PHYSIOLOGY

PROJECT ASSIGNMENT

TOPICS
1st: Circulatory System
2nd: Homeostasis

Student Name: Kanze-ul-Eman

Roll No: 2K20/MZOO/52
Semester: 1st
Program: MSC (Zoology Previous)
 CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

Def:
In animal the circulatory system is an argon system that moves substance to and from
cells and tissues usually via, a heart, blood vessels and blood.
In human being the blood kept in motion by the pumping of the heart circulates
through the vessels.

 In human being the blood kept in motion by the pumping of the heart
circulates through the vessels.
 Grasshopper and certain other invertebrate have an open circulatory system
where:

1- There are no veins and capillaries.

2- Blood actually mixes with other body fluid before being recaptured by heart.
3- More accurate term for blood of an organism within open system in
hemolymph.
4- Hemolymph is a mixture of blood and other fluid from the body clarity.

 Earthworms and humans have a closed circulatory

system where.
The system is totally enclosed and includes;
1- A heart
2- Blood vessels that include arteries, veins and
capillaries
3- Blood made of cells and plasma
HUMAN CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

Heart:
1- The heart is a come-shaped muscular organ about the size of fist
2- It is located between lungs directly behind the sternum or breast bone
3- Most of the heart is made up of cardiac muscle tissue walled myocardium
4- Heart has four chambers and several valves

There are three kind of blood vessels

Arteries:
1- Arteries are blood vessels that carry blood away from the heart
2- Arteries have thick walls and attached near the heart
3- Smaller arteries are called arterioles and diameter can be regulated
by nervous system
4- Arteriole constriction and diameter affect blood pressure
5- Arterioles branch into smaller vessels called capillaries

Capillaries:
1- Capillaries are extremely narrow, actually microscopic tubes
2- Their walls may be composed of only on layer of cells
3- All human cells are 60 ~ 80 micrometer (that is about 0.01
millimeter or 0.0004 inch)
4- Body cells are nourished by blood when exchange take place
across thin wall

Veins:
1- Small veins called venules and other veins collect blood after it
passes through capillaries
2- The walls of veins are usually thinner than the wall of arteries
3- Blood pressure is usually lower in veins

Blood:
 1- Blood is liquid, transport medium in circulatory system,
Blood has host of function and is composed of cells and a fluid matrix.

CIRCULATION OF BLOOD

1- In human the contraction (pumping) of heart keeps

blood moving in the arteries
2- I human other mammals birds and crocodiles the
heart pump the blood into two pathway or circuit.
These are called systemic circulation
3- Heart as a double pump
a. Right side pump to the lungs
b. Left side to the rest of the body

Systemic Circulation:
Blood pumped from the heart directly to the body tissues and returned
to the heart is called systemic circulation.

Pulmonary Circulation:
Blood pumped from the heart directly to the lungs and
returned to the heart is called pulmonary circulation.

The Pathway of Blood flow through the Heart:

 1- Heart receive blood from the body into the right atrium through two large veins
called superior vena cava and inferior vena cava
a. The blood is low in oxygen (O2)
b. High in carbon dioxide (CO2)
2- Right atrium sends blood through an atrioventricular value to the right ventricle
3- Right ventricle sends blood through a semilunar valve into pulmonary trunk that
leads arteries to the lungs
4- Pulmonary vein empty blood from the lungs into the left atrium of the heart
ending the pulmonary circuit.

a. Blood is now high in oxygen (O2)

b. Low in carbon dioxide (CO2)

5- Left atrium sends blood through atrioventricular valve to left ventricle

6- Left ventricle sends blood out of heart through semilunar valve into the aorta to
be distributed throughout the body

Blood Pressure:
- Human blood pressure is result of beating heart forcing
blood through the arteries.
- Systolic pressure result from blood being forced into the
arteries during ventricular systole (contraction).
- Diastole pressure is the arteries pressure during
ventricular diastole (relaxation).
- Blood pressure reading consist of two number 120 / 80.
o High number 120 is systolic
o Low number 80 is diastolic

CIRCULATION PHYSIOLOGY MCQs

Q.1: After a mild hemorrhage, compensatory responses initiated by the baroreceptor reflex keeps blood pressure at or close to
its normal value. Which one of the following values is less after compensation for the hemorrhage than it was before the
hemorrhage?
a. Venous compliance
b. Heart rate
c. Ventricular contractility
d. Total peripheral resistance
e. Coronary blood flow

