2022 2nd International Conference on Intelligent Technologies (CONIT)
Karnataka, India. June 24-26, 2022
Crack Detection and Classification for Reinforced
Concrete Structures using Deep Learning
Alonica Villanueva Juan Karlo B. Balba
Computer Engineering Computer Engineering
Department Department
Technological Institute of the Technological Institute of the
Philippines Philippines
Quezon City, Philippines Quezon City, Philippines
avillanueva.cpe@tip.edu.ph jkbalba@gmail.com
Maria Cecilia A. Venal
2022 International Conference on Intelligent Technologies (CONIT) | 978-1-6654-8407-7/22/$31.00 ©2022 IEEE | DOI: 10.1109/CONIT55038.2022.9848129
Roel Ian P. Tagle
Computer Engineering Department
Computer Engineering Department
Technological Institute of the
Technological Institute of the Philippines
Philippines
Quezon City, Philippines
Quezon City, Philippines
roeliantagle@gmail.com
cecilia.venal@tip.edu.ph
Abstract—Building cracks such as gaping cracks, separation,
and horizontal cracks are a few types of cracks that possess a
severe issue on reinforced concrete; hence, the earlier the
detection the cheaper the repairs. Numerous studies about crack
detection considered VGG16, and Faster R-CNN because the
severity level is crucial to each construction company business
owner. This paper aims to build a deep learning model using
Yolov3 that can detect a crack in reinforce concrete structures
and categorize a medium, severe, or very severe crack using an
android application. An android application was developed
instead of using an expensive Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity in the
market to detect the severity of the crack on the concrete.
The overall accuracy summary of the android application is
93.33%, while the kappa value is .97. Therefore, the deep
learning model and android application produced an accurate
calculation in detecting the crack and determining its crack
classification.
Keywords— Crack, detection, crack classification, crack
detection, YOLOv3, deep learning, and severity
I. INTRODUCTION
Due to the increasing labor cost and the increasing number
of structures built by the client every year, most inspections are
done annually up to every other year in the Philippines [1].
Thus, many studies were created to automatically detect the
cracks, like the study which uses magnetic fields to detect a
crack in the underground pipeline [2]. Nevertheless, the
process of crack detection and classification based on the
physical attributes of the surface area in the building is the
basis of generating the created study.
Deep Convolutional Neural Network (CNN) was used in
different studies in detecting cracks such as pavement cracks
[3], [4], [5], [6]. Exploration of deep learning models in crack
detection was given importance by utilizing NB-CNN. Naive
Bayes [7] for nuclear power plant, CrackNet-V on 3D asphalt
978-1-6654-8407-7/22/$31.00 ©2022 IEEE 1
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Carlo D. Beceril Jaira Lyne G. Belza
Computer Engineering Computer Engineering
Department Department
Technological Institute of the Technological Institute of the
Philippines Philippines
Quezon City, Philippines Quezon City, Philippines
cbeceril101@gmail.com Jairalynebelza@gmail.com
Menchie M. Rosales
Computer Engineering Department
Technological Institute of the
Philippines
Quezon City, Philippines
Mmiranda.cpe@tip.edu.ph
[8], same as the proposed study which uses You Only See
Once (YOLO) v2 that identifies cracks on the roads [9] and
identifies the crack type and its class name, U-Net was used in
Pixel-level crack detection [10] that identifies segmentation
through a neural network accuracy which is above 92%,
detection of cracks in Electroluminescence Images using
Steerable evidence filter(SEF)-CNN [11], and others uses
wireless camera network in detecting asphalt pavement cracks
[12].
A different deep learning approach can also be used to
detect the crack in the pipeline [13]. In contrast, YOLO v3 uses
a one-stage system that loses accuracy when achieving high
detection speeds [14]. Another model that takes place, which is
VGG16 in 2020 [15], says it is much more accurate than the
YOLO algorithm, and VGG19 is a good choice in real-time
detection [16]. One of the papers showed that Yolov3 has a
clear advantage for pavement crack detection speed [17]
because of its fastest way and can produce a high accuracy rate
in detecting cracks and was tested on the railway bridge [18].
Also, one of the researchers creates output and increases the
accuracy using Faster R-CNN [14].
