewfi
nde
r .Thi
svari
esth
efoca
lle
ngthofthele
nsinth
e
 8
v
iewf
inde
rtoma k
eevenpe
oplewear
in
geyegl
ass
esto I
NHERENTLENSDEFECTSORABERRATI
ON
s
eeclear
lyt
hrou
ghite
venwit
houtt
heeye
glas
ses.
17.Tr
ipodMoun
t-He r
eiswher
eyou
rstanda
rdTr
ipo
d 1.Sph
eri
cal
Abe
rra
tion
orMonopodi
satt
ach
edforadde
dst
abil
i
ty. Isth einabi
l
it
yt ofocusl
ightpass
ing
throughthece
nte
rofthele
nsandits
Ty
pesofc
onv
ent
ion
alCa
mer
a ed geatth
esamepla
ceonthefi
l
m.

1.BoxType–t h
isisc al
l
e dinstama ti
ca n di ss impleto 2.Coma– Th i
si saf or mo fs pheri
cala berrat
ionbu ti s
ope r
atea ndl easte xpensiveo fa l
lc a meras. concernedwi thth eligh trayse nteri
n g
Allyouh av etod oi slo adthef i
l
m,a ima nd obl
ique l
y.Thisisn o ti
c eablewh ent h e
snap.Ev erythi
ngmo r
et hanf iveors i
xf ee
t ci
rcu l
ar objectsr ep ro duceda tt h e
awa ywi llbei nf o cus.Th isi si dealfor cornerli
kec ome tform.
snapsho tph ot
ogra phy. 3.Curvatureoff i
eld–Th isd ef
e c
tisn o t
ic eabl
ewh enth e
2.Pol
aroi
dCa me ra–“ Inst
a ntPh otograph y”iswh atyou i
ma gef o r
me db yal e nsc ome st oa
getwi thaPo laroidc ame ra.Se co ndsa fte
r sharperfocusinac u rveds urf
ac etha n
youh aves n a
p pedt hes hutt
e r,ap erma nen
t f
lats ur
face.
blacka ndwh it
eo rcolorp r
intc omeo ut
. 4.Di
stor t
ion– Th isd efectisdu etoi na bil
ityofth elen s
3.35 MM r angefinder– t hev i
ewings yste m ofa t
of o cusstrai
ghtl i
nesc o r
rect
ly,e i
ther
rangefi
n derisas tepu pthel adde rf r
omt he hori
zon t
alorv er
ticalli
n esina nobj ect.
opticalviewfinderc ommo nt ob oxc ame r
a 5.Ch roma ti
cAbe r
rati
on–Th isde fectisd uetoi nabil
ity
andPo laroid. ofth elenstobr ingp h otographicray s
4.Sin
glel
ensRe fl
exCa me r
a- Th emo sti dealt ypeof ofdi f
ferentwa velength st othes ame
came raf orforensicp hotograph yb ec aus
eit f
oc us.
hasc apabil
it
yo fi nt
ercha nge abil
ity of 6.As tigma ti
sm–i n
a bil
i
tyo ft hel en st of ocusl i
ne s
l
e nsesa ndawi der angeo fa cces soriescan r
u nningind iff
ere n
td irecti
onl i
kef or
bea tt
a chedt oitsb ody. exampleac r
os s
.
5.Twin-l
ensr efl
exc ame ra– I th ast wol ens es,one 7.Ch roma t
icdi f
fer
e nceofma gnif
ication– i nabil
ityof
abo v
et heo t
herb uttheb ot
to ml en stakes t
h el enst o prod ucei ma ge size of
thep ictu
re .Th e sec ame r
a ss ome t
imes obj
e ctswithd i
ff
e re
n tc olors.
createa ne rr
orc all
edpa rall
ax .
6.Ult
rami
nia
tu reca mer a-Th isismo r
ep opu l
arlyk nown Ty pe
sofLe nsAc cordingt otheirDe greeofCor r
ection
ass pyc a mera wh ichi sl ightwe ighta nd • Ac hroma t
icl ens– i sc orrectedf orc hroma tic
compa ctmo de la ndc anb ec onc ealedin aberr
a t
ion.
thepa l
mo ftheh a nd.Itused16mmf i
l
mo r • Ra pid-rect
il
inear l ens – i s c orr
ected f or
sma l
lersized. di
s t
orti
on.
7.Viewcame ra– Th isiss t
a ndarde qu i
p me ntf orthe • An asti
gma tlens–i scorrect
e dfo ra sti
gma ti
sm.
professi
on alstudiop hotograp her. • Apo chroma tl e ns– i sa l
so c orrect
ed f or
a
sti
gmati
smbu
twi
thh
igh
erde
gre
eofc
orr
ect
ion
LENS t
ocolor
.
Lensisat ra
n s
parent medi
um wh i
che i
the
r
c
onve
rgeo rdi
ver
gelightray
sp as
sin
gt h
roughittof
orm Le
nsCh
ara
cte
ris
ti
cs
a
nimage.Gener
al
ly,t
herearetwotypesofl
ense
s :
1.Foc all
e n
gth– itt hed i
st
a n
ceme asur
edf r
om t
he
• Th ec onv
ergent
,posit
iveorconv
exlens
. o pt
icalcente
rofthelenstothef i
l
mp l
anewh e
nthele
ns
Thislensi salwaysthicke
ra tthec ent
era n
disseto rfocus
edatinf
ini
typosi
ti
onorfardi
stan
ce.
t
hi
nne
ra tthesi
de s.Li
ghtpassin
gt hr
oughitar
eb en
ded
t
owar
de achothero ntheoth
e rsi
deo fth
elensme e
tin
g Typeslensaccor
din
gt ofocall
engt
h
a
tapo i
nt.I
tproducerealimageo ntheopposi
tesi
deof
t
hel
ensorwh e
relighti
sc o
mingf r
om. 1.WideAn gl
elen
s–( FXf or
ma tappr
ox.14–35mm/
DXforma tapprox.10–24mm)
2.Thediver
gent
,negat
ive,orconcavele
n s Wideanglelensesarethepopul
arc h
o i
ceforlan
dsca
pes
,
Thisisal
waysthi
nneratth
ec e
nterandthi
ckerati nter
ior
s,lar
gegr oupphotosand 
wh enwo r
ki
n g 
in
t
hesi
des.Lightpas
singt
hroughi
ta rebendeda wayfro
m c onf
inedsit
uations.
e
achoth
e rasifcomingfr
omap oint.I
tp r
oduceav i
rtual 2.NormalLen s–( FXformatapprox.36mm-70mm/
i
mageont h esames i
deo fthelenso rwh er
el i
ghtis DXf orma tapprox.25–55mm)
c
omin
gfrom. I
tisref
e r
redtoa snormalbeca
u s
ei t
sc ov
erage
c
orr
espon
dst
one
arl
yth
ecov
era
geoft
heh
uma
ney
e.
 9
3.Te leph otoLe n s–( FXf or
ma tapprox.70–200mm/
DXf or ma tappr ox.55–200mm)
Te l
eph otolen ses be t
we en70–200mmp r
od ucesa
biggeri ma geo fobj ectsa tfardis
tanceb utitsareao f • Ra
nge
fin
der
s
covera gei ssma ller
.
4.Ma croZooml ens–( FXf ormat60mm,105mm,a nd Ar angefi
nderisame chani
smu sedto
200mm/DXf orma t85mm)i sal enswithva r
iablefocal meas
uret hea ngleofc onver
genceo fli
ghtas
l
e ngth.Itisfo re xtr
e mec lose-upp hot
ography ,usual
lyof se
enfromt woa per
tur
esorop en
ingbutvi
ewedat
verys ma llsubjects,inwh ichthes i
zeo fthes ubj
e cti
nt he t
he s a
me t ime.I n mo der
n c ameras,the
ph ot
o grap hisgr eaterthanl i
fesize(though r
angef
inderisc o
upledwiththevie
wfinde
r.The
re
ma croph otograph y).alensc apableofrep r
odu ct
ionra t
ios ar
etwot y
pe sofrangef
inder
s.
greate rthan1: 1.
2.Re lativeApe rtu r
e–t hel i
ghtga t
heri
ngp owe roft he • Spl
it
-image
l
e nsise x
p re
s sedi nthef -n u
mb ersystem.Ea chf-n umber • Co-i
nciden
t
represe ntsther atioo fthef ocall
engtho fth
el ensa nd
diame tero ftheop ening.Th eseindi
cateinsu ccession • Gr
oun
dgl
ass
de cr
e aseb yon e -ha l
finlightint
ensit
ya sthen umb er
i
n cre
a se s.Thisme anst hatana pert
ureo ff1.8wi lladmit Thismethodoff
ocus
ingi
sa cc
ompli
she
d
twicemo relightt hanf 2a nds oon.Co nver
sely,li
ght bydi
rec
tob s
erv
ati
onofthei
mageofthesubj
ect
i
n ten
s itywilldec reasebyo ne-hal
fa sthen ume r
icalval
ue onaglas
swithfi
nel
ygro
undedsu
rfa
cek n
owna s
i
n cre
a se s.Thisa lsome an sthatf8wi l
ladmittwicel ess gr
oun
dglass
.
l
ightt hanf5. 6.
SHUTTER
Depthoff iel
d–i sthed ista
ncef romt hen earest Co ntr
a pti
ono rd eviceu sedt ob loc kt h
epa t
hof
to t he f arthes
t ob ject i nlightpa ssi
ngt hrought helen sa nde xpo s
ingt hese ns
it
ize
d
app arents har
pf ocuswh ent h
e ma t
erial
.Itc ontrol
sth ele ngtho ft i
met h atlighta l
l
owed
l
e nsi ss eto rf ocuseda ta i n t
oth ec amera.
parti
c ulardis
tance.
Hyperfoca lDistance–i sthen earestdistancea t SHUTTERSPEED–r e f
erst ot hel engtho ft imet hatth
e
wh i
chal en
si sfocu s
e dwi t
ha s hutt
e ral
lowl i
gh ti
ntot hec ame ra.
given p art
icul
ar di aphragm
ope ning wh i
ch wi ll be t h
e Th ea ctionoft hes hutteri se x pressedi nt he
ma ximu md eptho ffi
eld. dif
ferents hutt
ers peed swh i
chc orr
es pondt ot helength
FocalDis tance–i sthed i
s t
ancef r
omt h eopticalo ftimeo rdu ra
tionoft h eo pe ni
n gtot h ec l
osi
n goft h
e
cente ro ft hec ame rat ot h
es hutt
e r.
objec tfocuso rpointoff ocus. Th eB s et
ti
ngi sa ne xposures ettingf ormo re
thano nes econd .1– i sf oron es e cond,2– i sforone
3.Foc usi
ng– i st hes etti
ngo fthep roperd ist
a ncei n –h a
lfs econd,4–i sf oron e–f o ur
thofas econd,anda l
l
ordertoformas h arpimage .Itist hema infactorth a
twi l
ls uccee di
ngn umb er
sa rea lsof ractionso fa s econd.
deter
minet hes h
a rpnesso fthei ma geo nthep hotograph. Ex cep tforB,a ndn o.1,a lln umb ersa ref racti
onsof
second,t heh i
gh erthen u mb er,thef a s
te rist hes hut
ter
Me thodoff ocus i
ng speeda ndwi lladmitle s
sl i
gh ta ndt helo we rthen umber,
1.Scale-bedorf ocus i
ngs cal
e theslowe ri
st hes hut
ters pee da ndwi l
l admi tmor eli
ght.
Ex :
Ont hemo un tofb arrelo fthec ame r
al enst her
e 1/30 wi l
la dmitt wic e mo rel i
ghtt han
aretwos et
sofp re-settedd istan c
e.Th ise xpressedin 1/ 60
feet(f
t)andinme t
ers(m).Th e sed is
tancesc orr
e s
p ondto Or
thedist
ancef r
omt hec ame rale nstot hesubject. 1/60wi lladmi ttwicele sslighttha n1/30
Tof ocuswi tht hi