Q.2. The construction of a blood vessel to one-half of its resting diameter would increase its resistance to blood flow by a factor
of.
a. 2 b. 4 c. 8 d. 12 e. 16

Q.3. During aerobic exercise, blood flow remains relatively constant within
a. The skin
b. The heart
c. The brain
d. The skeletal muscles
e. The kidneys

Q.4. which of the following conditions causes pulse pressure to increase?

a. Tachycardia
b. Hypertension
c. Hemorrhage
 d. Aortic stenosis
e. Heart failure

Q.5. Sudden standing evokes the baroreceptor reflex. Which one of the following will be greater after a person suddenly stands
up than it was before the person stood?
a. The end-diastolic volume
b. The renal blood flow
c. The venous return
d. The pulse pressure
e. The ejection fraction

Q.6.Which one of the following is the best index of preload?

a. Blood volume b. Central venous pressure c. Pulmonary capillary wedge pressure
d. Left ventricular end-diastolic volume e. Left ventricular end-diastolic pressure

Q.7. Central venous pressure is increased by

a. Decreasing blood volume
b. Increasing venous compliance
c. Increasing total peripheral resistance
d. Decreasing heart rate
e. Decreasing plasma aldosterone concentration

Q.8. Capillary permeability is lowest within the

a. Kidneys
b. Spleen
c. Liver
d. Brain
e. Skin

Q.9. Blood flow through an organ would be increased by decreasing

a. The diameter of the arterial vessels
b. The number of open arterial vessels
c. The arterial pressure
d. The diameter of the venous vessels
e. The hematocrit

Q.10. Net filtration from capillaries will increase following

a. Increased contraction of the precapillary sphincter
b. Decreased arterial pressure
c. Increased plasma protein concentration
d. Decreased capillary permeability
e. Increased postcapillary resistance

Q.11. A reduction in carotid sinus pressure would cause a decrease in

a. Heart rate
b. Myocardial contractility
c. Total peripheral resistance
d. Venous compliance
e. Cardiac output

Q.12. Which one of the following organs has the highest arteriovenous O2 difference under normal resting conditions?
a. Brain
b. Heart
c. Skeletal muscle
d. Kidney
e. Stomach
Q.13. The percentage of the total cardiac output distributed to any single organ is most dependent on
a. The contractile state of the heart
b. The magnitude of mean blood pressure
c. The magnitude of diastolic pressure
d. The ratio of an organ’s vascular resistance to total peripheral resistance (TPR)
e. The magnitude of cardiac output

Q.14. At which of the following sites does the blood flow lose the greatest amount of energy?
a. Mitral valve
b. Large arteries
c. Arterioles
d. Capillaries
e. Venules

Q.15. Which one of the following decreases during aerobic exercise?

a. Circulating blood volume
b. Heart rate
c. Skin temperature
d. Cerebral blood flow
e. Mean blood pressure

Q.16. Based on the following values, the flow of fluid out of the capillaries will be zero if the average interstitial hydrostatic
pressure is
Average capillary hydrostatic pressure 18 mmHg, Average capillary oncotic pressure 27 mmHg
Average interstitial oncotic pressure 7 mmHg
a. 4 mmHg
b. 2 mmHg
 c. 0 mmHg
d. 1 mmHg
e. 2 mmHg

Q.17. Which one of the following characteristics is most similar in the systemic and pulmonary circulations?
a. Stroke work
b. Preload
c. Afterload
d. Peak systolic pressure
e. Blood volume

Q.18. Which one of the following statements correctly describes the ductus arteriosus?
a. It prevents the flow of blood into the lungs of the fetus
b. It delivers oxygenated blood from the placenta to the left ventricle
c. It allows blood to flow from the aorta to the pulmonary artery in the fetus
d. Its resistance to blood flow decreases soon after birth
e. It is located in the septum between the left and right atrium

Q.19. Which one of the following values is greater in the pulmonary circulation than in the systemic circulation?
a. The mean arterial pressure
b. The arterial resistance
c. The vascular compliance
d. The blood flow
e. The sympathetic tone

Q.20. The greatest percentage of blood volume is found in the

a. Heart
b. Aorta
c. Distributing arteries and arterioles
d. Capillaries
e. Venules and veins

Q.21: In a resting, healthy man, the ejection fraction is approximately?

a. 0.1 b. 0.2 c. 0.3 d. 0.6 e. 0.9

Q.22: Increasing vagal stimulation of the heart will cause an increase in

a. Heart rate b. PR interval c. Ventricular contractility
d. Ejection fraction e. Cardiac output

