Introduction:

What is denim?
Denim (which gets its name from the French for "serge de Nîmes" (de Nîmes) is a
rugged cotton twill textile, in which the weft passes under two (twig- "double") or
more warp threads. This twill weaving produces the familiar diagonal ribbing of the fabric, which
distinguishes denim from cotton duck.
It is characteristic of any indigo denim that only the warp threads are dyed, whereas
the weft threads remain plain white. As a result of the warp-faced twill weaving, one side of the
fabric shows the blue warp threads, the other side shows the white weft threads. This is
why jeans are white on the inside and what makes denim's fading characteristics unique compared
to every other fabric.

Fabric structure of denim

2/1, 3/1 or 3/2 S OR Z Twill are the common structure for denim.

A left hand twill (S Twill) naturally has the ability to lock the weave in place allowing the yarns
to have more of a north and south east to west directional weave. Since the yarns are twisted to the
right and the fabric is woven to the left the yarns will have a tighter twist to the weave, giving a
flatter tighter more securely woven fabric. Needless to say the left hand twills are more expensive
and desired.
Garments made with right hand twills (Z twill) would not get as fully reset as a left hand twill
would. When the fibers are twisted, spun into yarns, then woven into fabrics, a right hand twill
continues with that right hand twist creating a fabric with a more flexible diagonal weave. The
fabric of a right hand twill is more forgiving and makes up a more comfortable garment that will
more easily conform to the wearers shape but will have poorer recovery to the garments original
shape.

Figure: Fabric structure of denims

Indigo dye:

Indigo is insoluble in water, and since it belongs to the vat dye class, it has to be converted into a
water soluble form by reducing under alkaline conditions. In ancient times the reduction process
was carried out in wooden vats; therefore, this class of dyes is known as vat dyes. The process of
dyeing of cotton with indigo essentially consists of alkaline reduction of indigo into a water
soluble form known as leuco indigo, dyeing by multiple dips and air oxidation to convert leuco
indigo to its water insoluble form.

Several processes are used for the reduction of indigo:

• Fermentation or bacterial reduction.

• Chemical reduction.
• Electrochemical reduction.
• Catalytic hydrogenation.
• Electrocatalytic hydrogenation.

Types of denim based on dye:

The percentage of different dyes used to obtain the colour palette of denim is shown-

1. Pure indigo (basic blue, overdyed)

2. Bottoming of indigo with sulphur dyes
3. Topping of indigo with sulphur dyes
4. Denim with sulphur dyes (both black and colored)
5. Pure indigo fabric coated with pigments
6. Colour denim with reactive dyes
7. Colour denim overdyed or coated
Types of denim based on fit type:

1. Sabato (Slim fit): Slim thigh, Narrow hem

2. Renzo (Tapered fit): Comfort thigh, Tapered calf
3. Damon (Straight fit): Relaxed thigh, No Taper
4. Tyson (Skinny fit): Tight thigh, Narrow hem
5. Arc (Engineered fit): Loose thigh, Articulate leg
6. Tatum (Hipster fit): Low crotch, Narrow hem
What is Value addition process:

Unless any product is characterized by value addition it is now impossible to survive in this highly
competitive world market. Processing is important to make a usable but finishing (dry wash and
wet wash on denim) gives value addition to it. It makes garments attractive, comfortable and
finishing can incorporate desirable properties.

What is Garment Washing?

• Garment can be made by measurement spec but washing gives an aesthetic and attractive look
in it.
• Washing includes but not limited to shade, dry process, dyeing and processes according to the
requirement.
• Although perception is there are separate kinds of washing such as Enzyme wash, Softener
wash, Bleach wash, Stone wash, Silicon wash, however, in reality washing combines these all or
partially.

Flow-chart of garments Washing:

Different types of Denim wash:

Hand Scraping:

Emery paper is being used to scrape the garment in particular placement and design. Emery paper
comes in different numbers generally starting from 40 till 600 and above; higher the number finer
the emery paper, lower the coarseness of the paper. In the garment industry 220, 320 and 400
number emery papers are most popular and widely used. Purpose of doing this process is to make
used, worn-out look to the garment.
Scraping can be done on inflated rubber balloons for better effect (horizontal or vertical it is up to
operator’s convenience), even it can be done on plain wooden board of garment size and hand
pressure should be uniform in order to get better results.
Area of application
Location can be front thigh and back seat or it can be overall/global application as per
standard.

(a) (b)

Figure: (a) Emery paper and Denim hand sand, (b) Hand scraping is done on denim.
Whiskers/Moustaches/Chevron:
Whiskers are worn out lines generated by natural wearing around the hip to crotch area and at the
back of knees, and they are formed in different strengths and shapes depending on the design of
the garment.
2D whisker:
worn out lines generated by abrading the surface color of denim pant at natural wearing around
the hip to crotch area and at the back of knees
3D whisker:
The 3D whisker is an aesthetic effect obtained by applying resin (formaldehyde free) in 2D
whisker area for achieving stiff look with the permanent wrinkle.

Differences between 2D and 3D crinkle:

Procedure:
• Garment is scrubbed over a whisker pattern mold carefully with emery paper on engraved
pattern lines.
• Mostly rubber balloons are available with different pattern designs and Garments are
mounted on balloons and filled with air to get impressions of whiskers.
 • Engraved patterns on hard rubber sheets and sharp edge emery paper rolled on fine wood
sticks were Used for whiskering. Laser is also an option for whiskering.