sme thod,o neh ast ou sea
me asu
ringdevice( tapeme as ure,ya r
dsti
ck,ruler
,e tc.
)a n
d Th erea retwoma j
ortype sofs hutt
e r
s
actual
l
yme a
s ur
et h ed i
sta
n cef romt helenso fthec ame r
a
tothes ubje
c t
.Wh ateverd i
stan cewa sme asured,wi l
lbe • Bet weent helensorc en t
rals hutter
thes et
ti
ngo fthema rk
ero rp ointeroff ocus.Ifa ctual Thiss hutteri sl ocatedi nbe t
we ent he
me asu
reme ntisn otpo ssi
b l
eo ru ndertaken,e st
ima t
ion, lensc omp onen t
.I tc anbes y nchron i
zedwi tha
cal
c u
lat
ion,o ra ppro xi
mationo ft hi
sp a r
ti
culardi st
an c
e fl
a shu ni
twi t
he verys hutters peed.I tisma deof
canber esort
ed . me talblade.
• Foc alplanesh utt
er
 10
Thi
sshutt
erislo
cateddir
ect
lyi
nfr
ontof set
so rr e
f er
encet abl
esf r
om wh i
che xpos
ure
t
hefi
lmoronthefoc
alplan
e.Iti
susual
l
ymadeof dat
acanbeob ta
inedo nobserv
eds ubj
ectsand
c
lot
hormetal
curt
ain. l
igh
ti
ngc ondit
ions
.
Theh ea
rto ftheme t
erisal ightcel
l
EXPOSURE madeof:
Ex posureist hea ctiono frecordi
ngr adi
a ntenergy • Sel eni
um( Se)cell
s
thatp roducesa c hange o fa ma t
e r
ialo rs ubstance • Cadmi ums ul
fi
de(Cds)cel
l
sen s
iti
vet os u che nergy.I nc o nvent
iona lp hotography • Si l
i
c on(Si
)“ bl
ue”cel
l
ma teri
al
s,thea ctiono ft hee xpo si
nge ne rgyre duceso r • Gal li
um-arsenic
-phosphor
ous
breaksd ownt hes i
l
v erh a l
ides uffi
ci
entl
yt opr od ucea
l
at ent(i
nvi
sible)recordo ft hep at
terno flightintens i
tyor CAMERA’ SACCESSORI ES
i
nt hec aseo fprinti
ngma te ri
alsav i
sibl
ere cord.Ex posure 1.FILTER
i
squ ant
itat
ive:itisth epr oduc toft h
et otalli
gh tintensi
ty 2.ELECTRONI CF LASH
an dthelengthoft i
mei ts trikesont heemul s
ion. 3.LENSHOOD
Me th
odsofc ompu tinge x
pos ure 4.TRI POD
5.EXPOSUREMETER
• Cal culatingfilmex pos ure 6.SHUTTERRELEASECABLE
Ac t
ua l
l
y ,thereisn oc orrecte xposure,bu tthereis
ani dealo rp ropere xpo sure.Ex posuret hereforei s
subjecti
vea nde r
rorsi nc a l
cu l
a t
ionc ouldr esul
ti ne it
her FI
LTER
“over-exposure”or“ unde r-exp osure”.On ego odr ulein I
sa h omoge nousme di
um wh i
cha bsorbsa nd
j
u dgingp r
op ere xpos ur
ei st h ep resenceo rv i
s i
bil
it
yo rt r
ans mitsdiffer
enti
all
yl ightr aysp assi
ngt hroughi t
.A
de t
ail
so fth es ubject,n oto nlyint hemi ddlet onesb utc ol
orf il
terworkins uchawa yt hatitwil
ltransmitit
sown
al
s ointheh i
gh l
ightsa nds h ado wa reas. col
o ra ndabsorbsa l
lothercolors.
As imp l
er ulep r
ov idesau niv
ersale xposu r
egu i
de Byu si
ngf il
tersi nc omb i
nati
onwi t
hbl acka nd
forc olorandb l
acka ndwh i
tef i
lmsa reb asedont he whit
ef i
lms,thep hotogr
a pherc anc ont
roltonalva l
uesto
foll
owingfactors . getat e c
hnical
lyc o
rrectr endit
iono rtoe x
agge r
ate,or
a.FilmSpe e d suppre s
st hetonaldif
ferencesf orvisi
bi
li
ty,emp hasi
s,and
b.Ligh t
ingCon dit
ion othere ffe
cts,withco l
orf i
l
ms ,fil
ter
sa reu sedtoc hange
c.Ty peofs ubj ect thec o l
orquali
tyo fthee x
pos i
ngl i
ghtstos ecureproper
col
orb al
ancewiththef i
lmb eingu sed.
Age neralformu lau s
e di ne xposures etti
ngofa n FI
LTERFACTOR
ave r
ageo rno r
ma l s
ub j
ec tint hes u noro pens ky.
Becausefil
tersu bt
racts omeo fth eli
ghtpa ssi
ng
Ex ample : thr
ou ght helens,a ni n
c reas
ei ne xp
osuret i
meo rlens
Fora verageorn orma lSubje c
t: openin gisn ecessary.Th en umb ero ft i
mest hatthe
norma lexposuremu stbemu l
tipl
iediscal
led“ f
il
terfact
or”.
Fi
l
mspe
ed Li
ght
ingCon
dit
ion
Ty
pesoff
il
ter
Br
igh
tsun Hazys
un Dul
lsun
I
SO100/
21º 1/
125f11 f8 f
5.6
I
SO200/
24º 1/
250f11 f8 f
5.6
• Cor recti
onf i
lt
er–u s
edt oc h
a ngetheresponseof
Or
1/125f
16 f11 f
8 thef i
l
m s ot hata l
lc olorsa r
er ecordeda t
I
SO400/
27º 1/
500f11 f8 f
5.6 app roxi
ma tel
ytherela
tiv
ebr i
ghtnessval
u e
ss eenby
Or
1/250f
16 f11 f
8 thee y e
.
Or
1/125f
22 f16 f
11 • Con trastf i
lt
ers– u sedt oc h a
nge ther el
ati
ve
brightnessv al
uess othattwoc olor
swh ichwou l
d
• Bracketi
ng oth e
r wi
seber e c
ordeda snearl
yt hesamewi l
lhave
Thi
st echni
queisu sed whene x
posur
e dec i
de dl
ydiffer
entbri
ghtnessinthepictur
e.
cal
c u
lati
ont hatwillgiv
ead esi
redresul
tis • Ha zef i
lt
er– u sedtoeli
minateo rreducetheeffe
ct
uncerta
in;makes ever
alexposur
eso fles
st h
an ofs erialhaze
.
andmo r
ethanthec al
cul
at
ede xpos
urebytwoor • Ne utralden si
tyf i
lt
er– u sedf orreduci
ngt he
fourf-st
ope ach
. amo u ntofl i
ghtt r
ansmit
tedwi thoutchangingthe
• Exposureme t
er colorv al
u e
.
Thi
sme a
suresthel i
ghtint
ensi
ti
esand • Polar i
zin
gf i
l
ter– u se
dt or educe ore l
imina
te
hasc al
cul
ator
so rc omp ut
ert of i
ndc amer
a refle
c ti
ononh ighl
yrefl
ecti
vesurface.
set
tingt ha
twi l
lp r
oducego ode xpo
sur
es.The • Lightbal anci
ngf i
l
ter
exposurec al
cul
ator
sa re mechani
caldevi
ceo r Af i
l
terusedt och anget h
ec ol
orq ual
it
y
 11
oft hee xposinglightino rdert os ec ure 200 24 28 91
pr ope rc olorb a l
ancef ora rti
fi
c i
a llight 400 27 40 128
fil
ms . 800 30 57 181
• Col orc ompen satingfil
ter
Th i
si su sedt oc hanget heo ver-a l
lc olor Toc alcul
a t
et h e" ƒ"nu mbe r
,dividetheGu i
de
ba l
a nceofp ho t
ogr aphi
cr esultobt a i
n e
d Nu mbe rb ytheSu bje ctDi st
anc e.
wi t
hc o lorfi
lmsa ndt oc omp ens at
ef orF orexamp le:
de fici
en ciesi nt heq uali
tyo fe xpo sin
g AFl ashgunwi tht h
egu i
den umbe ro f20i nMe ter
s,
en ergy. (64inf eet)
,a tISO100,wi thas ubjecta tad istanceof
2.5Me ters,(8f eet),wo ul
dgi vea na nswe rofƒ 8,(Gu i
de
ELECTRONI CFLASH Numbe r20÷2. 5Me te rs=ƒ 8).Howe v
era tI SO200,( a
af l
ashlamp,u s ual
lya t
tache dtoac ame raor fast
erf i
lm s pe ed)t h ec al
c ul
a ti
onc h angest o,Gu i
de
house dwi th
inthec a me rab ody,tha tproduce sbril
liant Numbe r28÷2. 5Me ters =ƒ11.
fl
ashe sofl i
ghtb yth ed ischargeo fc ur
rentth r
o u
ghaga s Drawba ck
-fil
l
edt ube. • Re dEye
• Fl ashsy nchron i
za t
ion
Hots hoe :af l
ashmo untin
gs lotthath asac entr
a lterminal • Bu i
lti nc a me raf l
ashh asl imited di st
ance
son oc o r
disn eede d. capabil
ity
Synch ronizat
ion:t het imingo faf lashguna ndac ame ra • Itdi s
tractspe opl e
sot hatt hef las
hi sma k
ingt hemo sto fl i
ghtwh il
et he • Ti mec on sumin g
shutt
e riso pen.
M Sy nc:ad el
ayo f. 026 s econd sb etwee nt hef lash LensHood
star
tingt of i
rea n dt hes huttero pening.Th i
sa l
lowsol d
fl
ashbu l
bst oreac ht heirpeako ut
p ut. I
n  
p h
otogr aphy ,a  
l
e nsh ood or 
lenss ha de i
sa
XSy nc :ax ero(zero )de l
ay.Wh e nthes hutterisfullyo pen,d evi
ceu sedont hee ndo fa  
lens toblockth esu norot her
theflashi stri
ggere d.Th isiswh atisn ee dedfore lectroniclightsourceinor de rtop revent
 glare 
a ndlensf l
a re
fl
ash.Mo stc ame ra swi t
hf ocalp lanes hutters
,s ucha s
SLRs ,h aveXs ynca ts peedsu pt o1/ 60tho fas econ d.If TRIPOD
yout akeaf l
ashpi cturewi t
ht hes hutt
e rspee ds eth i
gh er
thant heXs yncs pe ed ,youge tap i
ctureth atisp artial
ly` I
n  
p h
otogr aphy ,a  
tri
pod  isu sedt os ta bil
i
zea nd
bl
a ckedo u t
.So mep r
emi umc amera sofferth efe atureof e le
vatea  came r
a ,a  flash unit
,oro therp h otographi
c
ah i
ghs hutters pe edf orX s ync.Th i
smi ni
mi zest hee quipmen t
.Allp hotogra phictri
p odsh aveth r
eel egsan da
chanc eo fa" ghos te xpo sure,
"o newh i
c hisma den otby mo unt
ingh eadt oc ou plewi thac amera.Th emou nti
ng
theflashb utb ythee xi
s ti
nglight. headu suall
yi nc l
ude sa  th
u mb scr
e w t
hatma test oa
TheFl a sh
gu nGu ideNu mbe r femaleth r
eadedr ecep tacleont hec ame r
a ,aswe l
la sa
me chan
ismt ob ea blet or otat
ea ndt i
l
tthec a me r
awh en
Gu i
deNu mb erisan umb ergivent oas pecifi
c i
tismo untedo nt het ripod.Tr i
p odlegsa reu su all
yma de
Fl
a shgu natas pe ci
f i
cI SOr ati
n gtoh elpc al
culatet he totelescope,inor de rt os aves pacewh enn oti nu se.
requi
re d"ƒ "
,(ape rt
u re)s et
tin
gf orac ame r
ai nce rtai
n Tri
podsa reu sua l
lyma def rom  al
umin u
m,  c
a rbo nfiber,
conditi
on s! steel
,wo odo rplastic.

