History of Electromagnetic

Selected moments in electromagnetics

– references: http://history.hyperjeff.net/electromagnetism.html
– http://www.ee.umd.edu/~taylor/frame1.htm
– http://www.ieee.org/organizations/history_center/
– radio:
© http://history.acusd.edu/gen/recording/radio.html
© http://home.luna.nl/~arjan-muil/radio/museum.html
– electricity comes from the Latin term electricus, meaning to "produce from amber by friction." This term has its roots in the Greek
term elektor, which means beaming sun
© In 1600 the English scientist William Gilbert returned to the subject in De Magnete, and coined the modern Latin
word electricus from λ ε κτροov (elektron), the Greek word for amber, which soon gave rise to the English words
electric and electricity

S V Pandey 2008, last update 1 st June 2011 2EC301, Dept. of ECE, NU-IT, Ahmedabad

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 History of Electromagnetic

History of electromagnetics
– mostly from: http://history.hyperjeff.net/electromagnetism.html by Jeff Biggus, with some additions (by me) from a wide variety
of sources
– antiquity
© Many things known about optics: rectilinearity of light rays; law of reflection; transparency of
materials; that rays passing obliquely from less dense to more dense medium are refracted toward
the perpendicular of the interface; general laws for relationship between the apparent location of an
object in reflections and refractions; the existence of metal mirrors.
– ca 300 BCE
© Euclid of Alexandria (ca 325 BC - ca 265 BC) writes, Optics, dealing with vision theory and
perspective.
© Convex lenses in existence at Carthage.
– 1st cent BCE
© Chinese fortune tellers begin using loadstone to construct divining boards, eventually leading to the
first compasses. (Mentioned in Wang Ch'ung's Discourses weighed in the balance of 83 B.C.)
– 1st cent CE
© South-pointing divining boards become common in China.
– 2nd cent
© Claudius Ptolemy (ca 85 - ca 165) writes on optics, deriving law of reflection from assumption that
light rays travel in straight lines (from the eyes), and tries to establish a quantitative law of refraction.

S V Pandey 2008, last update 1 st June 2011 2EC301, Dept. of ECE, NU-IT, Ahmedabad

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 History of Electromagnetic

Third century to the 12th

– ca 271: True compasses come into use by this date in China.

– 6th century
© (China) Discovery that loadstones could be used to magnetize small iron needles.
– th
11 century
© Abu Ali al-Hasan ibn al-Haitam (Alhazen) writes Kitab al-manazir (translated into Latin as
Opticae thesaurus Alhazeni in 1270) on optics, dealing with reflection, refraction, lenses,
parabolic and spherical mirrors, aberration and atmospheric refraction.
© (China) Iron magnetized by heating it to red hot temperatures and cooling while in south-north
orientation.
– 1086: Shen Kua's Dream Pool Essays make the first reference to compasses used in navigation.
– 1155-1160: Earliest explicit reference to magnets per se, in Roman d'Ene as.
– 1190-1199: Alexander Neckam's De naturis rerum contains the first western reference to compasses
used for navigation.

S V Pandey 2008, last update 1 st June 2011 2EC301, Dept. of ECE, NU-IT, Ahmedabad

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 History of Electromagnetic

1200,s-1500,s

– 13th century
© Roger Bacon applies geometry to the study of optics. Also makes some brief
notes on magnetism.
© Pierre de Maricourt writes first western analysis of polar magnets and
compasses. Also demonstrates existence of two poles of a magnet by tracing
directions of a needle laid near a natural magnet.
© Theodoric of Freiberg, working with prisms and transparent crystalline spheres,
formulates a theory of refraction in raindrops which is close to the modern
understanding.
© Eyeglasses, convex lenses for the far-sighted, invented in or near Florence (as
early as the 1270s or as late as the late 1280s - concave lenses for the near-
sighted appearing in the late 15th century).

S V Pandey 2008, last update 1 st June 2011 2EC301, Dept. of ECE, NU-IT, Ahmedabad

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 History of Electromagnetic

17th century
– 1600: Gilbert publishes first major classification of electric and non-electric materials; the relation
of moisture and electrification; showing that electrification effects metals, liquids and smoke;
noting that electrics were the attractive agents (as opposed to the air between objects); and
showing the earth to be a magnet.
– 1618: Grimaldi discovers diffraction patterns of light and becomes convinced that light is a wave-
like phenomenon.
– 1621: Snell experimentally determines the law of angles of incidence and reflection for light and for
refraction between two media.
– 1637: Rene Descartes publishes a theory of refraction and a theory of rainbows.
– 1644: Descartes describes magnetism as the result of the mechanical motion of channel particles
and their displacements, and proposing the absence of both void and action at a distance.