The cracks in the buildings are a significant problem
nowadays [19]. Crack in reinforced concrete structures is
undesirable aesthetically, it affects the structure's durability,
and it leads to changes in stiffness and change force
distribution in the structure. It gives the feeling that the
construction is unsafe. Thus, the system detects cracked and
non-cracked concrete structures and could classify the crack
based on cracked severity of damage using the android
application compared to another study that classifies the crack
damage such as horizontal, vertical, branch, and diagonal
cracks [20]. Therefore, the proposed system categorizes the
crack in its severity level, such as medium, severe, and very
severe, based on the Control of Cracking in Concrete
Structures standard [21]. It uses the Convolutional Deep
Learning model using YOLO v3. A total of 1105 datasets used
for this algorithm were categorized as medium, severe, or very
severe, unlike the previous study, which classified the crack as
wide, shallow, and fine crack [8]. Some categories include
longitudinal, linear, and alligator crack [9].
II. METHODOLOGY
The methodology comprises an android application, deep
learning algorithm, and processes such as architecture and
datasets as an overall software design.
A. Application Design
This section discusses the android application design. The
Android Application is an aid for crack detection and
classification for building inspectors and safety officers used.
The application allows the user to detect and classify cracks on
reinforced concrete structures with the help of the smartphone's
camera. It runs on an Android device with a minimum version
of Android 6.0. The application design is based on the
interviewed guiding matrix used by the Department of Public
Works and Highways, as shown in Fig. 1.
Fig. 1. Android Application Design
Fig. 1 shows the software design of the Android
application. The image on the left is the first screen of the
application to get started. The image on the right shows the
application's main menu containing four (4) buttons. The
capture button on the top left is for image capture, wherein
permission to open the device camera is needed to begin
capture for the first time of use. The gallery button on the top
right is used to view the previous output images of the
application. The user manual button on the lower left is used to
get some insights into the guide and How-tos of the
application. Lastly, the about us button on the lower right
opens a page about why the application is designed. As shown
in Fig. 2 is the Main Menu contents.
Fig. 2. Main Menu Contents
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Fig. 2 shows the contents of the buttons shown in Fig. 1.
The image on the left is the content of the gallery button in the
main menu; hence, to view all the previous images generated
by the application. The second image from the left shows the
full-sized image from the gallery. The third image shows the
walkthrough instructions on how to operate the application.
Lastly, the image on the right shows the contents of the about
us button on the main menu explaining why the application is
designed.
B. Deep Learning
Convolutional Neural Network (ConvNet/CNN) is a deep
learning algorithm that can take in an input image, assign
importance to various aspects/objects in the image, and
differentiate one from the other [22]. The pre-processing
required in a ConvNet is much lower than in different
classification algorithms [23]. While in primitive methods,
filters are hand-engineered, with enough training, ConvNets
can learn these filters/characteristics [24]. The innovation of
convolutional neural networks automatically learns many
filters in parallel specific to a training dataset under the
constraints of a particular predictive modeling problem, such as
image classification. The result is particular features that can be
detected anywhere on input images. It only concludes that even
with multiple sizes of cracks on an image, the YOLO algorithm
could detect it [25].
The YOLOv3 Architecture is in Fig. 3.
Fig. 3. YOLOv3Network Architecture [26]
The image in Fig. 3 shows above is YOLO's Architecture.
The uniqueness of YOLO makes use of only convolutional
layers, making it a fully convolutional network (FCN). It has
75 convolutional layers, with skip connections and up-
sampling layers. No form of pooling is used, and a
convolutional layer with stride 2 is used to down-sample the
feature maps. This helps in preventing the loss of low-level
features often attributed to pooling. The architecture boasts of
residual skip connections and up-sampling. The most salient
feature of v3 is that it makes detections at three different scales.
YOLO is a fully convolutional network, and its eventual output
is generated by applying a 1 x 1 kernel on a feature map. In
YOLO v3, the detection is done using 1 x 1 detection kernels
on feature maps of three different sizes at three different places
in the network. YOLO v3 predicts at three scales, which are
precisely given by down-sampling the dimensions of the input
image by 32 strides, 16, and 8, respectively [26].
C. Dataset
The dataset used to train the deep neural network model
comprises 1105 images. The image dataset used in this design
is SDNET2018 by Maguire, Marc: Dorafshan, Sattar: and
Thomas, Robert J [27] for machine learning applications. This
dataset contains 56,000 crack and non-crack concrete
structures using a 16 Megapixel Nikon digital camera. Cracks
on this dataset are as narrow as 0.06mm and wide as 25mm.
