AGPT04-07 Guide To Pavement Technology Part 4 Pavement Materials

Guide to Pavement Technology Part 4:
Pavement Materials
Sydney 2007
Guide to Pavement Technology Part 4: Pavement Materials
Publisher
First edition project manager: John Worrall
Austroads Ltd.
Level 9, 287 Elizabeth Street
First edition prepared by: Geoff Youdale and Kieran Sharp Sydney NSW 2000 Australia
Phone: +61 2 8265 3300
Abstract
austroads@austroads.com.au
The selection of pavement materials is a critical element in the design, www.austroads.com.au
construction and maintenance of pavements if performance is to be optimised
and whole of life costs minimised. This part of the Austroads Guide to About Austroads
Pavement Technology provides an overview of the criteria by which pavement
materials should be assessed in order to meet the needs of contemporary Austroads is the peak organisation of Australasian
road pavements. This document needs to be read in conjunction with the road transport and traffic agencies.
relevant sub-parts of Part 4 of the Austroads Guide to Pavement Technology.
Austroads’ purpose is to support our member
organisations to deliver an improved Australasian
road transport network. To succeed in this task, we
undertake leading-edge road and transport
research which underpins our input to policy
development and published guidance on the
design, construction and management of the road
network and its associated infrastructure.
Keywords Austroads provides a collective approach that
pavement material, recycling, pavement design, materials design, delivers value for money, encourages shared
specification, construction, compaction, stabilisation, surfacing, performance, knowledge and drives consistency for road users.
strength, durability, quality, curing, trafficking Austroads is governed by a Board consisting of
senior executive representatives from each of its
Edition 1.1 published August 2018 eleven member organisations:
• Format updated. • Roads and Maritime Services New South Wales

Edition 1 published November 2007 • Roads Corporation Victoria
• Queensland Department of Transport and Main
Roads
ISBN 978-1-921329-34-0 Pages 36 • Main Roads Western Australia
Austroads Project No. TP1159

• Department of Planning, Transport and
Infrastructure South Australia
Austroads Publication No. AGPT04-07 • Department of State Growth Tasmania
• Department of Infrastructure, Planning and
Logistics Northern Territory
© Austroads Ltd 2007
• Transport Canberra and City Services
This work is copyright. Apart from any use as permitted under the Directorate, Australian Capital Territory
Copyright Act 1968, no part may be reproduced by any process without
the prior written permission of Austroads. • Australian Government Department of
Infrastructure and Regional Development
• Australian Local Government Association
• New Zealand Transport Agency.
This Guide is produced by Austroads as a general guide. Its application is discretionary. Road authorities may vary their practice
according to local circumstances and policies. Austroads believes this publication to be correct at the time of printing and does not
accept responsibility for any consequences arising from the use of information herein. Readers should rely on their own skill and
judgement to apply information to particular issues.
Summary
The selection of pavement materials is a critical element in the design, construction and maintenance of
pavements if performance is to be optimised and whole of life costs minimised. This section of the Austroads
Guide to Pavement Technology provides an overview of the criteria by which natural and manufactured
pavement materials should be assessed in order to meet the needs of contemporary road pavements.
In particular this publication describes:

• the broad considerations that need to be taken into account to ensure the selection of pavement materials
best meets needs throughout the life of the material
• issues that need to be considered in the materials:
– design
– manufacture
– construction
– in service performance
– end of life use
• guidelines for the selection of pavement materials.
Austroads 2007 | page i

Contents
1. Introduction............................................................................................................................................. 1
1.1 Guide to Pavement Technology ............................................................................................................... 1
1.1.1 Sub-parts .................................................................................................................................... 2
2. Overview.................................................................................................................................................. 5
2.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................................... 5
2.2 Evaluation Framework .............................................................................................................................. 5
2.3 Categories of Pavement Materials ........................................................................................................... 6
3. Planning ................................................................................................................................................ 10
3.1 Data Collection ....................................................................................................................................... 10
3.2 Construction and Maintenance Considerations ..................................................................................... 12
3.3 Pavement Alternatives ........................................................................................................................... 12
4. Materials Design ................................................................................................................................... 14