Figure: Engraved Whiskers line on hard rubber Pattern mold

Figure: 2D whisker Figure: 3D Wshisker

Area of application
On thigh and hip zone Whiskers/Moustaches/Chevrons are applied. The idea of whiskers
is taken from the worn out lines and impression patterns generated by natural wearing on
hips and front thigh area.

Tagging

Procedure:

• This process is done by tagging small plastic tag pins to hold small gathers of fabric around
pockets, hips, seams and bottom hems to get strong contrast due to less expo- sure of the
folded parts to mechanical rubbing and chemicals. After washing, the tags are snipped and
colour contrasts and 3D effects are obtained in these areas.

Area of application
 Most favorite areas for tacking are on waistband, bottom hems, back pocket, front pocket
corners. On front or back sides of garment, tacking can also designed horizontal of vertical
patterns on full length panel. It can be designed anywhere on the garment in different style.

Grinding or Edge distressing

Grinding or Edge Distressing is the process of destruction on jeans form edges of the garment.
When we look at old jeans we find it destroyed from the edges of pockets, fly area, belt and bottom.
This used effect can be created on jeans by grinding and is of key importance in high fashion
garments.
Procedure:
• In high production units it is usually done with fixed grinding machines where grinding
stone wheals fixed on high speed electrical motors. Operators rub the edges to rotating
stone wheal to get the effect.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure: Grinding effect on (a) belt edge (b) bottom edge (c) back pocket edge
Area of application
Grinding is being done on pocket edges and bottom hems edges by running against
abrasion surface or stone to achieve worn-out effect.

Knee star, and Hot spot

Hot spots are heavy/intense area on thigh or knee, which is made purposely to create used-look
and on knee area if any whiskers lines are there, called knee star. All the above operations are
carried out in width direction and hence it appears intense than hand sand with less strokes, because
hand sand is carried out in length direction

Figure: Intense area on knees is Hot spot and Whisker lines

around the hot spot are knee star.

Area of application
Hot spots may be designed for more real look on front knees or back seat by intense
blasting in these areas

Damages/Destruction
Ripping, peeling and cuts are known as damage or destruction.it is one of the most popular
distressing effects currently. Destruction is an art which make denim look unique and used. These
are all manual processes and every garment look unique and different than others. These effects
are created where to copy a real worn out and roughly used jeans. These are created by using sharp
edge tool line clippers, blades and knives.
 Figure Damage is done on denim
• Ripping: Ripping If the garment is rubbed with sand paper form a specific area until the yarn
is completely ripped off. The rubbing is done in a way that only the warp is completely or
partially damaged and weft keep in place.

• Peeling: Peeling is typically done with sharp edges of hard metal wires. The process is to break
the white weft between the dyed warp. This process after wash will result to the tiny broken
edges of white weft peeping through the colored warp. The weft will only be exposed when
we drive the tool warp wise that is horizontal to the weft. This is again the horizontal direction
of the garment. If the tool is driven weft wise then the broken thread is died warp, the polling
will again appear but due to absence of color contrast it will not be clearly visible.

• Cuts: Warp yarn is cut by knife and the white weft yarn is left in place to create a beautiful
worn out effect. The garment with cuts is then washed in washers to reveal the white the white
thread. This makes the horizontal white lines of weft and if some dye is added to wash bath it
will add more beauty to the garment. The secret is the cuts are always kept weft wise i.e. in
horizontal to the garment.

Area of application

To give the denim a vintage look destruction effect plays a very important role coz the
ultimate worn out or used look can by achieve by this accurately with the help of ripping
pilling and cutting. It has been reckon that destruction can done all through the garments
but most preferable areas are front thigh, knee area, below the knee etc
Potassium permanganate (PP) spray/rub and bleach spray

Monkey wash is a description of special colour fading effect normally at thigh and but- tocks of
denim jeans. In this process, denim jeans are sprayed with a strong oxidising agent such as
potassium permanganate. There- fore, monkey wash can be technically termed as ‘PP spray’ (with
PP being potassium permanganate)

This potassium permanganate spray appears pink on garment when fresh and turns to muddy
brown on drying. The garment is hanged in open to dry after potassium permanganate spray and
when the potassium permanganate turns its colors completely then it is considered to be ready for
the next process which is the brown colour of manganese oxide can be removed by oxalic acid or
hydrogen peroxide follwed by Sodium Metabisulphate (is most commonly used neutralizer)
neutralization

The variables in spray process are as follows:

1. Distance of spray gun to garment: Less distance will give more defined and sharp effect
whereas distant spray will result in more mild and merged effect. Distance ranges from one
foot to two and a half feet. (or Distance ranges from 30.48 to 76.20 cm.)
2. Air to water ratio of gun: This is to be set very carefully. Low air pressure possibly will
through KMnO4 drops on garment resulting in bright white spots whereas high pressure
will produce very low bright effect spray effect to areas where it is not required.
3. Potassium Permanganate Solution Concentration: Of course, this will control the extent
of brightness (0.25 gm per liter to 15.00 grams per liter) (2-5% concentration)

There are many parameters needs to be taken into control for doing PP or Bleach spray…
o Spray gun pressure.
o Width of spray.
o Flow and way of spraying.
 Resin application (3D Effect):
Resin is used in Denim garments industry to create unique and vintage looks which add value to denim
garments and improves its sale ability in market. When formaldehyde free resin is used for achieving 3-D
effect, rigid look, etc, the process can be done by spraying or dipping the garment in resin, catalyst, silicon
and PU (Polyurethane) solution in right combination according to the fabric strength and desired effect
needed

How resin works

Resins work by reacting with the nitrogen atoms of each resin molecule with the hydroxyl
group of the cotton fabric. The reaction forms a linkage between the resin and the cotton
fibers giving the cotton unshrinking pattern in which shape is being made and cured.