Q.23: During exercise, there is an increase in a person’s

a. Stroke volume b. Diastolic pressure c. Venous compliance
d. Pulmonary arterial resistance e. Total peripheral resistance

Q.24. Lymph capillaries differ from systemic blood capillaries in that they
a. Are less permeable
b. Are not lined by endothelium
c. Lack valves
d. Are absent in the central nervous system
e. Collapse when interstitial pressure increases

Q.25. Pulmonary lymph flow exceeds that in other tissues because

a. Pulmonary capillary pressure is higher than systemic capillary pressure
b. Pulmonary endothelial cells contain a large number of fenestrations
c. Alveolar epithelial cells secrete a fluid that is added to the lymph formed from the blood plasma
d. Pulmonary interstitial fluids contain more proteins than the interstitial fluid in other tissues
e. Pulmonary capillaries have a lower oncotic pressure than systemic capillaries

Q.26. At birth, changes that occur in the fetal circulation include

a. Increased systemic arterial pressure
b. Increased pulmonary vascular resistance
c. Increased pulmonary arterial pressure
d. Decreased left atrial pressure
e. Decreased pulmonary blood flow

Q.27. Turbulence is more likely to occur in a blood vessel if:

a. The velocity of blood within the vessel increases
b. The viscosity of blood within the vessel increases
c. The diameter of the vessel decreases
d. The density of the blood decreases
e. The length of the vessel increases

Q.28. Systemic arteriolar constriction may result from an increase in the local concentration of
a. Nitric oxide
 b. Angiotensin II
c. Atrial natriuretic peptide
d. Beta receptor agonists
e. Hydrogen ion

Q.29. Which of the following will be lower than normal in a patient with an abnormally high intracranial pressure?
a. Ventricular contractility
b. Heart rate
c. Mean blood pressure
d. Stroke volume
e. Total peripheral resistance

Q.30. After an episode of exercise training, the trained individual will have a:
a. Decreased density of mitochondria in the trained muscles
b. Increased resting heart rate
c. Decreased maximum oxygen consumption
d. Increased stroke volume
e. Decreased extraction of oxygen by exercising muscles

Q.31. Which one of the following increases during aerobic exercise?

a. Diastolic blood pressure
b. Cerebral vascular resistance
c. Mixed venous oxygen tension
d. Blood flow to the kidney
e. Circulating blood volume

Q.32. Pulse pressure increases when:

a. Heart rate increases
b. Stroke volume decreases
c. Aortic compliance increases
d. Aortic stenosis develops
e. Mean arterial pressure increases

Q.33. The distribution of blood among the various organs of the body is regulated by regulating the resistance of the.
a. Arteries
b. Arterioles
c. Precapillary sphincters
d. Postcapillary venules
e. Veins

Q.34. Flow of fluid through the lymphatic vessels will be decreased if there is an increase in:
a. Capillary pressure
b. Capillary permeability
c. Interstitial protein concentration
d. Capillary oncotic pressure
e. Central venous pressure

Q.35. Which one of the following signs is observed in a patient who has lost a significant amount of blood?
a. Respiratory acidosis
b. Dry skin
c. Polyuria
d. Bradycardia
e. Low hematocrit

Q.36. A patient is diagnosed with anaphylactic shock rather than hypovolemic shock because
a. Cardiac output is higher than normal
b. Ventricular contractility is greater than normal
c. Total peripheral resistance is greater than normal
d. Serum creatinine is elevated
e. Heart rate is greater than normal

Q.37. Which one of the following will increase if massaging the neck stretches the carotid sinus baroreceptor?
a. Total peripheral resistance
b. Right atrial pressure
c. Venous tone
d. Ventricular contractility
e. Vagal nerve activity

Q.38: Cardiogenic shock can result due to

a. Decreased venomotor tone
b. Decreased blood volume
c. Severe valvular dysfunctions
d. Increased metabolism of body
Q.39: In the absence of compensations, the stroke volume will decrease when
a. blood volume increases.
b. venous return increases.
c. contractility increases.
d. arterial blood pressure increases.

Q.40: Edema may be caused by

a. high blood pressure.
b. decreased plasma protein concentration.
c. leakage of plasma protein into tissue fluid.
d. blockage of lymphatic vessels.
e. all of these.

Q.41: The greatest resistance to blood flow occurs in:

a. large arteries.
b. medium-sized arteries.
c. arterioles.
d. capillaries.

Q.42: If a vessel were to dilate to twice its previous radius, and if pressure remained constant, blood flow through this vessel would.
a. increase by a factor of 16.
b. increase by a factor of 4.
c. increase by a factor of 2.
d. decrease by a factor of 2.