4.1 Overview ................................................................................................................................................. 14
4.2 Strength .................................................................................................................................................. 14
4.2.1 Working Strength ...................................................................................................................... 14
4.2.2 Ultimate Strength ...................................................................................................................... 14
4.3 Durability/Stability ................................................................................................................................... 14
4.3.1 Deterioration with Time............................................................................................................. 14
4.3.2 Volume Stability ........................................................................................................................ 16
4.3.3 Relative Permeability ................................................................................................................ 16
4.4 Environmental Requirements ................................................................................................................. 16
4.4.1 Sustainability............................................................................................................................. 16
4.4.2 Energy Requirements ............................................................................................................... 17
4.5 Cost ........................................................................................................................................................ 19
4.5.1 General ..................................................................................................................................... 19
4.5.2 Initial Cost ................................................................................................................................. 19
4.5.3 Construction Cost ..................................................................................................................... 19
4.5.4 Maintenance and Rehabilitation ............................................................................................... 20
4.5.5 Replacement/Salvage Costs .................................................................................................... 20
4.5.6 Road User Costs ...................................................................................................................... 21
5. Materials Production ............................................................................................................................ 22

5.1 Materials Search..................................................................................................................................... 22
5.2 Extraction, Crushing and Stockpiling...................................................................................................... 22
5.3 Uniformity and Quality ............................................................................................................................ 22
5.3.1 Methods of Production .............................................................................................................. 22
5.3.2 Quality Control .......................................................................................................................... 22
6. Construction ......................................................................................................................................... 24
6.1 Operating Environment Considerations ................................................................................................. 24
6.1.1 Climatic Considerations ............................................................................................................ 24
6.1.2 Traffic Loading Considerations ................................................................................................. 26
6.2 Handling and Spreading ......................................................................................................................... 26
6.2.1 Transportation........................................................................................................................... 26
6.2.2 Placing and Workability ............................................................................................................ 27
6.3 Compaction and Curing .......................................................................................................................... 27
6.3.1 Compaction Standards ............................................................................................................. 27
6.3.2 Curing and Trafficking .............................................................................................................. 27
6.4 Occupational Health and Safety ............................................................................................................. 28
6.4.1 Safety........................................................................................................................................ 28
6.4.2 Exposure................................................................................................................................... 28
Austroads 2007 | page ii

6.4.3 Work Practices.......................................................................................................................... 28
7. In-Service Performance ....................................................................................................................... 29

7.1 Maintenance Regime ............................................................................................................................. 29
7.2 Wear Resistance .................................................................................................................................... 29
7.2.1 Skid Resistance ........................................................................................................................ 29
7.2.2 Abrasion/Ravelling/Stripping .................................................................................................... 29
7.2.3 Unsealed Roads ....................................................................................................................... 30
7.3 Visibility ................................................................................................................................................... 30
7.3.1 Conspicuity ............................................................................................................................... 30
7.3.2 Dust Generation ....................................................................................................................... 31
8. End of life .............................................................................................................................................. 33

8.1 Sustainability .......................................................................................................................................... 33
8.2 Salvage/Disposal .................................................................................................................................... 33
References ...................................................................................................................................................... 34
Tables
Table 1.1: Parts of the Austroads Guide to Pavement Technology that refer to specific
aspects of material selection..................................................................................................... 4
Table 1.2: Key websites pertinent to selection of pavement materials ...................................................... 4
Table 2.1: Purpose of the various road components ................................................................................. 7
Table 2.2: Distress modes for flexible and rigid pavements ...................................................................... 7
Table 2.3: Structural and functional requirements for pavement layers .................................................... 8
Table 2.4: Pavement material categories and characteristics ................................................................... 9
Table 3.1: Project scope and required background data ......................................................................... 11
Table 3.2: Pavement types ...................................................................................................................... 13
Table 4.1: Relationships between granular material properties and requirements of
unbound layers (adapted from Austroads 2003b) .................................................................. 15
Table 4.2: Relationships between aggregate properties and requirements of surface and
bound layers (adapted from Austroads 2003b) ...................................................................... 15
Table 4.3: Guide to classification of expansive soils ............................................................................... 16
Table 4.4: Estimated energy consumption per lane-km for rural roads (from Stammer and
Stodolsky 1995) ...................................................................................................................... 18
Table 4.5: Typical energy consumption for material production (from Robinson 2002) ..........................18
Table 4.6: Typical energy consumption for production/transport of mixed materials and
pavement construction processes (from Robinson 2002) ......................................................18
Figures
Figure 2.1: Framework for selection of pavement materials ....................................................................... 5
Figure 2.2: Components of flexible and rigid pavement structures ............................................................. 6
Figure 6.1: Moisture movements in road pavements ................................................................................ 25
Austroads 2007 | page iii