S V Pandey 2008, last update 1 st June 2011 2EC301, Dept. of ECE, NU-IT, Ahmedabad

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 History of Electromagnetic

17th century continued (things are heating upø )

– 1646: Thomas Browne coins the term "electricity".
– ca 1650: Coffee begins to be important to and catch on in Europe.
– 1660: Otto von Guericke builds the first electrical machine, a rotating frictional generator.
– 1664: Robert Hooke puts forth a wave theory of light, considering light to be a very high speed
rectilinear propagation of longitudinal vibrations of a medium in which individual wavelets spherically
spread.
– 1676: Ole Christensen R“mer (1644-1710) demonstrates the finite speed of light via observations of the
eclipses of the satellites of Jupiter, though does not calculate a speed for light.
– 1687: Isaac Newton (1642-1727) notes magnetism to be a non-universal force and derives an inverse
cubed law for two poles of a magnet.
– 1690: Huyghens formulates wave theory of light, giving the first numerical quote for the speed of light,
usually attributed to R“mer, of 2.3 x 108 m/s.

S V Pandey 2008, last update 1 st June 2011 2EC301, Dept. of ECE, NU-IT, Ahmedabad

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 History of Electromagnetic

18th century
– 1704: Newton's research on light culminates in publication of Optics, describing light both in terms of wave theory and his
corpuscular theory.
– 1729: Stephen Gray shows static electricity to be transported via substances, especially metals.
– 1733: Charles-Francois de Cisternai du Fay discovers that electric charges are of two types and that like charges repel while
unlike charges attract.
– 1747: Benjamin Franklin proposes that electricity be modeled by a single fluid with two states of electrification, introducing the
convention of describing the two types of charges as positive and negative.
– 1759: Aepinus publishes the first book applying mathematical techniques to the subject.
– 1764: Wilcke invents the electrophorus, a device which can produce relatively large amounts of electric charge easily and
repeatedly.
– 1766: Joseph Priestley deduces the inverse square law for electric charges.
– early 1780s: Luigi Galvani uses the response of animal tissue to begin studies of electrical currents produced by chemical
action.
– 1799: Volta shows that galvanism is not of animal origin but occurred whenever a moist substance is placed between two
metals; leads to the "Volta pile" a year later, the first electric battery.

S V Pandey 2008, last update 1 st June 2011 2EC301, Dept. of ECE, NU-IT, Ahmedabad

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 History of Electromagnetic

19th century
– 1800: Voltaic pile, the first modern electric battery, invented by Alessandro Volta
– 1801: Young's work on interference revives interest in the wave theory of light.
– 1812: Poisson formulates concept of macroscopic charge neutrality as natural state of matter; describes electrification as
separation of the two kinds of electricity; points out usefulness of a potential function for electrical systems.
– 1814: Fresnel discovers interference phenomena of light, explains in terms of wave theory.
– 1820: Oersted notes deflection of a magnetic compass needle caused by electric current; demonstrates effect is reciprocal;
initiates unification of electricity and magnetism.
Biot and Savart deduce the formula for the strength of the magnetic effect produced by a short segment of current carrying
wire.
– 1825: Sturgeon demonstrates an electromagnetic lifting a nine pound weight
– 1827: Ohm formulates the relationship between current to electromotive force and electrical resistance.
– 1828: Green introduces notion of potential and formulates what is now called Green's Theorem relating the surface and volume
distributions of charge.
– 1830: Joseph Henry demonstrated long distance communication by sending an electronic current over one mile of wire to
activate an electromagnet which caused a bell to strike.

S V Pandey 2008, last update 1 st June 2011 2EC301, Dept. of ECE, NU-IT, Ahmedabad

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 History of Electromagnetic

1800,s cont
– 1835: Gauss formulates separate electrostatic and electrodynamical laws, including "Gauss's law."
– 1838: Faraday explains electromagnetic induction, electrochemistry and formulates his notion of lines of force.
Samuel Morse publicly demonstrates a telegraph using dots and dashes.
Weber and Gauss apply potential theory to the magnetism of the earth.
– 1840: Morse US patent 1647 ” Improvement in the mode of communicating information by signals by the application of electro-
magnetism®
– 1842: Thomson formulates continuity equation of electricity, implying a conservation of electric flux.
US Congress awards grant of $30,000 to Morse for the first experimental telegraph line in America (between Washington and
Baltimore)
– 1845 to 1850: Faraday establishes connection between light and electrodynamics.
– 1846: Weber proposes synthesis of electrostatics, electrodynamics and induction using idea that electric currents are moving
charged particles.