Q.43: The sounds of Korotkoff are produced by:

a. closing of the semilunar valves.
b. closing of the AV valves.
c. the turbulent flow of blood through an artery.
d. elastic recoil of the aorta.

Q.44: Vasodilation in the heart and skeletal muscles during exercise is primarily due to the effects of
a. alpha-adrenergic stimulation.
b. beta-adrenergic stimulation.
c. cholinergic stimulation.
d. products released by the exercising muscle cells.

Q.45: Blood flow in the cerebral circulation:

a. varies with systemic arterial pressure.
b. is regulated primarily by the sympathetic system.
c. is maintained constant within physiological limits.
d. increases during exercise.

Q.46: Which of these organs is able to tolerate the greatest reduction in blood flow?
a. brain
b. heart
c. skeletal muscles
d. skin

Q.47: Which of these statements about arteriovenous shunts in the skin is true?
a. They divert blood to superficial capillary loops.
b. They are closed when the ambient temperature is very low.
c. They are closed when the deep body temperature rises much above 37° C. d. All of these are true

Q.48: An increase in blood volume will cause:

a. a decrease in ADH secretion.
b. an increase in Naexcretion in the urine.
c. a decrease in renin secretion.
d. all of these.

Q.49: Which of these is a paracrine regulator that stimulates vasoconstriction?

a. nitric oxide
b. prostacyclin
c. bradykinin
d. endothelin-1

Q.50: The pulse pressure is a measure of:

a the number of heart beats per minute.
b the sum of the diastolic and systolic pressures.
c the difference between the systolic and diastolic pressures.
d the difference between the arterial and venous pressures.
 HOMEOSTASIS
Def:
Homeostasis means: The property of human organism to maintain a dynamic
balance for its interval environment. It is derived from the Ancient Greek language
(homeios means similar and stasis – means, standing still) more simply it means
keeping the same.
Any imbalance in the internal environment causes given mechanism to
function in a trial to retain the balance, if the organism failed to maintain the balance.
Disease will develop and death may occur.

 Here more real example that you sense:

1- When you feel hot in a hot summer day your organism does it’s best to
maintain a thermal balance by excreting more water in form of sweat and
insensible diffused water through the skin to reduce temperature, this will
decrease the body water and then stimulates the thirsty center in our brain to
make you drink more water.
2- In a cold day of winter you start to shiver, because the body temperature
decrease, and this will stimulate the thermostat in your brain which will order
your muscle to contract and produce energy to warm you up.
3- Pregnant ladies sometime have a tendency to eat chalk because calcium level
decrease in their blood.
4- When you study intensively during the exam you feel tired and hungry this
occurs because your brain have worked intensively and consumed much
glucose then the glucose has decreased in your blood, so when you take a
chocolate bar you feel better because your organism maintain the normal level
of glucose.

HOMEOSTATIC REGULATION:
To maintain homeostasis, the function of various organ system must be
integrated. Both homeostasis and interrogation require that the cell of the
body (75 trillion communicate with each other in a rapid and efficient manner
there are two basic type of extrinsic physiological control patk local and reflex.

1- Local Control;
Paracrine (between neighbors) and autocrine (self to self) responses
proteins called cytokines mediate local control.

2- Reflex Control;
Reflex control involve the nerves and endocrine system. Reflex control
responds to changes that are more widespread or systems in nature. In a reflex
control pathway (or loop) the decision to respond is made at a distance from the
target cell or tissue. Reflex control has three basic components an input stimulus,
integrator of the stimulus and a response (effect).
The integrating center evaluates the incoming signal compares it with a set
point (desired value) and decide on an appropriate response. The effect carries out
the appropriate response to bring the situation back to within normal limits. Reflex
pathway are closed loops.
When a change of variable occur there are two main types of feedback.

1- Negative Feedback;
A reaction in which the system respond such a way as to receive the
direction of change. Since this tends to keep things constant, it allows the
maintains of homeostasis, for instance when the concentration of carbon
dioxide in the human body increases, the lungs are signaled to increase
their activity and expel more carbon dioxide thermoregulation is another
example of negative feedback.

2- Positive Feedback;
A response is to amplify the change in the variable. This has a
destabilizing effect, so does not result in homeostasis. Positive feedback
is less common in naturally occurring systems than negative feedback
but it has its application. For example in nerves a threshold electric
potential triggers the generation of a much larger action potential.
Blood clothing and events in childbirth are other types of positive
feedback.