Toc al
cul
atethec orre
ct" ƒ"numb erforyou
r
c
ameratoma t
chtheF l
ashgu nthreec r
it
eri
an eedtob e
k
nown. CHEMI CALPROCESSI NG
• Th egu i
den umb eroft h
eF l
ashgunin Aftert hee x
po s
ureo fthef i
lmt ol ightint he
metersorfeet(usu al
lyfoundinthe pi
c t
u r
et aki
n gortheph otographicpaperd uri
n gpri
nti
ng,
spec
ifi
cati
on sdoc ume n
tfortheF l
ashgunor then extstepwo uldgenerall
ybec hemic
alpr ocess
ing.In
markedo ntheF l
a s
h gunit
self
). bl
a cka ndwh i
teprocessi
ng,t hes t
epsa r
ed evel
opme n
t,
• Th edista
n c
et oth es ubj
ectfromthe stop-bath,andf i
xat
ion.I
nc o
lorprocessi
ng,thes t
epsa re
f
lash
gu ninMe t
erso rFeet. colordevelopment,st
op-fix,ands t
abil
i
zer.
• Th eISOs peedb eingu sed.
1.Dev elopmen t– ist hep rocessbywh icha ninv
isi
ble
ISO DI
N GUI DE GUIDE l
atentima geina nemu l
si
oni sma dev i
si
ble.I
nbl ack
-a n
d-
NUMBER( m) NUMBER( ft
) wh i
teemu ls
ion,theimagei sco mposedofgr ainsofblack
25 15 10 32 me t
a l
l
ics i
lv
e r
.Inc ol
ore mu l
sion,thedeve l
ope dsi
lveris
50 18 14 45 repl
acedwi thc y
an,yel
low,a ndma gent
ad ye.
100 21 20 64
 12
Ind e
velopment,ad evel
opi
nga gentc h emical
l
y 2.El
on -2grams
brea
ksd ownorred uc
ese xpos
eds i
l
verhali
dec r
y stal
sto 3.Hyd
roqui
none -5gr
ams
for
m grai
nsofme tal
li
cs i
lv
er.Thi
sp r
ocessorr e
a cti
onis 4.Sod
iums u
lf
it
e -100gra
ms
thesameinbothbl a
cka ndwh i
tefi
l
msa ndp hotographi
c 5.Bor
ax(gra
nul
es) -2grams
paper
s.Th ef a
ctorst ha
ta ff
ectd eve
lopi
ngt ime a re: 6.Watert
oMa ke -1Lit
er
agi
tati
on,te
mpe r
ature,concent
rat
ionofc hemicals,and
exposur
e. D-72De ktol–Pa pe
rDeve
lope
r
1.Water52cor125F -500ml
Thes
ea r
ec ommo
nde v
elop
eru s
edforB&W fi
l
m 2.El
on -311grams
a
ndpa
pe rwhi
chismadeupofgr
anule
sb utn
otl
imi
tedt
o. 3.Hyd
roquino
ne -12grams
4.Sod
iumSu l
fi
te -4.5gra
ms
• Af
il
mDe
vel
ope
r-D-76(
Koda
k) 5.Sod
iumCa rbon
ate -67.5grams
6.Pot
assi
u mBromide -1gram
`
Procedure: 7.Watertomake -1lit
er
Dilu
teitwit
h1u sga
ll
ontoma k
e
i
tas tocks ol
ut
ion
.Take1p ar
tofst k 2.St
oc op-bat
h–h al
tsthedev
eloperact
ioni
na pp
ropri
ate
sol
ut
iona nd mixitwit
h8-10 pa r
tof mome nt
.I tal
sop re
vent
st hec onta
mina
tiono ft he
wate
r. De vel
op the f
il
m a bou
t 5-6 dev
eloperandf
ixe
rfromeacho t
her.Thi
swil
ltak
ea bout
min
utes. 30seconds

• Apa
perDe
vel
ope
r-D-72orDe
ktol
(koda
k) STOPBATHFORMULA

Procedure: Stop-bathc anb ep lai

nwa teron l
ywi th
Dilut
ei twith1u sga l
lontoma k
e 28% gl acialaceti
ca ci
d
i
tas t
ocks oluti
on.Ta ke1p artofs t
ock
sol
utiona ndmi xitwith2p artofwa t
er. 3.Fixation – A f i
xerma kest he devel
ope di ma ge
Developth efil
ma bo ut1:30mi nutes. per
ma nentwh eni tisfoll
owe dbyat h
oroughwa shi
n g.In
th
isp rocessings tage,t heu nexposedu nderdevel
o ped
• Un iver
salFil
ma ndPa pe rDe vel
ope r(Atlas) si
lv
erh ali
dec ry s
talsa r
ed is
solv
eda n
dr emovedf r
om t he
emuls
iono fth eph otographi
cma teri
al
.
Procedure:
Dilut
ei twith1u sga l
lontoma k
e Procedur e:
i
tas tocks oluti
on. Dil
utei twith1u sga l
lontoma kei ta
readys ol
u t
ion.Th i
swi l
lt akea bout20 t o 30
Fi
lm–1: 8or10( de v
elopa tabou t5t o6 minute s.
minut
esa t68º F)
Paper-1: 1( devel
opa tabout3mi nute
s FIXINGBATHFORMULA
i
nat rayor4mi nutesi nata n
k
68º F) Theche micalc omp onentsofaf i
xi
n gbathare:
• Wa ter
DEVELOPERFORMULATI ON • Di ssol
v i
nga gent
• Pr eservat
ive
Typi
calcomponentsofab lack-and-wh itedevel
o perare: • Ne ut
rali
zers
• Sol v
ent(wa t
e r
) • Ha r
den er
• De vel
opinga gent–El on,Hy dr
o qui
n on
e
• Pr eser
vati
ve–s od i
ums uphit
e Aty picalf
ixerformula
:
• Ac cel
eratorora cti
vato r
.-So di
umCa rbonate • Wa ter50Co r125F -600ml
• Re str
ainerorfogp r
eve nte
r–Po ta
ssiumBr omide • Hy po( Sod iu
mTh ios
ulf
ate) - 240
grams
Vari
ousc hemica l
sc an s erve t hi
sf unct
ion. • So diumSu lf
ite(anhydr
ous) - 15
Chemic
alsc hos
e nared eterminedwh etheritiss l
ow o r grams
fa
sta cti
ng,p roduceh igh,n or
ma l
,o rl ow c ontr
ast, • Ac eticAc id(28%) -480ml
achi
eve
sma x
imu me mu l
sions peed,createsfinegr a
inor • Bor icAc id(cryst
a l
s) - 7. 5
act
sinan umbero fwa ys
. grams
• Po tass i
uma l
um( Fin
egr an
u l
ar)–15gr ams
D-76Fi l
mde vel
ope rformu l
a • Wa tertoma ke -1liter
1.Wa t
er52Cor125F -750ml Thi
sf i
xingba thisr ecomme ndedge ner
all
yf orbot h
 13
f
il
msa
ndph
oto
gra
phi
cpa
per
s. aboutto30seconds.
• Pla
c ethepri
nt
sinthea ci
dfi
xer
.Thefi
xi
ngt
ime
4.Rins
eFinalbath
-Th efi
lmi
swa sh
edwit
hwa t
erto i
sa bout20to30minutes.
remov
ea l
lthepr
ocess
ingc
hemi
cal
s.Thi
swi
l
ltak
ea bou
t • Wa shthepri
ntinrunni
ngwat
erforabou
t20to
20-30minut
es. 30mi n
u t
es.
• Dryi
nga ndmount
in
g.
FILMPROCESSI NG GENERAL APPLICATION
Fi
lmp roc essingc anb ec arr
ie do utintray,ta nk
s,
orme chanizede qui
p me nt.Pa nchr
oma ti
cma ter
ial
smu st 1.Ide ntifica ti
onpu r pos es
beh andledi nt otald arkness.Ot herma teri
alslik
ebl ue a .pris on ers,p e rsonss u bje ctofi nv esti
ga ti
on
fi
lms ,o rt
h ochro ma ti
cf il
ms ,a ndp r
inti
ngp apersa re b.Un id en ti
fiedc ada ver
han dl
edu nde ras afeli
ght. c .Mi ss i
n gp ers on
d.Lo s to rs to l
e npr opert y
Ty pesoff i
lmpr oc essing e .Ci vil
ian( Po l
ic eCl earan c ef orl oc alempl oy me nt
ora b road ,e tc.,)
1.Ta nkme t
ho do ffil
md evel
op ment 2.Re cor dinga n dpr es ervi
n gofe vide nc es
2.Tr ayme thodoff i
lmd eve l
opme nt a .Cr imes ce ne( Ho micid e,mu rde ra ndot her
cr
imel iste di nt h eRPC)
Twot ypesofph ot ograph i
cpr i
nting b.Tr affica cc i
de nts
• Co nta ctp rint
ing c .Ob j
e ctso fe v i
den ces( Gu ns ,b ulletors he l
l,
• Pr oj
e ctionp rint
ingo re nl
argi
n g Kn i
fe ,clo thi
n ga ndo t
h erp erson a lb elon gings .
)
d.Ev ide ntial traces( fi
n ge rprin ts,s hoeort ir
e
ENLARGI NGTECHNI QUE pri
n ts,bl ood sta i
n sa ndo therb odyf luids ,too lma r
k s,etc.,
Afterp roc essin
ga ne xposedf il
mi ntoan egativ
e, 3.Di s cov eringa n dpr ov i
ngofe vide nc esn otr eadilys een
then eststepwou ldb etu r
n i
ngt hene gati
v eint
oapo siti
ve byt h en a kede ye.
printo fc op y.Th isc o ul
db ed oneb ye i
therc on t
act a .Co n tras tc o ntrolbyl i
gh ti
n g,u s eoff il
te r
s ,use
printi
ngo rp ro j
e cti
onp rint
ing.F orc ontactpr i
nting,a o fd iffere ntf i
lmsa n dpa pers.
con tac
tp r
interi su sedwh i
l
ei np rojecti
onp r
int
inga n b.Ma gn ifi
c ationore n l
ar ge me n tso fti
nyob jects
enlargerisn e ede d.Th erea r
ef oure ss e
n ti
alpartso fa nb yt hea p pli
c ationo fph otomi cro gra ph yo r
enlarger.Th esea reb asea nds tan d,a l amphou se,a p hot omi cr ogra ph y.
con densero rd iffuser,a ndal ens.Ac cessori
eso ft he
enlargera re;a n ega ti
veh oldera nda ne asel( paper Ph ot omi c rogr aph y–i st h et a kingo fph otogr aph
holder).Thef oll
o winga ret hes t
epsine nl
a r
ging; th
r ou ghami c ros cop e.Ith asa ma gn i
fic ati
o no fmor e
• Pr epara ti
o no ft hed arkroom,c h
e mical
s,an dt het h
a n50t ime s.Th ec ame r
ai sa ttac he dt ot hee yep i
e ce
enl
arge r. andi tist hel e nso ft hemi croscop et h ati su sedi n
• Pu to ffwh i
tlight,switcho nre dli
gh t
. phot ogr aph ing.
• Pl a cet hen egati
v einth enega tiv
eh olderwitht he
dullsi
d eoft hen egati
vef aci
n gd own . Ph ot oma c rogr aph yorMa croph otogr aph y–i s
• I nsertt hen egati
v eh ol
derwi ththed u
llsi
deo fthet h
et a ki
n go fph o to gra phwi thas hor tf oc allens.Itisa n
negativef a ci
ngd o wn. extremec los e-u pofs ma l
lob jec tst oph o tograph .Ith asa
• Swi tcho nt hee nl
a r
ger’sli
ght ma gn if
ica ti
o n oft wot ofiftytime s.
• Ad justt hee a
s elt ot hed es i
reds i
zeo ft he
photogr ap h. Mi croph ot ogr aph y–i st h et a kingo fa
• F ocust hel enso ft hee nl
a r
ge r.Fo cusi
ngisd onep ho togr apho fa no bjec tinav eryr ed uc eds i
zedo rtiny
byfirsto peningt hele nsd i
a phragm full
y.Ifa ft
erima ge so fl argeo bje cts.Th eima geo fa nobj ectis
theima geh asb ee nfocu s
ed ,a ndt hede nsit
yo fr eprod u ce dmu chs ma ll
e rtha nitsa c tua lsize.Ex :
th
en e ga ti
vep ermits,thel e nso fthee n l
arger Mic rofil
mi ng.
mu s
tb es topp edd ownal itt
leb it
.
• Swi tcho ffthelightthee nlarger. c .Us eofi nv i
sibler adiatio nlikex -r ays,u l
traviole
t
• I nsertt h eph otographicp ap erint hee ase lwithr ays,a n di nfrare dr a ys
thesh i
n nys idefa ci
ngu p.
• Ma ket hee xposure. 4.Re cor dinga c ti
onofof fende r
• I mme rset hee xpo sedp hotogra phi
cp aperi nt he a .Su rve il
lan ce
develop er.Th eu suald evelopi
n gt ime f or a b.En tra pme nt
norma l
lye x
p osedp aperi sa bo ut1 t o1½ c .Ex tra-J udic i
a lCon fess ion
minutes . d.Re -e n a ctme ntofac ri
me
• Tr ansfert h ed evelopedp ri
nti nth estop-ba thfor 5.Forc ou rte x hibits
 14
a.I
ndivi
dualphotogra
phs “
do cume ntati
on”o fthesce ne.Itisana ccurat
ea nd
b.Sli
deproject
ion l
ogical“story”ast ol
db ythes ce neinvis
ua lf
orm.Th e
c.Compa r
isonc ha
rts i
mme ns
ev al
ueoft hecompl et
e nessmu stbepr i
ori
tyover
d.Motionpictu
reorv i
deoc
ove
rage
/pr
ese
nta
ti
on t
hec ostoff il
msa ndot he
rma teri
a l
s.I
tisawi semov eto
6.Forcr
imepr eve
ntion t
ak emor ep i
ctur
e sthanto ofew.
7.Publ
i
cI n
formati
on Ea chcri
meh asindivi
dua lfeat
ureswh i
chwillbe
8.Pol
ic
eTr ai
ning p
h otographed.Ke epinmin dth en at
u r
eoft heoffe
nsea nd
t
ryt osho wthefe atu
resth atestabli
shesth eele
me ntsof
SPICIFICAPPLI CATI ON t
heof fense.Iti
sp rudentthatth ejudgme ntshoul
dn otbe
1.Identi
ficationPh otogra phs t
ha tofthep hotographera l
oneb u
tinc onsult
ati
onwith
Ani d enti
ficationp ho t
o graphs ho ul
db ea n t
heo f
fi
ce rofthec ase.
accuratel i
kene sso fthes u bject,fromwh ichh eca nb e
recogniz
e db ywi tne sseso rp oli
c eo f
fi
c ers.The se Asba s
icgu i
de li
nes,thea ppr oachtoc omplete
photograp hss houlds tr
ivet or ep roducee verymo le,scar, repr
es entat
ionofs ubje ctma t
tersi stheprogre ss
ionof
wrinkl
esa n
do therma r
kswh ichwi llhelpide nt
ifythe “generaltos peci
fic”.
subject
. Kindsofph ot ographicrangeorv iewsofc rime
scen e
2.Crime -Sc en ePh otogr aph y 1.Th elongr angeorge neralv i
ew
Th eprimar ypur poseofc rime-sc ene 2.Th eme diumr a n
georme diumv i
ew
photograph yist opr ovidei nfor mationt hatwi l
las si
stthe 3.Th ec l
ose-u p
successfulin vesti
gat i
onan ds ubs equen tpr osecutionof 4.Th ee xt
remec l
ose-u p
ac ri
minalc as e.Ph otograph yisu seda sape r
ma n ent
vi
su a
lrec ordoft h ee xacta ndor i
ginallocationa nd Thelon grangeorgen eralview
condit
ionoft hedi ffere
n ta spec tsofth es cenea ndv it
al Ge neralvi
ewwi l
lfeature
st heo v
era l
lappearance
evi
de ncesofpr oof.He nc e,th ein di
spen sable ofthes cenea ndise xpos e
dwi thawi dea n
glelenst ha
t
photograp hi
ngoft h ecrimes cen es houldb ed one al
lowst heviewertos e ethelargea r
e aofthes cenea t
comp l
etelya nda c curatelyb eforeo bjectso fev i
de nceare eyelevel.
removed ,alt
e red,o rlost.Int hei ni
ti
a l
s tageso fan
i
nve s
ti
ga tion,therea r
ec e rt
a i
na s pect
st h ataren ot The“ Ov er
all
”p h
otographd epict
stheloc at
ionof
readi
lyev ident,bu tlaterth eyma ya f
fec tvital
issue sof thecrimes ceneora re aofinterest.Itma ybea
thec a
s e. photographo fabu i
lding,av ehicl
e,af i
el
d,e t
c.Itshows
Gen er
all
y ,cri
mes c eneph o tograp hyserv esinthe thejurywh erethecrimewa sc ommi ttedorapa r
ti
c ul
ar
fol
lowinga reas : areao fi
n t
erestwh eree vi
dencewa sf ound.