Resin is being cures in acidic pH with particular heat and temperatures. To maintain pH
catalysts can be used, as these are salts of acid. Oven curing is needed to reach right
temperature (145 – 160 C) and time (7 – 22 min) as per Resin tech bulletin advice.

Fabric strength loss may results up to 50 percent and it completely depends on fabric weight,
construction and fiber content. Shade change also occurs due to resin cross linking.

Methods of applying resin on the denim

Resin Finishing is the process of imparting the special property of “crease recovery” to
Cotton.
Resins mainly fall into two groups:
1. Deposition type of resins
2. Cross linking type of resins
Deposition type of resins:
These resins are deposited on the fabric as surface coating. No reaction will take place between
the fiber and resin.
They include:
• Phenol-Formaldehyde resins
• Urea formaldehyde resin
• Alkyd resins
• Ketone resins
• Vinyl resins
Cross linking type of resins:
These types of resins chemically react with the fiber and crosslink the fiber molecules. The type
of finish obtained is durable and much better than deposition type.
• DMU (Di methylol Urea)
• DMEU(Di methylol Ethylene Urea)
• DMDHEU(Di methylol Di hydroxy Ethylene Urea)
The major application methods currently used are based on the following processes:

• Garment-dip method,
• Spray application method.

In the garment-dip method, garments are constructed from non-resonated fabric, then
impregnated with a resin formula similar to that used in the non denim garments process,
extracted to about 65 per cent wet pick-up and then tumble dried to 8-10 percent moisture
content, a critical factor that is determined using a moisture meter.

In the spray application method, the resin is applied by spraying it onto the garment during
tumbling in an enclosed rotational device, or on spray booth where garments being hanged to
inflated balloons and sprayed a measured quantity of resin solution. A microprocessor is used
to meter the exact amount of chemicals and to control the rotation time, desired wet pick-up,
spray rate and process time. The garments are then treated for different 3D effects, crunched
or whatever designed intended to produce, used for both men’s wear and women’s wear with
the market moving towards washed-down looks and softer handles.

Figure: Effect of resin on denim jeans.

Area of application
Some time it is done all over the garments to get extremely unique look or normally this process
is done on front thigh, back thigh, knee zone, down portion of the knee zone etc. resin along with
whisker create a very lucrative look.

Patch and repairs along with bleach parts

These are totally manual processes to give uniqueness to denim and to make it looks vintage. First
cut or damage the units intentionally to desired area and then make hand repairs or machine repair
to look natural. Diluted bleach can be used to spot the desired area followed by neutralization in
wet process

(a) (b)
Figure 2.9: (a) Applying patch and repair, (b) Effect of patch and repair.

Area of application
Basically patch and repair along with bleach spot is done on front and back thigh to up to the
bottom hem edge. But according to the trend and customer’s preference it can also be done in other
portion of the garments.

Pigments and Local tint (Staining) application or Tinting:

This technique is based on spraying the chemicals or pigments to get different effect on the
garments. This can be done by using robotic spraying gun or by manual spray and followed by
curing of the garment.
 (a) (b)

Figure: (a) Vintage touch with the Final Grey Tone Dirty Brush, (b) localized pigment
applied to get different look
Procedure:
- It is water free process therefore zero effluent discharge.
- Less time consuming and Easy to use
- Different designs are possible
- No adverse effect on fabric strength.

Area of application

Basically it is dyeing over the jeans to add another tone of color. Most often used is a 'yellowy'
over dye to create a 'dirty' look on knee area and purposely over all.