1. Introduction
Austroads guides are intended to be a reference for road authorities and to promote national consistency
and harmonisation. They represent an agreed approach to the work road authorities undertake in relation to
the road network. Austroads member organisations have agreed to adopt Austroads guides as the basis of
their operation. Where practice in a jurisdiction differs from a guide, arising from specific jurisdictional
circumstances, for example, cyclones in northern Australia or seismic activity in New Zealand, the jurisdiction
will produce a jurisdictional supplement to that guide.
In relation to some aspects of road authority operations there may not be clear agreement amongst road
authorities, for example project evaluation methodologies. In these circumstances, the guide may simply
canvass options rather than prescribe an approach.
The following nine guides are being developed:

• Asset Management
• Bridge Technology
• Pavement Technology
• Project Delivery
• Project Evaluation
• Road Design
• Road Safety
• Road Transport Planning
• Traffic Management.
Guides generally consist of various parts and in some cases sub-parts.
1.1 Guide to Pavement Technology
The Guide to Pavement Technology consists of the following 11 parts:

• Part 1: Introduction to Pavement Technology – a background document including purpose and function of
pavements, pavement types and their components, pavement materials, types of pavements and an
introduction to the fundamentals of pavement behaviour
• Part 2: Pavement Structural Design – the structural design of sealed road pavements
• Part 3: Pavement Surfacings – guide to the selection of the most appropriate pavement surfacing for the
prevailing traffic, geometric and environmental conditions
• Part 4: Pavement Materials – the selection of all types of road pavement materials
• Part 5: Pavement Evaluation and Treatment Design – the investigation of existing sealed road pavements
• Part 6: Unsealed Pavements – the management of unsealed road pavements
• Part 7: Pavement Maintenance – techniques and methods for carrying out routine maintenance tasks; it
compliments Part 5
• Part 8: Pavement Construction Assurance – how to ensure that the ‘as constructed’ pavement layers
meet design requirements
• Part 9: Pavement Work Practices – technical notes and similar publications related to pavement work
practices
Austroads 2007 | page 1

• Part 10: Sub-Surface Drainage

• Part 11: Construction.
Part 4 of the Guide to Pavement Technology addresses the selection of all types of road pavement
materials, including both natural materials and manufactured materials. It draws upon earlier NAASRA
publications (NAASRA 1976, 1980, 1982a and b) as well as more recent Austroads guides (Austroads
2003a and 2004) and Austroads and Australian Asphalt Pavement Association (AAPA) (2004). Most of these
documents will be superseded when the new Guides are published.
In particular this publication describes:

• the broad considerations that need to be taken into account to ensure that the pavement materials
selected best meet needs throughout the life of the pavement
• issues that need to be considered with the materials:
– design
– manufacture
– construction
– in service performance
– end of life use
• guidelines for the selection of pavement materials.
1.1.1 Sub-parts
Detailed advice on individual materials can be found in the following sub-parts:
Part 4A: Granular Base and Sub Base Materials

• selection and testing of unbound granular materials and aggregates for pavement construction including;
naturally-occurring granular materials and crushed rock produced by the crushing and screening of hard
source rock.
Part 4B: Asphalt

• overview of the principal types of asphalt
• selection of asphalt mix type
• selection of component materials
• asphalt mix design
• performance characterisation, and manufacture and placing.
Part 4C: Materials for Concrete Road Pavements

• use of concrete as a base layer and a sub-base layer
• elastic parameters and performance characteristics.
Part 4D: Stabilised Materials

• practical advice and direction for the stabilisation of road pavements and sub-grades
• advice for asset managers and practitioners in pavement design, construction and maintenance
operations to optimise the benefits stabilisation technology.