1.Topr ovi
detheinvesti
gatora ndtheprosecut
orwithan Typ
ical
l
y ,t
he searesh otfromthefourcornersof
accurat
epi ct
ori
alpres
e nt
a t
ionofth eappeara
nc eand t
hescene.I
findoors,usual
lyth eyaretak
enfromt he
posit
ionofobjectsatthes cene. c
orner
softhero om,s hoot
ingt owardsthecen t
er.If
2.Toa idinthequesti
oningofs uspectsandwitness
es o
utdoor
s,theyareof t
ens hootf r
omt h
edirec
tiono fa
wh enthei
rsworns t
atemen t
sa rebeingtaken. c
ardi
nalheadi
ng( n
or t
h,south,Ea st
,andWe s
t).
3.Topr e
senttothec ourtana ccurat
epictur
eoft h
e
scenetherebyenabli
ngthe mt ounde r
sta
ndt h
ee vi
dences Themedi umr an geormedi umv iew
betterandevalu
ateintel
l
igen t
lythetesti
monyc onc
erni
ng Thef unc t
ionofmi dran geist oframet heit
emof
thedist
a n
cesoft hedefenda n
tsa ndwitnes
ses. evi
de ncewitha ne asil
yreco gnizedl an
dma rk.Thi
sv i
sual
ly
establi
shesthep ositi
ono fth ee videnceinthes ce
ne,with
Ta kenotet h
atp hot
ogr aphyisame a nso fvi
sual i
tsre l
ati
onshi
pt ot heitem’ ssu rroundi
ngs.
commu nicati
onba sical
l
ywi t
hamo r
eu ni
versalwa yo f
conveyi
n game s
sa georideat hatspokeno rwr i
tten The“ Mid -range”ph oto graphisthes econdtype
words.Th ea i
mo rgo ali
store cordma xi
mu mi nformati
on taken.The purpose ofthemi d-ra n
geph otographisto
i
nas e r
ieso fphotographswh i
c hwillenabl
eav i
ewe rto docu mentr
 el
a t
ionshipsbe twee ni t
emsofe v
idenceor
 
