PLATE TECTONICS

Elective Sem –IV Lecture 1

By
Prof. K. K. Agarwal
kamalagarwal73@gmail.com

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Lucknow-226007
 Plate Tectonics Overview
Lecture Overview:
 Have the positions of continents changed
through time?
 What is the history of the idea of continental
drift?
 How does plate tectonics work?
 How do plates interact at their boundaries?

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 Map of the World

Slide shows a satellite map of the world.

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 History of Plate Tectonics

Maps by geographer Antonio Snider-Pellegrini, 1858

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 Glossopteris – “Seed Fern”

Slide shows a photo of

a Glossopteris
fossil, as well as
locations on the
world map where
Glossopteris fossils
have been found.

Stars show places where Glossopteris fossils have been found.

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Glossopteris Flora and Land Bridges?

Slide shows a photo of

a Glossopteris
fossil, as well as
locations on the
world map where
Glossopteris fossils
have been found. A
circle shows the
position of the
ancient land mass
known as
“Gondwana”.

“Gondwana”

Was sea level lower during late Paleozoic?

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 Alfred Wegener (1880-
(1880-1930)
 German meteorologist who proposed
idea of “continental drift”: idea that
continents moved (and continue to
move) horizontally over the surface of
the Earth.

 In 1915 presented evidence for a single Slide shows a

supercontinent, which he called photograph of
Alfred Wegener.
Gondwana.

 Early evidence presented by Wegener

and other workers (especially Alexander
du Toit) in support of continental drift:
 Continental fit.
 Rock sequences.
 Glacial flow directions.
 Rift valleys.
 Distributions of fossils.
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Glacial Flow Directions
Slide shows two images.
One shows a picture
of scratch marks on
rocks caused by
glacial flow. The
second shows
ancient glacial flow
directions on the
modern world map.
The third shows that
the glacial flow
directions in the
southern continents
only make sense if
the continents were
once connected.

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 Rift Valleys of Africa

Slide shows two images. One is a

map of northeastern Africa
showing the positions of
major rift valleys. The second
shows a satellite photo of a
rift valley.

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 Fossil Evidence

Slide shows the

distributions of
Glossopteris,
Lystrosaurus, and
Mesosaurus
fossils when the
southern
continents are
reunited as
Gondwana.

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 History of Plate Tectonics
Despite the extensive evidence that the
positions of the continents have
changed through time, most geologists
rejected the idea of continental drift.

This was because there was no known

mechanism that could produce such
change.
The role of Oceanic areas was also not
discussed.

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 Interior of the Earth
 Inner core: mostly solid
iron
Slide shows two
 Outer core: mostly liquid figures that
iron detail the
different
parts of the
interior of
the Earth
 Mantle: rocky material

 Crust:
 Oceanic crust
 Continental crust

 Pressure increases with

depth.
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 Earth’s Magnetism

 Motion of iron-rich outer Slide shows a

cartoon image
core creates a magnetic of Earth’s
magnetic field.
field.

 Earth acts like giant bar

magnet with N and S
poles.

 Geographic and
magnetic poles offset.

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Magnetism is Recorded in Rocks
 Some rocks contain iron minerals.

 These minerals align themselves to Earth’s

magnetic field as the rock forms.

 Iron particles in sedimentary rock align as they fall

out of suspension from water.

 Iron particles in magma (igneous rocks) align

before the magma cools.

 “Frozen” orientations preserve record of the

ancient orientations of Earth’s magnetic field.

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 Study of the Seafloor
The seafloor became
much better
explored during the
1940-1960’s. Slide shows an
 WWII, sonar. artist’s painting of
the Mid-Atlantic
 Complex topography. Ridge.

 Mid-oceanic ridges with

central furrow.
 Volcanoes often
associated with ridges.

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 Harry H. Hess & Seafloor Spreading

 Hess’ Hypothesis of Seafloor Spreading:

 1962
 Continental and oceanic crust move together.
 New oceanic crust forms from rising magma
at mid-continental ridges
 Oceanic crust moves away from ridge as it
cools.
 Mechanism: thermal convection. Slide shows a photograph
of Harry Hess.