The function of chemicals used in washing plant

• Enzyme: The action of enzyme during enzyme wash it hydrolysis the cellulose. At first it
attacks the having projecting fibers and hydrolyzed them. Then it attacks the yarn portion
inside fabric and party hydrolyzed the yarn portion. As a result, color comes out from the
yarn portion and faded affect is produced.
• Detergent: Chemical character is fatty alcohol polyglycol ether in an aqueous, glycolic
solution. Detergent is widely applicable in the continuous and discontinuous pretreatment of
all types of fiber and their blends. To remove impurities, mineral oil contamination and sizes
from the garments.
• Acetic acid (CH3COOH): Acetic Acid is used to neutralize the garments from alkaline
condition and to control the pH value in wash bath.
• Antistain: Antistain is used to prevent the staining on weft yarn of the denim (white yarn),
white pockets of garment, levels, and contacted fabrics of garment and increased the
 brightness of fabrics; it is also acts as anti-creasing agent. Bleaching powder: Bleaching
powder is an oxidizing agent. It is used in washing plant for color out from the denim
garments. We can achieve deferent shade of color on garment (Dark, medium, light shade).
• Sodium hyposulphite(Na2S2O3): Sodium hyposulphite is used to neutralize the garments from
chlorine bleach.
• Caustic soda: Caustic created the role in bleach technique without color change the garment
and has a good cleaning power. It is work as fading affect or old looking affect come rapidly
on garments.
• Soda ash: Soda ash creates alkaline medium for the breakdown of pigment dye. Soda ash
help to uniform bleaching action on bleach bath. It has a cleaning power and help color
fading effect of garment. It is used also for color fixing in dye bath.
• Sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO₃ ): Sodium bicarbonate is used in washing plant in the bleach
bath with bleaching powder for denim light shade because easily color out with in shot time.
As a result, production increase and costing is low.
• Potassium permanganate(PP): Potassium permanganate is used in acid wash with pumice
stone for color out from the garments. It is used also spray chamber by nozzle for color out
(whitish affect) from the garments.
• Flax softener (Cationic, Nonionic): Softener is used to make the garments treated textiles a
surface feel that is both sickly and soft and also provides excellent lubricating properties.
Flax softener (cationic or nonionic) diluted with hot water then use in the machine.
• Cationic softener:They are usually quaternary ammonium salts, amino-esters, and amino-
amides. They are recommended for all types of fibre, and can be also applied with exhaustion
process
• Non-Ionic Softener: These are generally ethers and polyglycol esters, ethoxylated products,
paraffin and fats.
• Anionic softener: is oil, fat, wax, soap, sulphated and sulphonated oils and sulphated fatty
alcohol.
• Micro emulsion silicon: Amino Silicon is a textile finishing agent consisting mainly of amino
modified silicon. When applied on fabrics, it gives durable softness, lubricity, elastic handle,
anti-pilling, dimensional stability, tear resistance and fabric to be cut and sewn more easily
allows and improving wear and easy care properties.
• Hydrogen peroxide: Hydrogen peroxide creates the prime role in bleach wash technique. In
alkaline medium, hydrogen peroxide breaks up and gives some perhydroxhyl ion, which
discolor the coloring materials and as a result fading affect is developed. Hydrogen peroxide
is used in scouring, bleaching bath for white or ready for dyeing of gray fabric garments. It is
used also neutralized the garment from alkaline condition.
• Stabilizer: Hydrogen peroxide is work a good condition at temperature above 90°c, when
temperature raise to 90°c then break the hydrogen peroxide. Stabilizer is used to protect
break the hydrogen peroxide and peroxide works in bath smoothly.
• Optical brightner: Two types of optical brightener are used in the washing plant, red
brightener and blue

What is Backstaining in the pocket:

Redeposition of the abraded dye from the dye bathe to the pocket fabric is known as
backstaining.

Causes

• Excess amount of softener.

 • The quality of dyeing chemicals is not good or the washing chemicals have lost
functioning.

Remedial action

• Reduce the percentage of softener during washing.

• During washing, add anti back staining agent.
• For poor quality dye, garment should pretreated by fixing agents before washing.

Pumice
Pumice called pumicite in its powdered or dust form, is a volcanic rock that consists of
highly vesicular rough textured volcanic glass, which may or may not contain crystals. It is
typically light colored. Scoria is another vesicular volcanic rock that differs from pumice in
having larger vesicles and thicker vesicle walls and being dark colored and denser.
Pumice is created when super-heated, highly pressurized rock is violently ejected from
a volcano. The unusual foamy configuration of pumice happens because of simultaneous rapid
cooling and rapid depressurization. The depressurization creates bubbles by lowering
the solubility of gases (including water and CO2) that are dissolved in the lava, causing the
gases to rapidly exsolve (like the bubbles of CO2 that appear when a carbonated drink is
opened). The simultaneous cooling and depressurization freezes the bubbles in the matrix.
Eruptions under water are rapidly cooled and the large volume of pumice created can be a
shipping hazard for cargo ships.

• Origins of Pumice
• The word pumice is derived from the Latin word pumex, meaning foam.
• Pozzolan (or pozzolana) is an Italian word, named from Pozzuoli, the place near Naples
where pozzolan was first mined and used as cement, during Roman times.
• Pumice is a textural rock formed from volcanic eruptions. Deep underground, molten rock
incorporates water and other gases, and when the magma erupts from a vent, the gases flash
off, leaving behind a frothy, vesicle-riven structure that quickly cools, solidifying the
foamy structure. The magma has now transformed into an amorphous aluminum silicate,
or pumice.
• The unusual foamy configuration of pumice happens because of simultaneous rapid
cooling and rapid de-pressurization. Pumice Stone commonly originated from Indonesia
and Turkey.
 • Different sizes of Pumice Stones are available, such as 1-2 cm, 1-3 cm which known as
small Pumice Stone. , 2-4 cm which known as medium size Pumice Stone. And 3-5 cm,
5-7 cm which is known as Large size Pumice Stone.
• The hardness of Pumice Stone in Mohr scale is 6. The melting temperature of Pumice
Stone is 15000˚ C and pH value is 8 and the density is 2.313g/cm3.

• Floating Rock
Not all pumice is created equally. Some is more dense in make-up, with fewer vesicles of
trapped air in the matrix. So, the lighter or more “fluffy” a deposit of pumice, the more likely
a pumice stone is to float on water at least until the water finally infiltrates enough of the
stone’s porosity and sinks it.