under
s t
a ndWHEREa ndHOWt hecri
mec ommitted.The a reasofimpor tance (su
cha sh owc l
oseisthegu ntothe
ter
m“ crimes cene”r ef
ersnoto nlytoimme diat
el ocal
it
y v i
cti
m  or 
theloca ti
onofb loo dstainstothepointofe ntr
y).
i
nwh icht hecri
mina lactwasp erpetr
atedb utalsot o
adj
acen tareaswh ereimportanta ct
st ookplace Mid-ra ngeph otograph sa r
et hemo stcommon
i
mme d i
atelybeforeora ft
erthec ommi ss
iono fthec ri
me. ty
peo fphotographs hownt oj uriesb eca
uset heytendto
Thenu mb erandtyp eofp hot
o graphswil
l n
a t
urall
ybe suppo r
ttheori
e s,reconst
ru cti
on s,orstatut
orye l
ementso f
deter
min edb ythec i
rcumstancesa ndd et
ail
so fth ecri
me.thec ri
me.
Rememb ertheforensi
cp hotographyisthe
 15
Th
ecl
ose-up accus ed .
Thef ollow-upph otogr aph sr e pre sen ta no utgro wthoft he
Th istypeo fph oto gra phisr eferredt oa s cri
mei nv es ti
ga ti
on .Ph oto gra pho ft hea u to psy,b ruisesor
“i
de ntif
ica ti
on”p h oto gra phsb ec auset heya reinte n
dedt o wou nd sonl i
vev i
ctimso rs u spe ctsa res omee xa mples.
“i
de ntif
y ”ap ers on ,p l
a ce,o rt hingt oth eju r
yo rot her
s The s
ea dd i
tion alp hoto gra ph swi l
l r
e vea lagr eate rde pth
nota tth es cene.Th isma yin cludep hoto graphso fa ofu nde rst and i
ngo ft hea c ti
viti
e soft hec rimes c ene.
vi
ctim’ sfa ce,af inge rprint,o rav eh i
cle.
 I nco urt
,t hey
ma ybeu s edtoe sta bli
sht ha tthei temo fe videnc ebeing PERSPECTI VE/ CAMERAPOSI TI ON
i
ntrod uce disth es a mei temr e covereda tt hec ri
mes cen
e . Sin cec rimes c en ep hotogr a phsa rede sign edto
Some ti
me st heys h owt he“ co ndit
io n
”o ft heitema sit presen tt oav i
e we ro ft hea rea sa swou ldh aveme etthe
wase nco unter
e dbyt hec ri
mi n al
ist.I
tma yb eav ehicl
e eyeo fa na verageo bs e rver ,t hepr oce du ref ort akingt he
parke dh aph az
a rdly,agu nwi thar e ddi
s h-b r
owns tai
n photo gra ph si ss tr
a i
gh t-f or wa r
d.I tmu s th a veago od
l
aterde terminedt ob et h ev ic t
im’sb lood ,oraf o r
ge d perspe ctiv eors implys tate d,t hes i
z ea n dd is
tan cesof
chec k. objectsi nt heph otogr aphmu stc on v eyan orma l
i
mp res siont ot hea vera gev iewe r.Th ege ne ralviewoft he
Th eya ret a kenwi tha ndwi thoutas cale.Itis scenes ho u l
dbel oca teda n ddi rec t
e dj us ta st hee y eof
extr
e me lyimp orta ntt hatp ho tograp h
so ft histyp earefir
s tt hewi tne s swo uldbeobs e rvi
n gt her oomo fa rea s.In
takenwi t
h outas ca l
eo fr efe rence,a ndt hen,wi t
has cal
e s hort,p hot ogr aph ss h ou l
db et a ke na ta ne y e-l
e vel
ofre ferenc e. posit
io n
Th es econ di n cl
u de sas ca l
eo fre ferencewi th
whicht h ev i
ewe ri sa b l
et oga uges izeo fti t
empr esented LENSES
wit
h inth ep hotogr ap h.Th i
ss calewi l
l al
lowf ora1: 1rati
o Twol e nsesa reu su all
ys uffici
e nta tac ri
mes cene
reprod uctiono fth ep hotogr a ph. –awi dea n glele nsa n dan o rma l l
e ns.Ve rys eldo mt hata
F ail
uretoph oto gra pht hec l
oseu pwitho utscal
e t el
eph o t
ol en sisn e ed ed.Ama c roz o oml en sist hemos t
pri
ort oi nco r
po r
a ti
n gas ca l
ei nt hep hotob ei
ng i
de alfo rc rimes c enewor k .
i
nad mi ssi
b l
ebe c au seo fth ea l
legationo fs cenet amp er
ing.
LIGHTI NG
Extremec l
oseu p Us u all
ye xistingr o oml igh ts,d ayligh ta nda rt
if
ici
al
Th isviewc o uldb eu s edifan eedt oma gn i
fythe l ightsma yb es atisfac toryf orta kingph ot ogr aph sofc r
ime
minu t
ema rki
ngo fa no bjec tf orco mp ari
s onp urposes. scene s.Ho we ver,be ca u seo fawi d ev a r
ie tylighting
condition si ndi fferen ta re asofr oom,t he rei san ee dfora
Cate gor i
esofph otogr aph icr angeorv i
e ws supple me n tal ora ddition a lli
gh ts.Wh i
let heu seof
1.Fo cus i
n gont h el oc ationo ft hec r
ime photo fl
oo dl ampt oa ddi ll
u mi natio nt oar o omoras cene
2.Con cen t
rati
n gont hef e atu r
e so ftheo f
fense i
ss ome time sc on si
d ere dy e titi so fteni mpr ac t
ica l
3.ce nteringo nt her esu l
to fth ec ri
me becau see l
e ctri
ca lcor dsc a nge ta l
o ngt h ef i
eldofv i
e wof
4.fea turi
n gtheph y sical ev i
de nc ee xi
stinga tthes cene thec ame ra ;c animpe d ef re emo veme ntwi thi
nt h es cene;
5.Foc u si
n gont h ef ollow-u pa cti
v i
tyn otd i
rectly ands e tti
n gi tu pi so fte nt imec on s umin g.Fo re as ea nd
occu rri
nga tthei mme d i
a tes cene. speed,t h eu seo fil
lumi n atio nfro mo n ef lashu nitis
neces sar y,t heu s eofas l
a veu nito rt hea pplicationof
Thel ocat i
onph oto gra phss ho uldd epictth evarious “paintingwi thl i
gh t”t e chn iqu ec a nd ot h ej ob .
pl
ac eswh icha repa rto ft hec ri
mes cenea reas,a naeri
al
photo grap h,ande xte r
iorv ie wo fwh oleb uil
dingi ncl
uding MARKERSI NTHEFI ELDOFVI EW
nearlys eve r
alroo ms ,ares omee xamp les. Be c auseoft heo bje cti
ono fs omel awy ersa nd
Then atureoft h ec r
imes ho uldb ed epictedb y thec ou rtst oma rki
n gsa ndma rk i
n gd e vice sa ppe aringin
photogr ap hswh ichwi llas sistt hein v
e st
iga t
orin thep ho to gra phsofc ri
mes c ene ,itist h ere forewi s eo r
determi ni
n gthet ypeo fc rimed i
fferenti
atinglikei n pruden tt ot a kep hotogr a ph swi th ou tita ndon ewi th.
resolvingwh et
h eriti sh o mi cideo rs uici
deo rinc ases
whichd oe snotr e adilyof fero bviousa nswe rs. Thef ollowi n ga rel ega llya cce pte dma rk er sorma rki
ng
Ther es ultofac rimema yh a ves everala spects,for device s
examp l
ei nr a
pei ncide ntwh ic hb egana sah ou sebr eak
-in 1.Ru lerorme as uri
n gde vic e
thr
ou ghak i
tchend oorc o ntinu edwi thro bberya nd 2.Iden ti
fic ationd ata
cul
mi n atedwi t
ht her a pewh ent hev ict
imc onfrontedthe 3.Lo ca ti
onma rkers
i
ntrud er.Th ereforet h er esu lto fea chp orti
o noft hec r
ime
ared e pi
c tedonas e qu ential fashiont ore produc ethe Note:
evento fgr e a
tr elev anc ei st hep h
o tograp hi
ngo ft he Th eu sual pra cticeo fs o mei nves ti
ga tionof
physica levidence sa ndt h eirre l
ationshipwi tho ther placi
n gc ha l
kma rksp oi ntingt obu l
leth ole so rt inyobj ect
s
evi
de n cest oes tab l
ishingt he i
rc onn ecti
on stot he atthes ce n es ho ul
dbea voi de du n ti
l al
l ph o tograph s
 16
wi
tho
utitisfi
nis
hed.Oneshouldunderst
andthati
nth e foot
p ri
nts ,fragme n t
sofgl ass,me talandot he rpo tent
ial
pr
act
icala
p pl
i
cati
onsoftheaboveasp e
cts,poorse
lect
ion clu
ema te rial
s.
an
dc omposi
ti
onofs ubj
ect
s,poorfocusadjus
tments,and Tos howt hebo dyint h escen ea nditsp osi
ti
onin
i
ncor
rectexposu
recann e
gatea l
lef
fort
stowardthi
s rel
ati
ont ot hea rti
c l
esint her oo m,atlea sttwo
en
deavorofproduc
ingthebestphotogr
aphicexhi
bi
ts. photogra ph so ftheb odys ho uldb eta kena trigh tangl
eto
eacho the ra ndt hec ame rapos i
ti
ondr awnf romt he
PHOTOGRAPHI CLOG norma lpo siti
o nofa no bse r
ver .Otherph o t
ogra ph sshoul
d
Wh enr es
po ndi
ngtoac ase,arecordofth ed a
ta i
n c
ludec l
o se-u pso fvisi
blewou ndsan dot hers pecial
regardingth ec i
rcumstancessurroundin
go rrel
atedt othe aspec t
so fthec ondit
ionsoft h eb odya swe l
la st he
pi
c t
uret akingo fthec r
imes cenemu stben ot
edf or weap on.
i
ns t
antr ecoll
ec t
ion
.Us ual
ly,thi
sinf
o rmati
onwritt
eno na 1-B.Ca useofDe a th
notebo okist r
ansferredtotheo r
igi
n alr
equestformwh e
re 1.Crimesi nv olvi
ngf i
rearms
then ega t
iv
ewi lleventual
l
yb ea t
tachedb ef
oree n
tering I
nc as eswh ereaf irearmwa su se dint he
thefil
e.Th iswi l
lfa
c i
li
tat
et hesearcha ndret
ri
eval ofthe commi ssionofac r
ime ,thewor koft heph otogr apheris
negativeswh e nan eedforr ec
opyo rforcourt moredi fficulta ndc omp l
ex .Th etaki
n goft he
presentati
on .Thiswi l
ll
ik
ewi s
ee st
ab l
ish
edthe“ chainof photogra ph smu stbei ncon sultati
ona nda dvi
c eo fa
posit
ion ”oft heori
gi n
alnegativ
esa ndp hot
ographs for
en si
cba l
l
istici
ana ndame dico-lega loffi
cer.
pri
nted .Thes eares omeo ftheinformati
onneed ed. Fro mt heba l
l
isti
cian’sopi nio
n stod ete rminethe
dis
tan cea twh ichthef ir
ea r
mwa sa pparen t
l
yf ireda nd
SPECIFICCRI
MES otherissu esr elati
ngt oth etrajec t
ory.
Herearesomes u
gge s
ti
onsofwha tphot
ogr
aphs Fro mt heme dico-lega loffi
cer,o pin
iono nwou nd
totak
eo nthefol
l
owingco mmoncri
mes.Againweremi
nd andpa tho fth eb ul
letthrought heb odya ndt he
youthattheguidel
i
n eonthiss
ubj
ectisthenatur
eofth
e dis
tincti
onb e twe enthee ntranc ea nde xi
two u nd.
off
ensea ndtheelement
so fth
ecri
me s.
2.Han ging
Homic i
deorMu rder Ind e at
ha ppa r
e ntlyduet oh anging,dou bt
Sinc
ethei nve
sti
ga t
ionofdeat
hh asawide some time se xistwh ethe rt heo ccurrencei sh omic i
de ,
vari
etyofforms;photographsshou
ldprovi
deinf
ormati
on sui
cid e,o rac ci
d ental.Th eo ri
gina lposi
tiono ftheb odyis
concerni
ngthema n n
era ndcauseofdeathofthevi
cti
m. ofprimei mp ortanc e.Na tu r
all
y,th enec e
s sit
yof
Theses etofphotographsshoul
dhelptheinv
est
igat
orin admin i
s t
e ri
ngf irs
ta i
dme a sureo ffer
sr esultsinc ompl e
te
thereconstr
uct
iono fthecri
mea ndinveri
fyi
ng changei nt heor i
gina lpos it
ion.Ifthebod ywa sfou nd
stat
eme ntsofs
u spectsandwi t
nes
ses. undisturb ed,thep hotogr apht hatwi l
lhelpde terminet he
ma nne ro fde athisi na nov er
-a l
l vi
ewso fth ebo dya n d
1-A.Ma nn
erofDe ath thero pet a k
e na tto r
s oa n dfootl evel
.Sh owt hele ngtho f
Toh e l
pe x pl
a i
nh owthec ri
met ookp la
c e,s h
o w thebo dyt ot h
egr ound .Itiss ai
dt hatamu r
d ereru s ual
ly
fr
o ms ev e
r alanglest hewh ol
es cenea ndallpos si
ble tr
iest or aiseth eb od yc omp letel
ywh i
leins u i
cide
el
e me ntso fthec rime . fr
equ en tl
ydo esn otge th isfee tc l
earoft hef loora n d
some time sf ounds i
tti
ngorh al
f-pr onepos it
io n.
Gen eralCon sideration Photogr aph ss hou l
da lsos howr elat
ivepos iti
o nofob jects
1.Ex teri
oro ft hebu i
ldi
ngi ncl
udings ur
ro unding sucha sc hairors tool wh icha ppe ar
st oh avebe enk i
cked
areaswh i
c hwi llshowp l
ac eandma nnerofe nt
ry f r
omu nde rthef eetoft hed ece ased.
ore xi
t,p l
a ceso fconceal
me nt,vi
sibil
i
tyofv ar
ious Cl ose-u pss hot sa rethek not,it
ss i
z e,type ,and
po i
nts,shoeoff ootpr
int
s,tireofimp ressi
on s, l
o cati
o no nt hen e ck,de ptha ndl ocati
ono ft hegr oovei n
brokenbr a nch eso rshr
ub s,
etc. then ec k,blacka n db luema rksa longthegr ove( useof
2.Th er oomo ra r
e awh erethebo dywa sfo und.Also col
orf ilmi sa dvice),s i
gn so fviolencea bo utth en ec k
,
adjoini
ngr o oms . prot
ru sionoft het ongu e,o rbind i
ngint heh a ndsorf e e
t.
3.Ev i
d enceofs tr
u ggles ucha sove r
turned,chairs,broken
objectso ra r
ticlesindi sa r
ray. 3.Dr own ing
4.Sign so factivit
iesp riortotheo cc ur
rencelik
et h e Ind rown i
n gc as e,theb o dyisu sua l
l
yt heo bjectof
presenc eo fplayingc a rds,bott
le
so fli
quors,ci
ga rett
e s i
n t
ere sts i
n c
et hec ri
mes c eneitselfisun certaine xc ept
butts,T.V.o rradios e tson ,et
c.Inge neral
,a r
ti
c l
es theloc ationofwh ereth eb odywa sfo undf l
oa ti
n gor
appa r
e ntl
yinu s eimme d i
atel
yp r
iortot heco mmi s
s i
ono f s nagge d.
thec ri
meo ra r
ticl
e st hath av
eb eend ist
urbedf rom Ph otogra pht hewh oleb odybot hf romt he
ordinaryp osi
tiona swe llasa r
ti
cl
e swh osep resenc eis standingob serverpo si
tiona ndf romgr ou ndl evel positi
on.
forei
gnor“ do n’tb el
o ng”t othesc ene. Close-u ps hotssh oulds h owa n yfoami nt hemou th,the
5.Tr acede vidence slikema r
kso fc onf
li
cto nthebo dy,on mo uthwh e t
h e
rop eno rc losedwo undsifa ny,pe culiar
cl
oth i
ng,tr acksofbl o od st
ains
,fi
n gerpri
nts
,s hoeor ma r
k i
n gs,a ndu nu sual discolorati
ons.Art i
clesf oun dint he
 17
h
andorc
lot
hi
ng,t
heu
seofc
olorf
il
misa
lsoa
dvi
sed. i
ncl
ude
sth
epl
ace
swh
eret
heya
ref
oun
dorde
vel
ope
d.