Part 4E: Recycled Materials

• selection and testing of recycled construction and demolition wastes, and industrial by-products for
pavement construction.
Part 4F: Bituminous Binders

• use of bituminous materials in pavement construction:
– overview of the fundamental properties of bituminous binders
– selection of the most appropriate binder type
– performance characterisation, manufacture and placement
– advice on the use of bituminous binders in both spray seal applications and in asphalt mix design.
Part 4G: Geotextiles and Geogrids

• selection of the most appropriate geotextile and geogrid for pavement construction:
– overview of the fundamental properties of geotextiles and geogrids
– selection of geotextile and geogrid
– performance characterisation, manufacture and placement.
Part 4H: Test Methods

• description of test methods to ensure consistent properties and performance:
– characterisation of pavement materials
– design of spray seals
– calibration of laboratory and field equipment
– binder performance and specification.
Part 4I: Earthworks Materials

• characteristics and properties of materials such as sub-grades:
– performance characteristics
– vulnerability to moisture ingress
– construction considerations.
Part 4J: Aggregate and Source Rock

• selection, testing and specification of source rock for use in pavement materials
– crushed rock
– production and required properties of crushed and screened river gravels.
Part 4K: Seals

• design aspects of a seal
• primary spread rates and spray rates.
Complements Parts 3, 4F and 4J.
Part 4L: Stabilising Binders
Properties of binders (e.g. cement and lime). Complements Parts 4C and 4D.

The parts of the Guide to Pavement Technology that refer to other specific aspects of materials selection are
listed in Table 1.1.
Table 1.1: Parts of the Austroads Guide to Pavement Technology that refer to specific aspects of material
selection
Part 2: Pavement Structural Design Part 4F: Pavement Materials – Bituminous Binders
Part 3: Pavement Surfacings Part 4I: Pavement Materials – Earthworks Materials
Part 4A: Pavement Materials – Granular Base and Sub- Part 4J: Pavement Materials – Aggregate and Source
base Materials Rock
Part 4B: Pavement Materials – Asphalt Part 4L: Pavement Materials – Stabilising Binders
Part 4C: Pavement Materials – Materials for Concrete Part 6: Unsealed Pavements
Road Pavements
Part 4D: Pavement Materials – Stabilised Materials Part 8: Pavement Construction Assurance
Part 4E: Pavement Materials – Recycled Materials Part 9: Pavement Work Practices
Table 1.2 lists websites from which pertinent publications on materials technology such as technical notes,
guidelines, work tips and safety data can be obtained.
Table 1.2: Key websites pertinent to selection of pavement materials
Austroads www.austroads.com.au
ARRB Group Ltd www.arrb.com.au
Australian Asphalt Pavement Association www.aapa.asn.au
Cement, Concrete and Aggregates Australia www.concrete.net.au
Australian Stabilisation Industry Association www.auststab.com.au
Ash Development Association of Australia www.adaa.asn.au
Australasian Slag Association www.asa-inc.org.au
Materials Safety www.msds.com.au
Transit New Zealand www.transit.govt.nz

2. Overview
2.1 Introduction
The selection of pavement materials is a vital function in the development of pavements which have the
desired performance characteristics and low whole-of-life costs. The selection process relies on the
evaluation of a number of criteria, some of which may be in conflict. This evaluation process relies on
materials testing, evaluation of environmental impact, financial considerations, legacy issues, past
performance and engineering judgement.
2.2 Evaluation Framework
The evaluation framework for the selection of pavement materials is illustrated in Figure 2.1. These
parameters are considered in further detail in this Guide.
Figure 2.1: Framework for selection of pavement materials

2.3 Categories of Pavement Materials
Pavement materials are categorised in terms of both their position in the pavement structure and also the
properties of the materials themselves. Some materials are more appropriate in certain layers of the
pavement structure than others. Figure 2.2 illustrates the components of flexible and rigid pavements. The
purpose of the pavement components described in Figure 2.2 is provided in Table 2.1.
Figure 2.2: Components of flexible and rigid pavement structures
Notes:
1. DSL: Design sub-grade level. 2. Base and sub-base may contain more than one layer.
3. Wearing course of a flexible pavement may be asphalt or bituminous seal.
4. In a rigid pavement the concrete base may be surfaced with an asphalt wearing course.
5. An imported sub-grade or selected sub-grade material may be placed over the natural sub-grade.