• In 2012, NASA satellites photographed a huge raft of pumice in the Pacific Ocean
resulting from the eruption of an underwater volcano known as the Havre Seamount. A
New Zealand Navel vessel sent to investigate reported finding a raft of pumice up to two
feet thick and some 300 x 30 nautical miles in size. Dispersed by wind and current, the
pumice can stay afloat for many months.

Chemical composition of pumice stone:

Silicon dioxide SiO2 71.91%

Aluminum oxide Al2O3 12.66%
Ferric oxide Fe2O3 1.13%
Calcium oxide CaO 1.46%
Magnesium oxide MgO 0.32%
Sulphur Trioxide SO3 0.03%
Potassium oxide K2O 4.30%
Sodium oxide Na2O 3.45%
 Calcification loss 4.53%
Indefinable content 0.21%
Total 100.00%

Typical physical properties of stone:

Refractive index 1.5

Hardness (Mohs scale) 6.0
Melting point 15000oC
pH Value 8.0
True density 2.313(g/cm3)

In terms of performing media pH Enzymes are 3 types-

• Acid Enzyme-activate in acidic media. Bath PH should keep 4.5-5.5.

• Neutral Enzyme- actives in almost neutral media 6.5- 7.5

• Hybrid enzymes- those are mixture of enzymes to get better results in any media.

In terms of work &use there are four kinds of Enzymes available in market
• Amylase: Desizing
• Cellulase: For Salt & pepper effect, Stone wash effect, bio polishing.
• Laccase: Bio bleaching.
• Catalase: Peroxide killer. Mostly used in Knit fabric dyeing Finishing.

Basically, in denim washing Amylase, Cellulase & catalase enzymes are used widely.

Amylase:
Mainly amylase are working as a catalyst which help to degrade starch materials from the fabric.
During fabric production Starch type sizing materials are used on the fabric surface. So removing
those is the 1st step. Other wise maximum chemical will not affect the main fabric area and will
sub react with the starch.
Cellulase:
Cellulase enzymes acts as an indigo/fiber cutter tools in washing. Either it hits on the indigo
surface and makes Stone washing effect or cutting projecting fibers on the fabric surface. So
Basically, there are 2kinds of Cellulase using for Denim washing

1. Stone Enzyme
2. Bio polishing Enzyme.

Cellulase Stone Enzyme has some basic nature, like-

• Neutral Cellulase Stone enzyme gives better salt & pepper effect with very less back staining
& it’s generally come sin powder form & also retains better strength of fabric than Acidic
Cellulase.

• Acidic cellulase Stone Enzyme gives faster results but with too heavy back staining & cuts
down the indigo color, also affects the strength of fabrics.

Now a day’s laundry people needs faster results in less time & money hence chemical suppliers
combined Neutral & acid cellulase in such way that it works faster & with better results than acid
cellulase with cost effectiveness & known as Hybrid enzyme.
Bio Polishing Cellulase are being used to have protruded fiber removal from denim & oven
fabric. This is also widely known as Anti pilling enzyme.

Any Cellulase used in process must be cleaned/killed after the process completion by simply
disturbing the parameters ie. By raising high temp. or raising pH to alkaline where no Cellulase
withstand.

Laccase:
Laccase is bio bleaching agent & alternative for conventional bleaching agents. This impart
greyer cast to blue denim & enhances salt & pepper effect. But due to high cost & low self-life,
laundries do not prefer it. Only in few cases it is using.

Basically, this enzyme decomposes indigo molecule in some extent which causes fading the
indigo color. Also, it gives a grey tone on the shade.

Wet or chemical washing process:

Wet or chemical washing process is one of most widely used process, which can be done by
using different Types of chemical and garments loading washing machine are called wet process
or chemical process
Types of wet washing process applied in garments:
 Normal wash or rinse wash
 Pigment wash
 Caustic wash
 Silicon wash
 Stone wash
 Bleach wash
 Enzyme wash
 Stone enzyme wash
 Acid wash
Normal wash or rinse wash
Normal washing is the most common, simplest and popular washing process with lowest
washing cost. It is nearly mandatory from every buyer. In normal wash manufacturing process,
some unwanted materials like dirt, dust and starch are removed without any shrinkage. By
altering temperature, time and detergent quantity washing effect could be varied in garments
surface. Normal washing also known as different name such as detergent wash, common wash
and rinse wash.
Objects
 To remove dust, dirt, oil spot, impurities from the garments.
 To remove size materials from the garments.
 To remove starch presents on the garment fabrics.
 For soft feeling to wear the garments after purchasing.
 To achieve buyer washing standard
Pigment wash
Pigment washing effect is made by pigment dyed or printed garments by pigment washing
method. This process is similar to normal washing process. The aim of this washing make fading
effect or old looking effect on seam area and also garment surface.
Objects
 To fading affect or old looking effect on garment and also seam area.
 For soft feeling to wear the garment after purchasing
 To achieve the buyer washing standard.
 To increase the color fastness and rubbing fastness
Caustic wash
Caustic wash generally doing on reactive dye, sulpher dye, direct dyed or printed garments and
these fabrics are used to manufacture apparels. This washing process is little bit different from
the other process. After some pre-treatment like desizing, scouring and bleaching process usually
printing is done on fabric. But caustic washing process, printing is done on the fabric without
pre-treatment of the fabric.