S V Pandey 2008, last update 1 st June 2011 2EC301, Dept. of ECE, NU-IT, Ahmedabad

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 History of Electromagnetic

More 1800,s
– 1851: first successful international submarine telegraph cable, Dover to Calais
– 1855 to 1868: Maxwell completes formulation of field equations of electromagnetism, 20 equations in 20 variables; established
connection between the speed of propagation of an electromagnetic wave and the speed of light; theoretical possibility of
generating electromagnetic radiation.
– 1866: successful trans-Atlantic telegraph cable, Valentia, Ireland to Heart's Content, Newfoundland
– 1872: earliest patent for wireless telegraphy (Morse Code) granted to Dr. Mahlon Loomis: "Improvement in Telegraphy," July 20,
1872, US Pat. No. 129,971.
– 1874: Stoney estimates the charge of an electron to be about 10 -20 Coulombs and introduces the term "electron."
– 1874: Ferdinand Braun reported rectification in point contact diodes on PbS. Braun won the 1909 Nobel prize for his word on
radio, along with Marconi.
– 1875: Lorentz in his doctoral thesis, derives the phenomena of reflection and refraction in terms of Maxwell's theory.
– 1884: Hertz develops a reformulation of electrodynamics and shows his and Helmholtz's theories both amount to Maxwell's
theory.

S V Pandey 2008, last update 1 st June 2011 2EC301, Dept. of ECE, NU-IT, Ahmedabad

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 History of Electromagnetic

Oliver Heaviside
– 1885 to 1887: Heaviside re-expresses Maxwell's results in 3 dimensional vector form, giving it its
modern form
© in the process, he invents the modern vector calculus notation, including the gradient,
divergence and curl of a vector.
– Oliver Heaviside coined the following electromagnetic terms:
© "electret" for the electric analogue of a permanent magnet, or, in other words, any substance
that exhibits a quasi-permanent electric polarization (e.g. ferroelectric).
© In September of 1885, "conductance" and "permeability".
© In February of 1886, "inductance".
© In July of 1886, "impedance".
© In December of 1887, "admittance".
© (from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oliver_Heaviside )
– a couple quotations (and warningsø )
– pp. 3-4, Nahin, P. J. (2002). Oliver Heaviside : the life, work, and times of an electrical
genius of the Victorian age. Baltimore, Johns Hopkins University Press.
© ” I hope this will be satisfactory. If not, there are lots of other more complicated ways of doing
the work.®
© ” It is wonderful how little work there is when you know how to do it.®

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 History of Electromagnetic

19th century continued

– 1887: Hertz experimentally produces electromagnetic radiation with radio waves in the GHz range, also discovering the
photoelectric effect and predicting that gravitation would also have a finite speed of propagation.

– 1889: John William Strutt (Lord Rayleigh) presents a model for radiation in terms of wave propagation.
– 1890: Hertz publishes his memoirs on electrodynamics, simplifying the form of the electromagnetic equations, replacing
all potentials by field strengths, and deduces Ohm's, Kirchoff's and Coulomb's laws.
– 1892 to 1904: Lorentz completes the description of electrodynamics by clearly separating electricity and electrodynamic
fields and formulating the equations for charged particles in motion.

S V Pandey 2008, last update 1 st June 2011 2EC301, Dept. of ECE, NU-IT, Ahmedabad

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 History of Electromagnetic

– 1896: Guglielmo Marconi (he,s 22 at the time) demonstrates wireless

telegraphy to the English telegraph office, after a year of testing in
Italy. He proves the possibilities of wireless telegraphy with a
” coherer.®
20th century
– 1897: Marconi establishes the first "Marconi-station" at Needles (Isle
Wight), this station sends a signal to the English coast over 22 km.
© Transmitting Electrical Signals by Ruhmkorff Coil Patent -
Guglielmo Marconi, Electromagnetic Spark Transmitting
apparatus, was granted on July 13, 1897, United States Patent
No. 586,193.
– 1898
© 3 June, the first paid wireless telegram sent from Needles.
© 20 July, first newspaper message sent from a ship to the Daily
Express concerning the results of a sailing contest.
– 1901: Marconi uses syntonised (tuned) receivers and transmitters
© 12 and 13 December, first signals sent across the Atlantic
Ocean from Poldhu to New Foundland (2800 km).

from http://history.acusd.edu/gen/recording/radio.html

S V Pandey 2008, last update 1 st June 2011 2EC301, Dept. of ECE, NU-IT, Ahmedabad

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 History of Electromagnetic

Radio
– 1905: Fessenden invents continuous-wave voice transmitter using a high-frequency alternator developed
by Charles Steinmetz at GE in 1903
– 1905: Albert Einstein analyzes the phenomena of the photoelectric effect and theorizes that light may be
taken to be made up of vast amounts of packets of electromagnetic radiation in discrete units.
– 1906: voice broadcast over North Atlantic Christmas Eve
– 1906: Silicon used for the first time
– 1910: Fessenden sold to Westinghouse the patent for a heterodyne receiver that used the joint operation
of two AC currents for a third frequency.
– 1913: Harold D. Arnold at AT&T developed the amplifying vacuum tube; made possible the first coast-to-
coast telephony.
– 1915: the first transatlantic radio transmission.
– 1921: RadioShack Corporation formed in Boston to sell equipment to "ham" operators, taking its name
from the small wooden building for radio equipment on ships.