Table 2.1: Purpose of the various road components
Pavement component Purpose

wearing surface (rigid or flexible • provide a smooth riding surface
pavement) • provide a safe, economical and durable all-weather surface
• minimise vehicle operating and maintenance costs
• minimise the rate of pavement wear and maintenance costs
• reduce moisture infiltration into the pavement
• provide suitable properties for the local environment, e.g. noise reduction, dust
suppression, skid resistance and surface texture
• delineate traffic lanes and shoulders, traffic islands, bicycle paths, traffic
calming devices and changes in road class
• visually enhance the road environment for road users and adjacent residents
base and concrete base • provide the bulk of the structural capacity in terms of load-spreading ability by
means of shear strength and cohesion
• minimise changes in strength with time by having low moisture susceptibility
• minimise the ingress of moisture into the pavement by having adequate
shrinkage and fatigue properties
• assist with the provision of a smooth riding surface by having volume stability
with time and under load
sub-base • provide a stable platform for construction of the base and wearing surfaces
• assist in providing adequate pavement thickness so that the strains in the sub-
grade are kept within design limits
• provide adequate erosion resistance to prevent pumping and erosion upon
moisture entry into the pavement structure
sub-grade • the naturally occurring material upon which the pavement is constructed
• an imported sub-grade or selected sub-grade may be placed over the natural
sub-grade
Table 2.2: Distress modes for flexible and rigid pavements
Pavement type Distress mode Likely causes Materials affected

flexible rutting traffic associated: all but sound
• densification, shoving, breakdown cemented materials
cracking traffic associated: asphalt, cemented

• single or low repetitions of high loads materials, granular
materials
• many repetitions of normal loads
non-traffic associated:
• thermal cycling
• reflection of shrinkage cracks from underlying
materials
• swelling and shrinkage of sub-grade materials
roughness • variability of density all materials
• material properties
• consolidation and settlement
• moisture variation (shrinkage/swelling of sub-
grade)
rigid fracture or traffic associated: concrete
cracking • repeated loading (fatigue)
• spalling at joints (excessive slab movement)
• thermal stresses
• reflection of shrinkage cracks from underlying
materials

Pavement type Distress mode Likely causes Materials affected

• swelling of sub-grade materials
faulting at joints traffic associated: concrete
and slab tilting • loss of fines from under slab
• slab warping
• moisture variation (shrinkage/swelling of sub-
grade)
• consolidation and settlement
disintegration associated with material deficiency or reinforcement concrete
corrosion rather than structural considerations
Table 2.3: Structural and functional requirements for pavement layers
Pavement layer Structural considerations Functional considerations

wearing surface • deformation resistance • roughness
(flexible or rigid pavement) • durability (including ageing) • skid resistance/surface texture
• strength • surface drainage characteristics
• propensity for cracking • noise characteristics
• conspicuity/reflectivity/aesthetics
base • deformation resistance
• durability
• strength
• propensity for cracking
sub-base • deformation resistance
• durability
• strength
• propensity for cracking
sub-grade • deformation resistance strength
• volume stability
Pavement distress occurs in a number of different ways depending on: pavement type, material type and
quality, traffic loading (mass, repetitions, speed, tyre pressure). environmental considerations (moisture and
temperature), pavement composition and maintenance regime. Pavement distress types are listed in Table
2.2.
Each pavement layer has a role to play in the structural and functional performance of pavements. The
properties of each layer which need to be addressed in the structural and functional performance of a
pavement are summarised in Table 2.3.
Structural performance relates to the ability of materials to withstand the loads applied to them during their
life to provide adequate structural capacity. Functional performance relates to the ability of materials to
provide the qualities required to satisfy the user-related functions of the pavement.
The individual properties of materials necessary to meet the structural and functional considerations depend
on the type of material, its performance characteristics and where it is used in the pavement structure. For
pavement design purposes materials are divided into the following five material types:
• unbound granular materials
• modified granular materials
• cemented materials
• asphalt