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 Thermal Convection
 Thermal convection is thought to be
the process driving the movement of
plates. Slide shows two images.
One is a cross-
section through the
Earth showing how
convection cells in
 Earth is hotter (due to radioactive the mantle may
decay - fission) in some portions of operate. The other
shows a container of
the deep mantle than in others. boiling water.

 This causes the formation of

convection cells that drag along
overlying lithospheric plates - acts like
conveyor belts.

 Think about a container full of boiling

water.

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 Testing Hess’ Hypothesis
 How could one
test Hess’
hypothesis of Slide shows an image of

seafloor the Mid-Atlantic

Ridge.

spreading?

 What pattern
should one find
on either side of
mid-ocean ridge
systems if Hess’
hypothesis is
true?
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 Magnetic Reversals
 The polarity of Earth’s magnetic field
has “flipped” many times throughout
the geologic past.

 The reason(s) why are not at all

clear.

 Durations of “normal” and “reversed”

polarity highly variable in length.
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 Test of Hess’ Hypothesis
 During the early 1960’s, it
was discovered that
changes in Earth’s magnetic
polarity have been recorded
into rocks on the seafloor
(oceanic crust) as they
cooled.
 Symmetrical banding on Slide shows two images that
illustrate magnetic

each side of mid-oceanic reversals on either side

of a mid-ocean ridge.
These reversals form
ridge systems. symmetrical patterns on
each side of the mid-
ocean ridge.
 Younger rock near ridge,
older away.
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Ages of the World’s Ocean Basins

Slide has one image showing the ages of

different oceanic crust rocks in the
world’s ocean basins.

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Hess’ Hypothesis Was NOT
Falsified

Enough support has since been

provided for plate tectonics that the
idea is now accepted as a unifying
theory for geology..
geology

Simple idea with great explanatory

power..
power
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Major Plates of the World
Slide shows the major plates of the world.

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 Plates Interact at Their Boundaries

Slide shows a figure that

details where recent
earthquakes have
occurred. Most
occurred near plate
boundaries.

Image from USGS; Earthquakes over last 30 days (http://neic.usgs.gov/neis/qed/)

 Different Plate Boundaries
Three major types of plate boundaries:
1. Divergent - plates diverge from each other.
2. Convergent - plates converge toward each
other.
 Oceanic-Continental - oceanic crust
(denser) subducts (goes under) beneath
continental crust.
 Continental-Continental - neither body of

continental crust subducts (equal density).

3. Transform - plates slide past each other.

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Different Plate Boundaries

Slide shows a figure that provides an overview of

the three major types of plate boundaries:
divergent plate boundaries, convergent plate
boundaries, and transform plate boundaries.

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 Divergent Plate Boundary
Mid-Atlantic Ridge
Slide shows two
images. The first
shows a picture
that illustrates a
divergent plate
boundary. The
second shows the
mid-Atlantic ridge
system.

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Oceanic--Continental Convergent Plate
Oceanic
Boundary
Andes, South America

Slide shows two images. On is

an illustration of a oceanic-
continental convergent
boundary. The second is
an image of the west coast
of South America, which is
an oceanic-continental
convergent boundary.

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 Continental-Continental Convergent
Continental-
Plate Boundary
Himalaya Mountains, Asia

Slide shows three images.

One is an illustration of
a continental-
continental convergent
boundary. The second
is an image of the
Himalayan mountains,
which is an example of
a continental-
continental convergent
boundary. The third is a
cartoon that shows how
India crashed into Asia.

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 Transform Plate Boundary
Northwestern United States
Slide shows two images,
both of which
illustrate the positions
of transform plate
boundaries near the
northwest coast of the
United States.

San
Andreas
Fault

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 Earth Today

)
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Earth in the Cretaceous

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Earth in the Jurassic
GONDWANA: South America, Africa,
Antarctica, India, and Australia

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Earth in the Permian
SUPERCONTINENT OF PANGEA!!

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Earth in the Devonian

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Earth in the Ordovician

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Earth in the Cambrian

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Earth in the Late Proterozoic

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 Earth Today

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 Plate Tectonics
Plate Tectonics: The scientific theory that the surface
of the Earth (lithosphere) is divided into plates that
move relative to one another and that interact at
their boundaries.

Slide shows an image

of one tectonic
plate being
subducted
beneath
another.

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