Fig. 4 explains how the data or datasets are processed
throughout the system.
Fig. 4. Data Process Diagram of YOLO
Fig. 4 shows the process of crack detection and
classification on the server. The process starts with the input
image in an indefinite size. The image is then resized to 240 x
240 dimensions; hence, generating grid cells dividing into N x
N squares wherein each square predicts bounding boxes with
different confidence scores and the class probability of the
bounding boxes. These confidence scores reflect how confident
the bounding box contains a crack. Lastly, using the process of
non-max suppression, the bounding boxes having a low
confidence score are removed, leaving the bounding box with
the highest confidence score reflecting the image as a classified
output. Fig. 5 shows the image block process.
Fig. 5. Image View Per Process Block
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Fig.5 shows the visual presentation of the block diagram in
figure 2.16. First, the N x N grid is generated wherein each grid
has its bounding boxes and confidence level, including a
probability class-map for different classifications. Lastly, the
final detection outputs the confirmed predicted image. A
sample detected cracked image is shown in Fig. 6.
Fig. 6. YOLO Validation
Fig. 6 shows that the YOLO algorithm can detect all 3
classifications, namely medium, severe, or very severe crack,
during the validation of a concrete image with crack from
google images. This also shows that even with multiple sizes
of cracks on an image, the YOLO algorithm could detect it.
D. Software Design
The android applications’ front-end development uses
Android Studio, while its back-end development is Python
programming using Tensorflow. The system is pure software
deployed in a server-based mobile application that uses
YOLOv2. Below is the systematic procedure of YOLOv3 in
the server. The software design diagram is in Fig. 7.
Fig. 7. Software Design Diagram
Fig. 7 shows an application will serve as an interface for
the user to run the system. First, the captured image from the
device is uploaded to the server and uses the trained graph
model generated in Tensorflow via a convolutional network
algorithm; this is where the detection and classification take
place. Lastly, the classified image is downloaded back to the
display device for output, as shown in Fig. 8.
 serves as a backbone for crack detection while the
classification processes are through TensorFlow.
Confusion Matrix allows visualization of the classification
performance, as shown in Table 2. The confusion matrix
helped compute overall accuracy, false-positive rate, false-
negative rate, true positive, and true negative. A true positive is
an outcome where the classification model correctly classified
the positive class. Similarly, a true opposite is an outcome
where the model correctly classified the negative class. A false
positive is an outcome where the model incorrectly predicts the
positive class. Also, a false negative is an outcome where the
model incorrectly classified the negative class. Since
classification is a unique machine-learning problem, the
confusion matrix is essential in analyzing the performance of
the classification model on a test set for which true values are
Fig. 8. Systematic Procedure of the YOLO Algorithm
known [28].
Fig. 8 shows how the YOLO algorithm can detect a
specific object on an image. First, identifying the bounding TABLE II. CONFUSION MATRIX OF CRACK DETECTION
boxes for an instance of a crack is determined. In the YOLO Actual
algorithm, the image is divided into N x N squares, and each Very Overall
Tests Medium Severe
squared predicts five bounding boxes with different aspect Severe Classification
Medium 9 0 2 11
ratios. However, not every bounding box has an object on it or Severe 1 10 0 11
has an instance of crack on it. The bounding box having thicker Classified
Very
0 0 8 8
lines represented by a confidence score is the detected crack Severe
Actual
object of the model. Hence, the confidence score reflects how Overall
10 10 10 30
likely the box contains a crack. Thus, discarding the bounding = denotes the number of correctly identified cracks
boxes with a low confidence score allows the system to easily Legend:
= denotes the total number of trials presented in crack
detection
detect and classify the instance of a crack on a concrete. = denotes the number of incorrectly identified cracks

III. TESTING AND RESULTS During the testing process after the training of data sets,
The primary function of the mobile application is to detect Table 2 shows the number of identified cracks, the total
and classify concrete cracks by capturing the image. Hence, the number of trials presented in crack detection, and the number
result is compared to a crack comparator for visualization and of incorrectly identified cracks.
to confirm the accuracy of the application. The test results The summary of True Positive Rate, True Negative Rate,
compare the manual severity level using the crack comparator False Positive Rate, and False Negative Rate for Crack
and the automated severity level generated by the application Detection is shown in Table 3.
basing the interviewed guiding matrix from DPWH. Testing
and results used the confusion matrix and the Kappa equation.