Objects:
 To fading or old looking effect on garment and seam abrasion affection seam area.
 To remove the size materials, starch from the garments.
 To increase the color fastness and rubbing fastness.
 For soft feeling to wear the garments.
 To increase the hairiness on garment

Silicon Wash
Silicon wash is most common and popular washing process. It can be applied almost all types of
fabric such as knit, denim, canvas and twill fabrics. This washing process gives more softness
and elastic hand feel.

Objects
 It gives durable softness, elastic handle,
 It helps to anti pilling affects, dimensional stability and tear resistance.
 It helps to fabrics to be cut and sewn more easily allows and improving wears and easy care
properties
Enzyme wash
enzyme wash generally cellulose enzyme are used. So they are bio chemical substances that
behave as catalysts toward specific reactions. This washing process is applied heavy fabrics like
jeans and denim. Due to enzymatic abrasion, dye is released from yarns, giving contrasts in the
blue color on denim fabrics surface. Enzyme washing method almost replaced stone wash.
Objects
 To remove the size materials from the garments.
 To remove the starch presents on the garments fabrics
 To achieve the high low abrasion (stone affect) on garment and seam abrasion in sewing area.
 Enzyme attack as chemically not mechanically for this reason low damage or wastage then
stone wash.
 For soft feeling to wear the garment.
 Especially develop the bio-polishing effect of cotton or denim.
 Enzyme attacks more the surface of the fabrics and gives a very smooth surface

Stone wash
Stone wash is done to produce fading and discolor effect on garments surface by stone. In stone
wash stone are perforated and that are produced from volcanic explosion. This stones are also
called pumice stone. The washing process is also applied on heavy fabric like denim and jeans to
create aged and worn out appearance .Various kind of washing effect can be achieved by
changing the amount of liquor ratio, stones size and shape of stones, cycle time, chemical
addition and garment load.
Objects
 The pumice stones act a brushing action on the fabric surfaces.
 The areas where more brushing action take place, there more fading or discolor effect will be
developed and the areas where less brushing action takes place, there less discolor effect will be
developed.
 The multi-layer fabric areas like, collar, cuff, pocket, placket, side seams etc. areas will be
brushed
more than the single layer areas.
 As a result, irregular fading is developed in the garments by the action of pumice stone
Stone enzyme wash
In garments washing industry stone enzyme washing becoming very popular day by day. In
stone enzyme washing process stone and enzyme wash are applied together.
Bleach wash
Bleaching of garments means lightening the color of the indigo dyed garments and apparels are
normally dyed with direct or reactive dye. It is also a separate process, which can be applied
instead of stone washing or together with stone washing. To avoid yellowing problems this
process must be followed by the neutralization process

Objects:

 Partial color fading effect is produced

 Bleaching is also done after enzyme wash or with stone wash to get more fading effect or
super light
shade
Acid wash
It is normally done on the garments from heavy fabrics like denim, course canvas and twill etc.
During Acid wash, pumice stones are used. By the action of pumice stones, irregular fading
affect is developed on the garments surface. The pumice stones act a brushing action on the
garment fabric surface.
Objects
 To produce irregular fading effect or old looking effect.
 For soft feeling to wear the garments i.e. to improve softness.
 To increase rubbing fastness
Advanced Technologiges for Denim washing:

• Ozone fading/ Ozone washing

• Laser fading

What is ozone fading of denim?

Ozone breaks down the indigo molecule, to degrade the color and obtain a perfectly sustainable
worn out effect

Ozone:
Ozone can be represented as a resonance hybrid of structure I-IV (fig: 1) Structure III and iv
allow ozone to be capable of reacting as a 1,3-dipolar compound, a phenomenon that has been
incorporated into ozonation mechanism
The reaction mechanismf oozone withindigo dyes

Ozonolysis of > C==C < double bonds in dye molecules of C.I. Basic Violet 14 produces (>
C==O) groups in the following way

Ozonation byproducts of indigo are carbonyle products such as isatin, anthranilic acid and
complexes of the two products.
Oxygen generator:
Pressure Swing Adsorption oxygen generators
Ozone generator:
When high-energy ultraviolet rays strike ordinary oxygen molecules (O2), they split the molecule
into two single oxygen atoms, known as atomic oxygen. A freed oxygen atom then combines with
another oxygen molecule to form a molecule of ozone. Artificially X-Arc ozone generators are
used to form O3 from the generated oxygen atom.
Conversion of ozone into oxygen:
Ozone is extremely valuable since it absorbs a range of ultraviolet energy. When an ozone
molecule absorbs even low-energy ultraviolet radiation, it splits into an ordinary oxygen molecule
and a free oxygen atom. Usually this free oxygen atom quickly re-joins with an oxygen molecule
to form another ozone molecule.
https://www.jeanologia.com/g2/

Factors influence in the Yellowing of Ozonated denim

Position of the dye in the fibre
Moisture absorptivity
Humidity
Protective chemicals on the fibre
Ozone concentration
How can we control yellowing:

Required pH should be maintained all steps

Most suitable silicone softeners should be used at the end
All residual chemicals should be thoroughly washed out
Remove residual Mn2+ ions (Manganese) on the garment
Keep garment thoroughly dried and away from nitroxide

What is laser fading?