4.Electr
ocuti
on
I
nc aseofde at
hbyele
ctroc
uti
on,theu sua
l 3.SEXOFFENSES
photographsaretakenint
heareaofscenep art
icu
lar
ly
thecau s
eo fthecurr
entfl
ow,orfr
omt hee l
ectr
ic
al Inth
ecri
meofr ape,th
eph ot
ographstobetak
en
connecti
onwh eretheshoc
kc oul
dhaveorigi
natedli
ke a
ret
hepl
aceofin
ciden
ce,signsofst
ruggleorre
sis
tan
ce
exposedwires,crac
kedins
ulat
ion
s,prese
nc eofwa t
er o
nth
epartort
hevict
ima n
do bje
ctsofeviden
ce.
nearors ur
roundi
ngthebody,t
hea cce
ssibi
li
tyofme t
al
fi
xturestothed e
ceasedori
gi
nalposi
ti
ona ttheti
meo f Th
ep h
otogr
aphofth
ege n
eralv
iewshoul
d
shock,etc.
, p
robabl
yshowtheremot
enes
so ft
heareatonor
ma l
t
raf
fi
coritsdi
st
ancetot
h ene
ares
tdwell
ingpl
aceortha
t
5.Ex pl os ion t
hepla
ceisnotan o
rmalmeet
ingpl
aceforso
cial
purpos
e.
Inc aseso fe xplosion,takep h otograp hth atwill
helpd ete rmi newh ethe rthee xplosioni sd i
recteda gai
n st Me diums hotss ho ulds ho wbr ok enb r
an ch esor
prope rty ,a ga i
nstp e r
s on s
,o rb ot
h . press
e dgr assesi fo utdo ora ndc rump le dbe ddin gso r
pi
ll
owss trewna bo uti find oo r.
Thef ol lowi n ga r
en ee de da ndt obec ons i
de redin
selectin gobj ec t
st h ats hou l
dbeph ot ograph ; Clo s
e -u ps h oul
ds h owbu t
ton sr emov e df rom
1.Na tureoft hee xplos i
vede v i
ce–h ome ma d e,dy namit
e,c l
oths,t ornc lothingorga rme nts
,h airsorf i
b er
s ,pr esen
ce
l
iqu i
dc h emi cal,bo mbo rothermi li
taryh ardwa reo rs t
u f
f. o fbiol
o gica lstainsl i
k eb l
oo do rs eme n .Ont h
eb odyo f
Strewna b ou tthes cen ea r
epa rt
sa ndp i
e ces,fragme nts t h
ev i
c ti
ma r
es i
gn sl i
kec on tusions,br uiseso rwo un ds.
ofitsc o nta i
ner,fu set ape s,wi r
e,c l
othe s,pap er
s ,a nd Befor
e ,itwa st heu sualp rac ti
cet oa lsoph otogr aph
me tal pa rtst hata rei mbe dd edo nwa l
lso roth ero bjectsatlacerationf ou ndont hepr iva tepa rto ft hevictimbu tthis
thes c en e . i
sn otc ompu l
s oryb u tvolu ntar y
.Ho we v er,awr ittenwa i
ver
2.Un det on atedpar tsoft heex plosive–t he yma yb e i
sa skedf romt h ev icti
ma n df romp are ntso rgu a r
dian,if
founda td istance sf r
o mt hep oi
n texp l
o s
ion. th
ev i
c ti
mi sami nor.
3.Tr ac esofl i
quidex plos i
ves–s ta
in sonc lo t
hing,
curtains ,o rwa l
ls,pa rticl
eso fwa xorp ar
a f
fin,ors p i
ll
age 4.ARSONorFI RE
att hea p pro acheso fth esc ene. Th edi f
ficu l
tyofp r ovinga rson–t hewi llfuland
4.Poi n tofor i
gin–t hee xa ctsp otwh e r
et het hingsa re ma li
ciou sb urn i
ngofp rop erty–i ss ogr eatt h
a te ve r
y
placeda n dp robabl yo pe nwin dowso rd oorswh e reitwa s t e
c hni
ca la i
dmu stbebr ou gh ttot hep hotogr aph ingofa n
thrown . ar
sonc asei ss o me timesl on ge x
te ndingf orape ri
odof
5.Con di tion sofh ous eholditems–t h esema yb eob jectss ever
a lda ys.Its ho uldb egi na ss oona spo ssi
bleu sual
ly
wh i
chwi llsh owwh et
h ert hee xpl
o si
on swa sd uet of a
u l
ty p i
ctureso fthef irei npr ogr es san dc on ti
nu eth r
ou gh out
gasl i
n e ,ga sl eaksf ro mt hega sv al
ve,r uptur
e dpi pes,or t h
es ea rchf ore vide ncea ftert hefire.
fi
ttin
gs ,e tc.
Theph ot ogra phst obet ak endu ri
n gt hepr ogr es soft he
Not e: fi
rearet hef oll
owi ng;
Ph otogra phss houlda lsos howt h ede gr eeof 1.Ar eaofor i
gin
des t
ru c tiona ndh owwi dewa sth eare at hatwa s 2.Ra pidity,di r
e ction ,andma n nerofs pr eadof
affect ed. thef i
re
3.Th en atureoft h ebu rnings u bstancea s
2.ROBBERYCASE i
n dicatedbyt hec oloroft hes mok e,a ndc olor
a .Ge neral vi
e woft hee xter
ioroft h
ebu il
ding an ds i
zeoft hef l
a me
b.Poi ntsofbr e aksore ntr
y.Ma r
koff orces h
ou l
d 4.Th epr ogre s
s i
v es tage soft hebu r
ninga s
bes h ownc learlywi thbot hme diumv i
e wsa ndc los e-ups. shownf romv ar
iou sa ngl
e sa nds i
gn i
fi
c an t
c .Poi ntofe xit ch ange st akingpl a ce
d.Con dit
ionoft heroom.Bea wa r
eof 5.Un u sua larrange me ntsofdoor sa ndwi n dows
cha r
a ct eristicpa tternswh i
c hwi l
l in
dic at
emodu s- I
de ntityofs pe c
ta tors .Thea r
s on i
stu sua l
lyr et
urns
ope r
a n di tot hes c enetowi tnesst hebu rning.
e .Pl aceswh e rev al
ua bl
ema terial
swe rer emov ed
f .Ar t
iclesl ef
tbe hi
n dlikebu rglar
yt ools( crowba r
s, Ph otogra ph i
cc ov e r
a geo fas u specteda rsonc ase
me tal sa w,me tal f
il
e,s crewdr ivers,etc .
) shoul
dn otb el i
mi tedt ops til
l photogr ap hsbu tmu st
g.Tr acee vi
de n ceslikefibersa dh er
in gonwi ndow includemo ti
onp i
c tureorv ide o.
frame s ,s oil,ci
ga re t
tebu tt
s,bu rnedma tches ,powde r
s,
tool ma rks,s hoeorf ootpr i
nts,fi
n gerpri
n tswh i
ch Th ef ol
lowi nga r
eph otogr apht obet a
ken
 18
aftert hef i
re;
1.Fore x teri
orv i
ew–a llside so ftheb uildingt o Ge neralv i
e w
sh owt hee xtentofd ama ge ; 1.Ex actl oca ti
onora reaofc oll
ision .Th i
ss h ou l
di n cl
ude
2.Fort hei nte r
iorv i
e wl ookf ort hef oll
owi ng; debrisl
y i
n go nth er oadwa y,s kidma rka n
do th er
a.Pr ese nceo fi n cend i
aryd evice sor evi
d ences .
ma teri
a l
s 2.Pos i
tionofv ehiclesa sthe ya ref ou nd
b.s i
gn if
icanta rrange me ntsth ata re 3.Su rr
ou n dinga r
e as.Ta keo neors ev eralph otogr a phs
su spi
ciou sort hats howsp lann edb urning. fr
omadi sta nce,ifp os si
b l
ef romah ighpoi nt–f roma
C.Bu rneda rea swi thd eepesti n tensityor wi ndowo rr oo fofabu i
ldingt os ho wa ninters ec ti
onor
thea pp are nto ri
gino ft h ef i
rea ss eenb y thes t
ree ta sawh olef orp oss i
bl
er oa dh azard sl i
kes h
rubs
wi t
nes s
e so rfireme na tt h ea ll
ege dp ointofo rigi
n t hatma yob s curev i
s i
o n,tra
f fi
cc on trolme c ha nismor
o fthefire ,tak eame d iums h ottoi den t
ifyt h e l
ights(op e rati
o n
a lo rn ot)
, roa ds ignsa n dn otices,
locati
o nt he nc lose-u pp hoto grapho ft h e etc,
.
fo l
l
owi ng; 4.Toc or robor atet e sti
mon ie sofe ye-wi tnes s,t ak ea
d.El ectri
ca l–e ntranc e
s ,me ters ,fuses , pi ct
u r
ef romt heire ye-level standin gpos i
tion .
switch es,a nda nye vi
d e nceo ftamp eringorr epair
.
D.Ga s–v a l
ve s,p iping,c onne ction san d SURVEI LLANCEPHOTOGRAPHY
a l
sos i
n gso fta mp eri
n go rrep ai
r Su rveil
lanc eph otogr aphy,c ommon lyr eferre dto
e.F i
ree xt
ingu ish er–i t
so pe rating asCl ande stinep ho togra phy,isth eph otograp h i
n gi n
me cha nismt od etermi newh etheritso p era t
iona l s ecrecyofap erson ,obje ct
,a cti
v i
tyo rlocation .Th e
o f de f
e cti
ve . purposeofs urveil
lan ceph oto graph yist oga the rpe rti
nent
F.Du r
ingt hes ea rchf orc l
ues ,th e factsori nfo rmat i
on ,ore viden ceofi l
legala ctsofp ersons
p hotogra phe rsh ouldb ea roun ds oh ec a n orifapl a cei sb eingu se dfori ll
ega l activ
iti
e s.Wh ilesti
ll
imme dia tely p hoto gra phi t. photogra ph sc anb eu sedt oi dentifyap erso no rapl ace,
Be arinmi ndt ha tp hoto grap hics ubj
e ctsa re motionpi c tureo rv i
d eograph y,sh ou l
dbeu sedt or ecord
generall
yb l
acko rda r
ko bj
e ctss oc aremu stb ee xe r
cised a na ctora c t
ivit
y.
thatexpo sur
es e tti
n gwi llnotr e sulttou n dere xp os ure. Wi ths ti
llph otograph y,the rei sa l
wa yst h atc hance
Usuall
ya na dd i
tion altwot of o urt ime sinc r
ea seo nn orma lt hatatt hemo me ntofp ictu
r et aking,t hes ub j
e ctma y
exposurewi l
lb et hep ropera d jus t
me n t. bendd owno rt urnt oa nothe rdirec t
io nora not herpe r
son,
Ins omei nstan ces,thet a ki
ngo fp hotogr aph sfor v ehicl
e,ora n otherob j
ec tma yo bs tructt hev iewbu t
publi
cin f
o r
ma ti
on ,f i
rep r
ev ention ,an dtra i
ni
n go fn ew motionpi c tureo rv i
d eowi ll
a voidt hep ossibil
itybe ca u
se
recru
itsa r
ei ncl
u de di nth eph o toc o verage.Ph otogr aph s o fthela rgen umb e ro fframe st oc h oo sefro m.
ofthisso r
ta r
et hef iretruc ks,a mb u l
a nces,me dic alor
rescuee f
forts,in j
u r
iesa n de vend e ath.Hu ma ni nte rest SUGGESTEDEQUI PMENTANDMATERI ALS
photograp h
so ff irev icti
msi np a nic,ina gonya ndd ist
re s
s • Mi niaturec a mer awi thmot ord riveor
ore v
e ninc omic al si
tua t
iona rego odf orp ressr e leases. automa ti
cf il
ma dvanc e
• Te leph otole nswi th400mmorh igh ero r100
5.TRAFFI CVEHI CULARACCI DENTS -400mmz ooml enswi tht ele-e xten de r2x
or4x
De atho rs e r
iou sinjuri
e sb eingin vest
iga te dbyt he • Ar i
gh ta nglelen sa tt
a ch me nt
poli
cein v
o l
vingmot o rve hi
c l
ess h ouldb ep hoto gra ph ed • An i
gh tv iewingde vi
c ewi tha ttac hme nttoa
withprima r
yp urp os et oh el
pd e termin ewh ethe rt he r
ewa s 35mmc ame r
a
negli
gen ceint heo perationo ft h ev eh i
cle,inad equ ate • Fi l
mswi thISO400/ 27de greeo fh igh er
contr
ol duet oe x cess i
ves pe ed ,o rlos sofc on tr
o l duet o • Ah i
ghs pe edi n
f raredf i
lm
defecti
veme cha nismo rs udde np hysical di
sab il
ityo ft he • Ani n fraredf la
shu nit
dri
ver.Distances ,p ositi
on s,sp ee dsa n df ra
gme n tsleft • Ami n i
at ur
ev i
deoc ame ra
behindthes ce neo fth eu sual ph otogr aphicsu bje cts. • Ce l
lp hon e
Sinceinjuredp erson sa rer emo ve df r
o mt hev e hiclet othe • Tr ipod
hospit
a lormo rgu e;a ndv ehi
c l
e si nvolveda remo ve dto
thesidest ogivewa yt ot r
affic,t het ak i
ngo fp hot ograph Pr ohibi
tion
shouldb ed onewi ths pee da ndp rec i
s i
on.
Th en umb era ndn a t
u reo fthep hotogra ph st ob e Ca p turi
ngo rrec ordi
n ga ud i
o ,video,or
takenwi l
lvarywi de lywi thth es e ri
o usnesso ft hea cci
de nt photogra ph i
ci ma ge sofa nin di
vidu alinal oc a ti
o no r
andth ed i
ffi
cultyi nvolvedi nf i
x i
n gr esp onsibi
li
ty .Bes ure u nderc i
rc u ms t
an cesi nwh i
cht ha tpe rsonh asa
toincluderefere ncep ointsa ndd e t
a i
lso fthec au sea nd r easonabl ee xpe ctationofpr ivacy,in cl
u di
ng,bu tn ot
responsibi
li
tyo ft hea c ci
d ent.Th esel i
s t
sh adb ee nf oun d limitedt o,s ho we r
/ l
oc kerroo ms ,res i
de nceh allro oms ,and
tobea ppl
icablei na nyc a se. rest
rooms ,isp roh i
bited.Al sop roh i
bite dist hes toring,
 19
s
hari
ng,and/
oro t
herdi
str
ibu
tionofsuc
hu nau
thori
zed Fingerp
rin
tsonpape rsarenotdevel
ope dwith
s
urv
eill
anc
e/phot
ograph
y(noma tte
rwhetherdi
rec
tl
yo r powdersbutwithiodi
nefu
mi ngo rt
hea ppl
ic
a t
ionof
i
ndi
rect
lyobt
aine
d)byanyme ans,el
ect
ron
icornon- Ninh
ydri
nes ol
uti
on.However,th
ef i
ngerpr
in
tswi l
lfade
e
lec
troni
c aft
erafewmi nutessoift
hi
sp r
ocedureisundertak
e n
,th
e
cameraando the
re qui
pmentmu stbema dereadys o
FINGERPRI NTPHOTOGRAPHY whenthefinger
pri
n t
sappear
,t h
eya r
eph ot
ogra ph
ed
Fin
ge rpri
nti so neo nthemo stc onv i
ncingme ans i
mme diat
el
y .
ofe stabl
ishin
gt h efa ctthatthes uspectwa spresenta t
thec ri
mes c ene.Wi thou tphotography,su che vi
dence 7.Fi
nger
pri
ntsont
hemi
rr
or
wou l
dl oses omeofi tse ff
ecti
v e
n es
s.Si ncef i
ngerpri
nts
aref oundo nfixedo bj
e ctsandc annotb eb roughttot he QUESTI ONEDDOCUMENTPHOTOGRAPHY
l
a boratoryorlate r
,inc ou r
t,wh i
l
eo thersa reb arel
yvisi
ble I
nn oo th
ertypeoff oren sicexami nat
ionis
tot hena kede ye.Th esea ndo therdif
ficult
iesa rereadil
y photogra phyuseds oe xtens
ivel
yi ne xpl
a i
ningp oi
ntsof
ove r
comebyp hotogr aphy.Fingerpr
intsa ree asi
ly proofstot hec our
ttha ninqu esti
on edd ocume nts
de st
royedb yc arelessh andli
ngo rex posuret owe at
he rso exami n
a ti
o n
.Inthi
sgu idancea nds upe r
visi
onoft he
i
tmu stb erecord eda ndp reservedp h
o tographical
ly
. doc umen texaminersot heph otograph i
cob jec
tiveis
Fin
ge rpri
nti sar ecordo fthep atternoff r
ict
ion cl
e arl
yde fine
d.Th eco ntr
astb al
an cea ndtonal
ri
d gesoft hes kino fthef i
ngers.Fingerprintsleft reproduct i
onthatisrequ i
redtoc learl
ys howa ndr ecor
d
ac ci
dentall
ya tthes c eneo fac ri
meo rt hos eimpressed thepa pera ndthewr i
tings’toli
n equ ali
ty,penpr essur
e,
onaf i
nge r
p r
intc ar
do fa nindi
vidualarep ho t
ographedt o andt hei
rda rkenede dgesiss oc ri
ticalandde ma ndi
ng
servethef oll
owi ngpu rp ose: everyk nowledgea ndtec hni
cals ki
lloftheph otographer
.
1.Ma ke spe rma nentrecordso ffingerpri
nts So medo c umentsrequir
ee xce edi
n gl
yh i
ghora b n
o r
mal
2.Willb r
ingou tfai
ntfingerpr
intswh i
chc annotbe con t
rastt obri
ngou twh atdoe sn otrespon dtoor di
nary
studiedb ythen akede yebu to f
tena r
eo fgreatv al
uef or processe ssoa gai
n,thep hotogr a
p hermu stbei nnovat
ive
.
i
d enti
fi
ca ti
onp u r
po ses.
3.Itcanma gn if
yaf ingerpr
inttoa lmo stany a.Ge n era luseofPh otogr aphyi nQDE
extentde si
red. 1.Do cume ntss u bmitt
e dfore x
a minati
ons hou l
d
4.Willma kep ossibl
ethes i
d e-by-s i
de bep ho to gr
aph edi mme d i
a tel
yfo rrecor
dpu rpo ses,ago od
comp ari
s onso fma gn i
fied pho t
o gra phi
cc opyo fthed ocume ntcanbeu se dforc ase
fi
ngerprintsf orthec ourt
stos eewh etherorn ot studyt he rebyf r
e ei
ngt hep ossi
bles oi
li
ngo rmu t
il
ati
o nof
twoo rmo r
ef i
n gerprintsa r
eiden t
ic
a li
nd etai
l. theo riginaldoc ume nt.
Moreo ver,wh ent woofmo reexa mi
ne rsha v
et o
Typesoff inge rpri
nt s exami net h
es a medo cume ntforac ol
legialexpe r
topinion,
1.Plainorbl ackf ingerprintsonbl ac kordark i
tc ane as i
l
yber epli
ca t
e ds oe veryexami ne
rc a nexami ne
backgroun d thedo cume nta tthes a
met imewi thoutb ot
he ri
ngo ne
anothe r.
2.Wh it
ef i
n gerprintsonbl ackordar kbackgroun d 2.Ma gn i
ficati
on .Ha ndwr i
ti
ngsa ndtyp ewrit
inga r
e
Wh e naf inge rpri
ntimp re s
s i
o nisdevel
op edwith b otht o os mallint hei
ro riginalsi
z e
st ostudya n d
whit
eo rme tal
li
cpowd ero nab l
a cko rd ar
kb ackground,i
td etermi newh etheritisge nuineorf or
ge r
ys oth eyha veto
i
sc onside reda sar e v
ersedp ri
ntb ec ausethefi
n gerpr
in
t b ee nla r
ge d.
ri
dgeswh i
cha r
es u ppos edtob ere nderedb l
acka ppear 3.Sideb ysi
d ec omp ar
ison:Ma nyp eoplec annot
whit
ei nste ad.Th es ol
utionisi nu singap ol
ar
izi
ngf i
lt
eror s eep oi ntsofid entit
yordi ffer
en ceunti
l obj
ec t
st hata r
e
theapp li
c ati
o noft e ntl
igh ti
ngt ech niqueorb ot
h. compa reda repl aceds ide -by-side.Photograph scanbe
3.Blackf i
nger pri
n tonc oloredbac kground cuta pa rtsot hepo r
tionst obec omp ar
e darepl aceds i
de
Th i
sma yn e edt heu seo faf i
lt
er.Too bt
a i
n bys i
d e .
ma x
imu mc o ntr
a stu seac ol
o rfi
lterwi t
ht hesamec ol
or
oftheb a ckgr oundt ol i
gh t
e nit. b.Are a sofph otograph icc oncern:
4.Blackf i
nger pri
n tofmul ti
-c oloredbac kground 1.Ha ndwr i
ti
n g
Th i
ss hou l
dbep ho t
o graphwi thu l
tr
avi
olet 2.Type wr i
ti
ng
radi
ati
o n. 3.Pape rs
5.Finger pri
n tsofgl ass,plasticmat eri
alsoronpol i
shed a.Era s
u res
metal 1.Me chani
cal–s i
de l
ight
Th ep robleme ncou nteredi ntheset y
pesof photogr a phy
ma t
eri
a l
si st her efl
e cti
o nsth atthe yc r
eatewh enli
ghted. 2.Ch emi cal-Ultravi
o l
etori nf
ra-
Thes ol
u tioni sinu singap ola r
iz
ingf il
terorthe redp h otograph y
appl
icatio no fte n
tl i
gh t
ingt ec hniq
u eo rb ot
h. b.Pa peri denti
fi
c at
ion(wa t
erma rks)–
6.Finger pri
n tsonpaper tr
an smi t
t edli
gh tp hotogra phy
 20
c
.El
i
min
ati
onsofpa
perba
ckgr
oun
d– 2.Obl
it
eratedwrit
ings
u
seoff
il
te
rs 3.Char
redorbu rntdocument
4.Pr
esenc eofgunpowderonski
norcl
othi
ngofa
ULTRAVI OLETPHOTOGRAPHY vi
cti
mtha tiscov
eredwithdri
edbl
ood
Ultrav
ioletp hot
ographyist hetaki
ngo f 5.Bl
ackoutphotograph
yorthetaki
ngof
photographu si
ngu l
tr
aviol
etra y
so rmo respecif
ical
ly phot
ographintotaldar
knes
s.
radi
ationsh a
vingawa velengtho f30-400n a
n ometer
so f
thee l
ectr
o magn eti
cs pect
rum.Th eoperati
ngp r
inc
ipl
eo f LEGALFOUNDATIONOFPHOTOGRAPHY
ul
travi
oletrayswh ileotherr
e f
lectst h
eseradiati
ons,some
othershavepa rti
al absor
pti
on ,somep a
rti
alref
lect
ions. • ForBl
acka ndWh it
ePh ot
ographs
Thisd i
ff
erencei nr ea
cti
onc anb er ecor
d e
d,
photographical
lywh enma ter
ia l
sa reil
l
uminatedwiththi
s 1859– Da guerr
eotypewa susedinac i
vi
lcase,
radi
ation. Lueov s.Unit
edSt at
es,23Ho ward515
to de cide on t he a u
thenti
ci
ty of
Me thodofUl t
ravi
ol
e tPh otography photogra
phsinc o
mpa ri
ngsigna
tures.
1.Re fl
ectedme t
h od 1874 – I n a Cr imi
n a
lc ase intr
oducin
g
2.FluorescenceMe thod photogra
ph a si dent
if
icat
ione vi
dence,
Unde r
zookv s.Co mmo nweal
th,76 Pa .
ForensicApplicati
on s 340.