TABLE III. SUMMARY OF DETECTION RATE
The test results used different test images as a sample:
True True False False
crack images with medium to very severe levels of severity are Object Positive Negative Positive Negative
shown in Table 1. Rate Rate Rate Rate
Crack 100.00% 100.00% 0.00% 0.00%
No Crack 100.00% 90.00% 0.00% 10.00%
TABLE I. SAMPLE SIZE OF EACH LABELED CONCRETE CRACKS
Kappa 0.97
Label Dataset count
Medium Crack 350 Table 3 shows the summary of all detection percentages for
Severe Crack 405 crack detection. True positive means detection occurs correctly
Very Severe Crack 350
with an object in a wall. True negative means no crack detected
Total 1105
in a wall that has no object in it. False-positive means no crack
detection occurs even a there is an object(crack) in the wall.
Table 1 shows the sample size used to train the dataset; the
False-negative means a detection occurs when no object(crack)
SDNET Database provides an image database for the different
is on the wall.
concrete crack images. Hence, the database contains 56,000
other images, with or without cracks. Labeled data used are The predicted fraction of values of a class that does not
1105 images, as shown in Table 3. All images were converted belong to the class represented in Table 3 resulted in errors of
to grayscale and resized to the exact dimension of 256-by-256 commission. They are a measure of false positives. False-
pixels. The training process consists of getting the positive rate (FPR) is calculated as the number of incorrect
characteristics of each image along with the labeled cracked; positive predictions divided by classification overall [29]. The
thus, the data is used to create and train. The resulting training rows of the confusion matrix show the error of commission

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except for the values along the diagonal. The predicted value
that belongs to a class but is predicted in a different class
represents the error or omission. They are a measure of false
negatives. In computing the false-negative rate in which the
columns of the confusion matrix represent, except for the
values along the main diagonal. Identifying both False Positive
and False Negative Rates is important in reducing error [29].
True Positive is calculated as the number of correct positive
predictions divided by the classification overall [29]. The True
Negative rate measures the proportion of correctly identified
negatives [29]. The kappa coefficient measures the agreement
between classification and truth values. Kappa is always less
than or equal to one (1). A kappa value of one (1) represents a
perfect agreement, while a value of zero (0) represents no
agreement. According to Statistics HowTo 2018 [30], the
Kappa statistic varies from zero (0) to one (1), where: • 0 = No
agreement • 0.01 – 0.20 = Slight agreement. • 0.21 – 0.40 =
Fair agreement. • 0.41 – 0.60 = Moderate agreement. • 0.61 –
0.80 = Substantial agreement. • 0.81 – 0.99 = Almost perfect or
Near-perfect agreement • 1 = Perfect agreement.
The equation below shows the computation for the kappa
value:
(1)
Where:
x i is the class number
x N is the total number of classified values compared to
truth values
x mi, i is the number of values belonging to the truth
class i that have also been classified as class I (i.e.,
values found along the diagonal of the confusion
matrix)
x Ci is the total number of predicted values belonging to
class i
x Gi is the total number of truth values belonging to a
class
The first testing conducted a series of 20 medium crack
images using an android application with 95% accuracy. The
second testing showed 20 severe crack images with 90%
accuracy. The Third test conducted a 20 series of Very Severe
crack images with 100% accuracy. The overall accuracy
summary of the android application is 93.33%, while the kappa
value is .97, as shown in Table 3. Therefore, the mobile
application produced an accurate calculation in detecting the
crack and determining its crack classification.
IV. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
In this paper, out of the 1105 datasets, the cracks were
categorized as a medium, severe, and severe and were tested
with different crack classifications. Yolov3 deep learning
algorithm was used in detecting and classifying cracks in
reinforcement concrete structures. The model was deployed in
the server and can be accessed by the android application.
Several tests were conducted using the android application and
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compared from the crack comparator's actual measurement,
which matches the android application's reading. The android
application testing to each crack classification set successfully
gives a summary accuracy percentage of 93.3%.
Exploration of the deep learning models can increase the
accuracy rate and the kappa coefficient value to improve the
importance of this study in detecting crack classification. Thus,
the android application may be run without an internet
connection.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors would like to thank Faculty Members under
Computer Engineering Department for giving valuable ideas
and suggestions in the final implementation of the project.
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