The laser fading process is acknowledged as a very strong alternative compared to the
conventional physical and chemical processes used for aged-worn look on denim fabrics.
Laser Finishing Method :
Laser-Induced Plasmas (LIP) can be formed by focusing a laser pulse of appropriate irradiance
on a portion of matter, thus vaporizing, atomizing, and ionizing the material at the irradiated spot.
(Irradiance is defined as the power deposited per unit area, and measured in W/cm2.) The laser-
induced breakdown, i.e., the plasma formation, is a threshold phenomenon, and the irradiance
threshold value depends on properties of the laser (such as pulse amplitude, wavelength) and the
irradiated material (such as state of aggregation; optical, thermal, and electrical properties;
porosity and surface morphology). These properties also determine the actual physical processes
involved in the breakdown process. the breakdown is dominated by thermal phenomena (burning,
melting, vaporization, boiling)
The laser beam is moved on the piece of material to be faded by a set of two computer-controlled
scanning mirrors. The interaction of the laser beam with the colored material produces a fading
in the irradiated area. The residual colorants are expelled by plasma-induced ablation (the removal
of snow and ice from a glacier or iceberg by melting or evaporation.) from the material surface and
absorbed by a filtered ventilation system.

The process has three steps:

• Computer generation map of the area which will be irradiated with different fluency level
function of the desired pattern;
• Control of the laser system, scanning system and conveyor system;
• Laser-fading process.
The interaction laser beam-material depends on two kinds of parameters:
• laser beam parameters (energy per pulse, repetition rate, pulse duration, wavelength.) and
• material parameters [thermal diffusivity(Diffusivity is a rate of diffusion, a measure of
the rate at which heat can spread), reflection coefficient, and heat of vaporization]
For material removal from nonmetallic materials, the absorption at the laser wavelength is
important. Thus, when one chooses a laser for material removal, it is important to consider the
absorption characteristics of the material as a function of wavelength.

We can remove indigo from the textile by using four physical phenomena: photoablation,
plasma-induced ablation, and shock waves.

The photoablation phenomenon: means that the energy of the photon is absorbed by the bond
within an organic polymer, the indigo in our case, which is primarily covalent. The lowest
dissociation energy of indigo bonds is higher than 2.7 eV. The photon energy is 1.2 and 2.4 eV
for Nd:YAG laser at fundamental and second harmonic, respectively. Only ultraviolet photons
are able to produce photodissociation. The use of excimer lasers could be possible for denim laser
fading but for practical reasons (maintenance, reliability in hard working conditions, costs) only
CO2 (10.6 nm wavelength) and Nd:YAG laser working at 1.064 nm wavelength and its second
harmonic are considered.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UplfNVGMI5k
Descriptive Process Flow-chart of Laser Finishing :
 1. Create design pattern: Creation of a design pattern and development of pattern from captured photo

or design made by computer software.

2. Convert into, bmp format: Conversion into grey scale .bmp format (bitmap image format)

3. Input the design into Laser system: Putting the design file into the computer attached with laser m/c

4. Set the pixel time: Set the luminance of light that will placed on the garments.

5. Placing the garments: Placing the garments on honey comb table

6. Location identification: Marketing a red light on the garments where laser light fall to make sure

garments in placed properly

7. Start: run the m/c

Laser fading has some specific advantages as listed below-

1. Any design at any place can be created. Fading on seams, on metal buttons is possible.
2. Faster process compared to the conventional dry processes.
3. Cent percent design accuracy.
4. Suitable for wide range of material.
 5. Comparatively less strength loss than other mechanical fading.
6. Low hairiness compared to other mechanical fading.
7. Environment friendly.
8. Zero water waste.
9. Requires no chemical.
10. Less manpower required.
The common disadvantages of laser fading are listed below-
1. Initial investment is very high, which is a problem for small and medium size industries.
2. Skilled operator is needed, which might be a disadvantage in some particular
circumstances
3. Producing natural effect is difficult and often requires some manual touch after the fading
to give the product natural look.
4. The laser beam itself and the produced fumes are health hazardous.
5. Maintenance and servicing of the laser system may be troublesome in some
circumstances.

Some general aspects of Laser finish:

1. Effect quality is comparatively finer in Manual system than laser.
2. Hand feel is comparatively finer in Manual system than laser system.
3. Hairiness is comparatively less in Laser system
4. Production cost is higher in Laser system
5. Working space required is less in Laser system
6. Design consistency is high in Laser system
7. Tearing strength is higher in Laser faded denim (May differ in case of stretch denim)
8. Rejection rate is 0% in Laser system whereas around 5% in Manual system
9. Manpower required – Laser: Manual= 1:3 (Approximately)
10. Power Requirement is higher in Laser system (approximately 7.5-Kilowatt hour)
11. The laser beam would be harmful if it came into contact with skin or eyes.

Laser Safety:
Laser systems are controlled by international safety regulations (IEC 60825-1). These define
categories of lasers according to their power. Lasers that output more than 500mW are defined as
class IV and safety regulations ensure that users are prevented from directly coming into contact
with a beam by enclosing the laser and the work piece in cabinets controlled by interlocks, which
prevent the laser from being operated when the cabinet is open. Fumes that are generated during
processing may also be hazardous. Laser systems are fitted with extraction systems that remove
processing gases from cabinets. Particles are filtered out before the cleaned air is allowed to pass
into the environment. A suitable extraction system is a legal requirement.
 QUALITY EVALUATION OF DENIM

DENIM QUALITY
The intrinsic qualities of jeans are affected by two main groups; material and production. By
dividing into these two groups when researching quality, it will be easier to analyze possible
improvements.