1.Fingerpri
ntsonmu lt
i-color
edba ckgr
ou n
d • ForCol
orPh
otogr
aph
s
2.Qu est
iondoc umente x
a minat
ionparti
cul
arl
yon
chemical
erasures,deci
ph er
in
gofe ra
sedwr i
ti
ngsor 1943 – Civi
lLitigat
ions Greenv s.Cit
ya nd
fi
gures
,etc. country o f De nver
,i nvolv
ing color
3.De t
e c
tionofpr es
enceofs eme ncoveredwit
h photogra
phyofs poi
le
dme a tinvi
ola
tion
bl
oodonc lot
hingoru ndergar
me ntsinall
egedrapec a
se. forah eal
tho r
dinan
cepr ohi
b i
ti
ngthesa l
e
4.Ex aminati
onofpr ec
iousors emi-pre
cious ofpu t
ri
dme a
ttot h
ep ubli
c.
st
onesinc as
e soffraud. 1960– Inc ri
minalc as
e,Statev s.Co nt
e157
5.Presenceoffluores
cencepowde ri
ntheh an
ds Comm.251A. 2d81s howingthegraph i
c
ofthesubjec
tofs uspectincasesofe ntrapmentof wo u
n dofthev i
cti
m.
ext
orti
on.
RULESONADMI
SSABI
LI
TY
I
NFRAREDPHOTOGRAPHY
I
tisanes tabl
ishedfactthataph otograph
Infr
aredPhotographyi
sthetaki
ngofph otograph
s offeredinev i
dences houldbeat ruean df ait
hful
wit
hradiati
onbe t
ween700-1000n anometer
soft he representationoft hes ceneorsubj ectmat t
er.The
el
ectr
oma gneti
cspectr
um.Th edi
ffe
rencebetween personv iewingits houldgetanimpr essi
onoft hescene
or
dinar
yph otogr
aphytoth a
tofin
frar
edlie
sinth etypeof orobj ectwh ichdoesn otmisl
eadi nan yoft heimpor
tant
fi
l
mu sed,thek i
ndoffil
te
ru se
d,andinfocus
ingme t
hod. aspec t.I
ts houldbef reefromun us ualdi
storti
onofli
nes,
shapes ,andc olororan ydecepti
v et onerelati
onshi
p.
I
mpor t
ants ubjectss h
ouldbei nsh arpfocus .