S V Pandey 2008, last update 1 st June 2011 2EC301, Dept. of ECE, NU-IT, Ahmedabad

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 History of Electromagnetic

20th century: the ” solid state® revolution

– 1930,s: largely valid theoretical description of rectifying junctions complete

© the quantum mechanics is pretty well fully developed
– Dec. 1947: Brattain, Bardeen, & Shockley
demonstrated point contact transistor.
1956 Nobel for this work
– Jan . 1948: Shockley has worked out operation
(theoretical) of bipolar junction transistor
© yes, this is an electrostatics problem

http://www.tcm.org/html/history/detail/
1947-point.html

S V Pandey 2008, last update 1 st June 2011 2EC301, Dept. of ECE, NU-IT, Ahmedabad

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 History of Electromagnetic

Solid-state electronics develops

– 1951: manufacturable technique demonstrated using ” grown junctions®

– 1954-58: TI monopoly on silicon transistors
– Sept. 1958: Jack Kilby (TI) patents ” Solid Circuit,® monolithic Ge Phase-shift oscillator & flip-flop

http://www.ti.com/corp/docs/kil
byctr/jackbuilt.htm

http://www.ti.com/corp/docs/hi
story/firsticnf.htm
http://www.tcm.org/html/history/detail/1958-
intcirc.html

S V Pandey 2008, last update 1 st June 2011 2EC301, Dept. of ECE, NU-IT, Ahmedabad

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 History of Electromagnetic

Selected moments in the history of electronics

http://www.tcm.org/html/history/de
tail/1959 pracirc.html

– 1959: truly planar IC process by

Noyce (Fairchild)

– Early 1960,s: Motorola joins ” Big Three® (TI, Fairchild, Motorola)

– 1966: TI,s first MOS IC (binary-to decimal decoder)
– 1968ish: Intel founded by ex-Fairchild employees (Noyce & Moore)

S V Pandey 2008, last update 1 st June 2011 2EC301, Dept. of ECE, NU-IT, Ahmedabad

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 History of Electromagnetic

Selected moments in the history of electronics

– 1971: first ” microprocessor® : Intel 4004, 2300 transistors, 108kHz,

13.5 mm2

– 1974: first ” PC® (the Altair), Intel 8080 microprocessor, 2MHz,

20mm2

– 1978: IBM PC, Intel 8086/8088

– 1997: Intel Pentium II, 7.5 million transistors, 200-300MHz, 209mm2

– 2000: Pentium 4, 42 million

transistors, 0.18 microns, 1.5 GHz,
224mm2

http://www.intel.com/intel/intelis/museum/exhibit/hist_micro/hof/hof_main.htm,
also data from: http://www.icknowledge.com/trends/uproc.html

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 History of Electromagnetic

Why should we care about electromagnetics?

– assumption: circuits are useful for both analysis and design

– BUT
© what is the connection between a circuit diagram and a physical object? (other
than a trip to the parts store)
© if I give you a physical object, can you find its ” equivalent circuit®
representation?
© if you have designed a circuit, how do you build the physical objects necessary
to replicate the circuit behavior?
– whether the physical object is a piece of metal, glass, or a semiconductor device,
these are all electromagnetics problems

S V Pandey 2008, last update 1 st June 2011 2EC301, Dept. of ECE, NU-IT, Ahmedabad

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 History of Electromagnetic

What problems do we need electromagnetics to

solve?
– let,s consider the development of the telegraph
© the ” original® binary telecommunications system
– we,ll ignore signal fires, smoke signals, mirrors, semaphore, etc., which
were the ” original® opto-communications systemsø
– the telegraph was a key technical innovation in the mid-1800,s
© a deep understanding of electromagnetic phenomena is required to fully
appreciate the characteristics of signals sent over wires
© several real problems were observed first, then explained using the (then) very
new theories of electromagnetics
– some predictions suggested technological limits that could have prevented
long range (trans-oceanic) communications
© these turned out to be based on only a partial understanding of
Maxwell,s theoriesø and were wrongø .
© by the end of the semester we,ll figure this out!

S V Pandey 2008, last update 1 st June 2011 2EC301, Dept. of ECE, NU-IT, Ahmedabad

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