QUALITY TESTING
Denim fabrics were tested considering five durability aspects: abrasion resistance, tear strength,
colourfastness to rubbing, colourfastness to washing and dimension stability. The tests resulted
in quantified data that was put together and analyse.

METHODS FOR QUALITY TESTING OF WASHED DENIM TEAR STRENGTH

Tear strength was tested with the Elmendorf method, the ISO 13937-1, Tear properties of fabrics
– Part 1: Determination of tear force using ballistic pendulum method Specimens were randomly
taken form the garment and torn in the testing apparatus. The mean tear force across warp and
weft were calculated. Test load D was used during the tests

ABRASION RESISTANCE
Abrasion resistance tests were performed according to ISO 12947-2, Determination of abrasion
resistance of fabrics by the Martindale method – Part 2: Determination of specimen breakdown,
The colour change and appearance of the specimens was also evaluated. The test load of 9 kPa
was used to press the specimens down. The evaluations were made at 3000, 5000, 10 000, 12
000, 14 000, 16 000 and 17 000 revolutions. 17 000 revolutions is the limit of the company’s
abrasion requirement. The shade change was assessed after every test interval.

COLOUR FASTNESS TO RUBBING

The colour fastness to rubbing was evaluated according to ISO 105-X12, Tests for colour fastness
– Part X12: Colour fastness to rubbing. Two specimens, of each warp and weft direction
measuring a minimum of 50 mm x 140 mm, were cut from testing sample. The tests were made
with both wet and dry rubbing cloths.
DIMENSION STABILITY
Dimensional stability is the ability to resist shrinkage or stretching 15 . As mentioned earlier, fibre
content has influence on properties of the fabric. Three factors that could cause dimensional
changes are: • Tension

• Swelling

• (Felting, wool)

The dimensional stability was tested according to two standards, ISO 3759, Preparation, marking
and measuring of fabric specimens and garments in tests for determination of dimensional
change, considering the fabric and ISO 5077, Determination of dimensional change in washing
and drying , considering the garment.

Before laundering, the areas on the denim jeans were marked length wise and width wise with
three parallel benchmarks. After the first and the third laundering, the dimensional change in
percentage were determined

and calculated with the formula: , where xo is the garments original measurement
and xt is the measurements after the wash and dry cycle.

In the dimension stability test of garments, measurements were taken according to the instructions
for measuring positions on trouser-like garments of ISO 3759. The positions measured are width
of waist, thigh, knee and bottom of leg, the length of inside leg from crotch to hem and length
from junction of leg seams to top, both back and front, excluding waistband. The remeasuring is
carried out after drying. The

dimension change is calculated with the formula: . The remeasuring was

made after both one and three washing and drying cycles.

DETERMENING SPIRALITY AFTER LAUNDERING

The tendency of spirality, or twist, in a woven garment, can be determined by ISO 16322-3,
Determination of spirality after laundering - Part 3: Woven and knitted garments. The
construction of twill weave has an inbuilt stress that may be released only after washing, which
might result in torsion of the material. To measure this tendency of twisting in a woven garment,
two benchmarks were placed 50 cm apart, and after wash the change was measured and the
percentage change was calculated.
QUALITY AUDIT & MEASURMENT EVALUATION
According to company standards the measuring of garments was made on waist, thigh, knee,
bottom hem, inseam, front rise and back rise. Deviations from the measurement list were noted.
The results were compiled and deviations over the control limits were marked.

SIZE AND FIT STANDARDS

Measurement standards are set up by companies to avoid and to prevent large measurement
variations among and between garment styles. The standard provide accepted variations and
tolerances for the measurements of every size. The ability to keep a consistency of the
measurements is an important aspect of quality, therefore it is important to minimize the risk of
having too large variations in production. The sizing system and measurement tolerances are
normally based on the sizing standard of the company. For example, the waist measurement of a
pair of jeans in size 27 inch are according to the measurement list 73,5 cm with a tolerance of ±
1 cm in variation. If the waist measurement is 75 cm, it exceeds the tolerance. This is classified
as a deviation, or a defect. A measurement lower than 72,5 cm would also be considered as a
defect. Tolerances vary between measurements and some deviations in a garment are considered
to be more critical than others. Large variations in waist are more critical than variations in bottom
hem.

AQL – ACCEPTED QUALITY LEVEL

Accepted Quality Level (AQL) is a quality control tool for inspection of products. As earlier
mentioned, products (in this case jeans) can be inspected in several different ways. For
evaluations, tests or other types of comparisons, AQL is a good tool to control how well the
products stand in relation to the quality requirements. The AQL will tell the amount of products
that should be inspected and how many defects that are accepted, rather than dictating what tests
should be made. Based on the AQL, randomized inspections are made, which gives the company
a result that indicates the status for a majority of the products. The amount of products that will
get inspected and how many faults that are accepted are determined by a combination of the AQL-
level, the inspection level and the size of the order. Each company chooses what levels they want
to work with. An AQL of 1,5 will not accept faults in more than 1,5 % of the inspected lot. There
are three inspection levels; I, II and III. Inspection level II is most commonly used, but at less
comprehensive inspections level I is used, and at more comprehensive inspection level III is used.
Defects are classified by their severity; minor, major or critical. Three minor defects are equal to
one major defect. If the amount of defected products in the inspected lot exceeds the AQL, the
order should be rejected, otherwise it can be accepted