• concrete.
These material categories and characteristics are listed in Table 2.4.
Table 2.4: Pavement material categories and characteristics
Pavement material category

Characteristics
Unbound Modified
Cemented Asphalt Concrete
granular granular
material types • crushed rock • bitumen- • lime-stabilised • dense graded • concrete
• gravel stabilised materials asphalt
materials • cement- • open graded
• soil aggregate
mixture • chemically- stabilised asphalt
modified materials • stone mastic
• granular-
stabilised
materials • lime/fly ash- asphalt
materials • cement, lime, stabilised • fine gap
lime/fly ash or materials graded asphalt
slag-modified • slag-stabilised
materials materials
• slag/lime-
stabilised
materials
behaviour • development • development • development • development • development
characteristics of shear of shear of shear of shear of shear
strength strength strength strength strength
through through through through through
particle particle particle particle chemical
interlock interlock interlock and interlock and bonding and
• no significant • no significant chemical cohesion particle
tensile tensile bonding • significant interlock
strength strength • significant tensile • very significant
tensile strength tensile
strength • properties are strength
temperature
sensitive
distress modes • deformation • deformation • cracking • cracking • cracking
through shear through shear developed developed developed
and and through through through
densification densification shrinkage, fatigue, shrinkage,
• disintegration • disintegration fatigue and overloading fatigue and
through through over-stressing • permanent erosion of sub-
breakdown breakdown • erosion and deformation base
pumping in the
presence of
moisture
input parameters • modulus • modulus • modulus • modulus • 90 or 28 day
for design • Poisson’s ratio • Poisson’s ratio • Poisson’s ratio • Poisson’s ratio flexural
strength or 28
• degree of • degree of
day com-
anisotropy anisotropy
pressive
strength
performance • current • current • fatigue • fatigue • fatigue and
criteria materials materials relationships relationships erosion
specifications specifications relationships

3. Planning
3.1 Data Collection
The first stage in any engineering endeavour is to gain an understanding of the nature and scope of the
problem under consideration. In some instances a project will have a comprehensive brief that outlines the
problem, constraints and expectations. On other occasions, it may be necessary to enter into discussions
with the project initiator to determine or define these matters.
The selection of the most appropriate pavement type (e.g. sealed/unsealed, flexible/rigid, etc.), and hence
pavement materials, must take into consideration a number of potentially conflicting issues, any of which
may limit the range of options that can be considered. For example, the budget for the works (investigation,
design and construction) must be determined because this will control many factors in the process, including
the type and extent of the site investigation works conducted and the type of pavement that can be finally
adopted.
One of the most important issues that needs to be resolved early in the process is the purpose of the
proposed pavement. Whatever the desired function, the desired life of the pavement must be determined in
order that resources are not wasted on providing a costly, long-life pavement when a less expensive, short-
term, or interim, solution may be all that is required. In some cases it may be necessary to develop a ‘staged’
construction plan if funding is not immediately available to allow the most desirable pavement type – from the
structural and functional viewpoint – to be immediately implemented.
Some of the issues, or questions, that might need to be considered when scoping the project are listed in
Table 3.1. In working through this list a more complete understanding of the nature and extent of the project
should be obtained, including client expectations, and the constraints on any remedial treatments. Often it
may also be necessary to collect additional information in order to better understand the project context. As
such, a preliminary background data search and understanding may be prudent at the time of scoping the
project. Alternatively, background data may not be considered, if at all, until the pavement investigation
phase. Some of the more common background data sets are also listed in Table 3.1.
A key function of a project proposal is to identify the areas of risk and uncertainty and to clarify ownership or
responsibility for various elements or issues. A proposal may be relatively vague – based more on principles
and objectives – or more detailed and prescriptive. The nature of a proposal is usually determined by the
level of information available from the project scoping and background search activities and the importance
of the project in terms of the overall management of the pavement asset in the region/State, etc.
A detailed project proposal might contain some or all of the following general headings:
• project title
• client
• project description – location, extent, nature
• project objectives
• considerations or issues and the extent of current understanding of these
• scope of services
• method
• information supplied by the client
• quality requirements and standards
• hold points and client liaison
• deliverables