Not
e: LegalRequi
remen
tsf
ort
headmi
ssi
bi
li
tyofPh
otogr
aph

Aninfr
aredl
ampu sedforther
a peu
ticpur
poseor 1.I
tmu s
tbema ter
iala
ndrelevan
t
th
os ebeingusedinhospit
alar
en otgoodfor 2.I
tshoul
dbef r
eefromu n
us u
aldist
ort
ionofl
in
escol
or
photographi
cusebeca u
sethewa vel
engthoftheradi
ati
on orsh
ape
th
a ttheyemitarebe
y ondthesensi
ti
vi
tyofth epr
esent 3.Aphotogr
aphoffe
redmu stnotappealtot
heemoti
on
i
nfraredfil
ms. ort
endtopreju
dicethecourtorjur
y

TypesofIn
fraredphot
ograph
y I
nt h
ePh i
lippi
nes,thea dmis
sibi
l
it
yo fa
1.I
nfr
aredRe f
lect
edMe t
hod ph
otographasevidencewa sr u
ledinthec a
se:Cityof
2.I
nfr
aredLumi n
escen
ceMe t
hod Mani
lavs.Cabangis10Ph il
.151,ap hotogra
p hi
s
ad
missi
bleinev
ide nceuponp roofofexactnessand
FORENSICAPPLICATI
ON ac
curacy.
”Thatth ephotographisat r
uea ndfai
thfu
l
1.Che
micaler
asu
resi
nqu
est
ion
eddoc
ume
nts r
epre
s e
ntati
onoft hesubjectass ee
nb ythen ak
ede ye
.
exami
nat
ion However
,t hepho t
ographicimagec anal
sob e
 21
ma ni
pul
ate
dt obecomemi sl
eadi
ng.Iti
sforthi
sreas
on de
fin
e swri
ti
ngsandrecor
d i
n gstoincl
udemagnet
ic
,
t
h atbef
orethephotogr
aphb ei
ngo f
fer
edinevide
nceis mechani
calorel
ectr
oni
cre cordi
ngs.Rul
e101(3)s
tates
admitt
ed,i
tmu stunder
gov er
if
ica
tionastoit
sexact
ness t
hatifdat
aa r
es t
oredi
nac omp ute
rorsimi
l
ardevi
ce,any
anda cc
uracy
.I nou rj
udic
ialsy
stem,thos
eq ual
i
fi
edto pr
in
toutorotherout
putreada bl
ebys i
ght
,shownto
showp r
oofoffait
hful
nessare; r
efl
ectthedataaccur
ate
ly,isa n"ori
gi
nal
".

1.Th eph otogr aph e rwh ot ookt h eph otogr a ph Ru l

e101( 4)s tate st hatadu plicateisac oun terpart
2.An yot h erpe rs onwh oh aspe rson alknowl edge pr odu c edbyt hes amei mpr ess i
ona sth eor iginal…by
oft het ak i
ngoft h eph ot ogr a pha ndh aves eenth es ubject.me ch an i
c alo relec tronicre -re cord i
ng,… o rb yothe r
BESTEVI DENCERULE equ i
v alentt ec hniqu eswh i
cha c curatel
yr ep r
o du cest he
“APh ot ogr aphi sgen erallyr egar dedas ori
gin a l
.
sec on daryev i
den ce. ”Th ei nv esti
ga tormu streme mbe ra Rul e101( 4)s tate st hatadu plicateisac oun terpart
ph otogr aphisn otal e ga ls ubs tituteoft heobj ec t,th e produ c edbyt hes amei mpr ess i
ona sth eor iginal…by
obj ectitse l
fist h ee vide nc e .Aph otogr aphofar ev olver me ch an i
c alo relec tronicre -re cord i
ng,… o rb yothe r
willnotbea c cept edi ne vide n ce.Th ewe aponi tse l
fmu st e qu i
v alentt ec hniqu eswh i
cha c curatel
yr ep r
o du cest he
bebr ough ttoc ou rt.I tist h ebe ste viden ce. ori
gin a l
.
Howe ve r,th e rea repr ec ede ntc ou rtcase swh ich An dRu le103( Admi ssibil
i
tyofDu pli
cates )s tatesa
ruledt ha t“……apr oper lyv er i
fiedph otogr apht obet rue du plica teisa dmi ss i
blet oth es a mee x t
e nta sa noriginal
an df aithfulrepr es en tationofanobj ectmayc eas et obe u nles s(1)age n uinequ esti
o ni sr aiseda st ot he
suc hwh ent h eor i
gi n alobj ec tisl os tan dal leffor t
st o authe n t
icityoft h eor i
ginalo r( 2)int hec ircums t
a ncesit
l
oc atei tpr ov edf utile,t hes aidph otogr aphwi l
lbe wou ldbeu nfa i
rt oa dmitth edu pli
c at
ei nl i
euoft h e
regar dedaspr i
mar yev iden c e.” ori
gin a l
.Th isme a nsaph ot ogra phc anb es tore ddigitall
y
Th ec ou rta l
s or e cogn izesc ertai
ne vi
de nc ewh ich inac o mpu te r
,th atadi git
a lph o t
o graphs tore di na
can notbebr ou gh tt oc ou rt.Bu il
din gors treet compu t
e risc on side reda no rigina l
,an da nye xactc opyof
i
n terse ct
ionsa ree xa mpl e s.Ot here viden cec ha ngequ i
c kl
y.thedi gita lph otogr aphi sa dmi ssiblea se viden ce.
Sk i
dma rksont h eh ighwa ywi l
lbequ i
ck l
yde st
roy e dby
thec on tinuingpa s sa geofot h erv eh i
c l
es .Th ewou n dsa nd StateofCal i
forn i
av s.Ph i
lli
pLeeJ ackson ,1995:
bru i
se sofama nwh oh a sbe enbe ate nwi llheala nd Th eSa nDi ego( CA)Pol iceDe partme n tu sed
disappe arbe foret hec asec ome st ot r
ial.Su che v i
de n
c e di gita l i
ma gepr oc e ssingo naf inge rpr
intinad ou bl
e
canber es er
v edbyph otogr aph ya ndi ntrodu ceinc ou rta s homi cidec as e.Th ede fensea ske df oraKe ll
y -Fry e
evide nce . hearin g,bu tt hec ou r
tr ul
edt hisu nnec essa r
yont he
argu me n ttha td i
gi talproce ssin gisar ead i
lya c cepted
Twoc ou r
tde cision sr ega rdi n gdi gital i
ma gesin clude : prac ti
c einf or ensic sa ndth atn ewi nforma ti
o nwa sn ot
add edt ot h ei ma ge .
Stat eofWas hingt onv s.Er icHay den ,1995:
Ah o mi cidec asewa st ake nt hrou ghaKe l
ly-Fr y e Inte rna ti
on al Ass oc i
a ti
onf orI de ntif
icati
on( IAI)
hea ri
n ginwh ic ht hed efe ns es pec i
ficall
yo bjectedo nt h e
grou ndst h att hed igita lima ge swe rema nipulat
e d.Th e Re solutionn umbe r97-9
cou rta uthorize dt heu seo fd igit
a lima gin ga ndt he Th e1997Re solut
iona ndLe gisl
a ti
veCo mmi t
t ee
de fend antwa sf ou n dgu ilty.I n1998t heAp pell
ateCo urt p rese nte dt ot heI AI me mb ersdu ringth e82n dAn nual
uph eldt hec a seo na p pe al. Trainin gCo nferen c ea tDa nv ers,Ma ssach uset t
son
Augu st1,1996f orma l
lyrec ogn izedt hatju sta sc olorfil
m
Stat eofCal iforn iav s.Ph il
lipLeeJ ac kson ,1995: base di san or ma l progre s
s i
ono ft het ech nologica l
Th eSa nDi ego( CA)Po l
iceDe pa rtme ntu se d evolu t
io no fima gi ngf o rBlac ka ndWh i
tef il
m,
digital i
ma gepr o ce ss ingo naf inge rpri
nti nad ou ble el
e ctro ni
c /digital i
ma gi
n gisan orma lpro gres sionoft he
homi c i
d ec ase .Th ed efe ns ea ske df oraKe ll
y-Fry e techn o l
ogic al evolu t
ionoft hei ma gingf roms ilverha l
ide
hea ri
n g,b utt hec ou rtr ule dt h isu nne ces saryo nt he fi
l
mba sed;t heyr e solvedt ha tth eIAI r
e cogn izedt he
argu me ntt ha td i
gi tal p r
o c es singi sar ea dil
ya cce pte d el
e ctro ni
c /digital i
ma gi
n ga sas ci
e nt
ifi
ca l
lyv a l
ida nd
pra cti
c einf or ens i
c sa ndt h atn e wi nforma ti
onwa sn ot prove nt ec hnologi ca l
lyf orr eco rding,en han cinga nd
add edt ot hei ma ge . pri
n ti
n gi ma ge slikec onven ti
o nal hali
de-s il
ve rf i
l
mb as ed
phot ogr aph yitisa cc eptedb ypr ofessiona l
,c omme rcial
Th eAdmi ssibilityofDi gita lPh otogr aph sinCou r
t andl awe nforce me n tph ot
o gra phe ran dth ei de nt
ifi
c a
t i
on
commu nity.
Th eFe deral Le ve l Fu rther,th es il
verh a l
ideba sedp h otogr aphst he
qua l
itya n dr eali
tyo fa ne l
e ctro ni
c /di
gital i
ma gingis
Feder alRul esofEv iden c e,Ar ti
c leX( Con ten tsof de pe n den tu pont het ec hni
c als pec i
fi
ca t
iono ft he
Wr iti
n gs,Rec ordin gsan dPh otogr aph s),Ru l
e101( 1) equ i
p me n t
,t heq ua l
ityc ontrol andt het raini
n g,e xpe r
ience
 22
a
nda
bil
i
tyoft
heph
otogr
aph
erori
magi
ngs
pec
ial
i
st.

LEGALFOUNDATI
ONOFDI
GITALPHOGRAPHYI
NTHE
PHI
LIPPI
NES

1.RulesonElectr
oni
cEvide
nce
Act
in
gont heMemorandumd a
tedJune18,2001
oftheCo mmit
teeontherev
isi
onofRulesofCour
tto
draf
tont heE-CommerceLaw( R.
A.No.8792)t
he
SupremeCou r
t,ENBANC,a ppr
ovedthesai
dres
olut
ion.

Thes
erul
esshal
lappl
ytoca
sespe
ndi
nga
fte
r
e
ffe
cti
vi
tyda
te-Augu
st1,2001.

Rul
eIIi
sonAu
dio,Ph
otogr
aph
icVi
deoa
ndEph
eme
ral
Ev
idenc
e.

Sect
ion1.Audio,Videoa ndSi
mila
rEv i
dence
Audio,Ph ot
ograph
icandvi
deoe vi
denceofeve
nts,
act
s,ortr
ansa c
tionsshal
lbeadmissi
bl
ep r
ovidedi
sshal
l
beshown,presented,ordi
spl
ayedtothecourtandsha
ll
beiden
ti
fie
d,e xplai
nedorauth
enti
cate
db ythepers
on
whoma dethere cor
dingorbysomeo t
herperson
competen
ttot esti
fyontheaccur
acythereof
.

TECHNI
QUESFORDEMONSTRATI
NGEVI
DENCE
PRI
NTS

1.Compos i
teEx hibit
s
Th i
sc onsist
so ftwop hot
ographsp l
aceds i
deby
si
det os howp ointsofs i
mil
ari
tie
so rdi
f f
erences.Th i
sis
generall
yu sedint hecomp ar
isonoffingerpr
into r
handwriti
ng.
2.Ma tchingPh otographs
Th i
sisa nothertechni
queo fi
ll
u st
rat
ings i
milar
it
ies
.
Pl
a c
eap a
rto foneph otographoverandi ncareful
al
ignme ntwiththeot her.Usedintoolma rks
,s hel
l,pai
r
i
ll
ustr
at i
ono rinma tchingglas
sf r
agme ntsorp ain
tc hi
ps.
3.Ma tchingtranspa r
encies
Th i
sisu sedtos howt woo bj
ectsh a
vei denti
cal
outl
i
ne .Ap ositi
vetransparenc
yo fonei splac
e do vert
he
other
,a djust
eds ot heou t
li
nec oi
nci
de,lik
einp roving
tr
acef orgery.

*
**END*
**