• timeframe
• resources
• costs.
Table 3.1: Project scope and required background data
Issues Considerations
project objectives • level of service
• project reliability
• design period
• structural capacity
• level of future maintenance/rehabilitation
funding • What funding is available for the investigation and design?
• What funding is available for the construction works?
• Are there any restrictions on availability and usage of funds?
• Is there scope for additional funds?
• economic considerations – initial costs, future maintenance costs, service life, user benefits,
etc.
timing • timing and duration of investigations
• timing and duration of construction works
• staging of investigation, design and construction
critical success • the critical success factors for this project, e.g. timing, funding, practicality, innovation, public
factors relations
pavement options • road agency policy or preferences
• alternatives designs and their evaluation
• alternative materials and their evaluation
• need for field trials or laboratory evaluation
usage • likely users and future trends
• required levels of usage: volume, load, time distribution, future trends
• management of users during investigation and construction
• significance of project in terms of the network
• other uses: flood levee, floodway, stabilising berm, etc.
site characteristics • climate
• geomorphology – terrain, geology, hydrology, soils
• land use: industrial, commercial, residential, rural
• access
• geometry – overhead heights, levels, widths, alignment, cross-section
• foundations and stability
• drainage
• hazards
• regional characteristics
• future changes in site environment
environment • planning regulations
• energy and resource conservation
• sustainability
• potential for use of recycled materials
• hazards
• pollution: air, noise, water, visual, vibratory, waste disposal, erosion, etc.
safety • ability to undertake investigations
• ability to construct pavement

Issues Considerations
• levels of service – past, current, future, rate of change, standards – skid resistance, ride quality,
geometry, visibility, wet and dry road characteristics
• driver and public behaviour
pavement • required condition/performance – functional and structural
• configuration
• composition
• cross-section
• future maintenance/rehabilitation practices
• materials characteristics and availability
• available skills
• salvage characteristics
3.2 Construction and Maintenance Considerations
Unless appropriate construction standards are met, material properties assumed during the design stage
may not be achieved and pavement performance may fall well short of expectations.
However, several construction and maintenance considerations must be taken into account in pavement
design because they can influence the type of wearing surface which is adopted, the types of base and sub-
base materials or even the fundamental choice of pavement type. The significant construction and
maintenance factors are:
• extent and type of drainage
• use of boxed construction
• surfacing type
• availability of equipment – especially material mixing, placing and compaction plant
• use of stage construction
• use of stabilisation
• pavement layering considerations
• transverse variations in pavement design
• use of Strain Alleviating Membrane Interlayers (SAMIs)
• aesthetic and environmental requirements
• social considerations
• construction under traffic
• maintenance strategy
• acceptable risk.
There are several Austroads and NAASRA publications which discuss these issues in some detail (e.g.
Austroads 1998 and 2003b; NAASRA 1983 and 1984). These publications are being superseded by the new
Austroads guidelines as discussed in Section 1.
3.3 Pavement Alternatives
Within the two pavement categories shown in Figure 2.2 there are a number of sub-categories of alternative
pavement structures. These are illustrated in Table 3.2.

Table 3.2: Pavement types
Pavement category Pavement sub-category Comments

flexible unbound granular with thin bituminous mostly only suitable for low traffic volumes
wearing surface (most common flexible pavement)
unbound granular with thick asphalt surfacing medium duty flexible
full depth asphalt heavy duty flexible
deep strength asphalt on cemented material heavy duty flexible
(composite)
rigid plain jointed concrete pavement (PCP) most common concrete pavement
continuously reinforced concrete pavement heavy duty rigid
(CRCP)
jointed reinforced concrete pavement (JRCP) limited usage these days
fibre reinforced concrete pavement (FRCP) special applications only
The selection of flexible pavements is addressed in AAPA (2004). It provides guidance on layering,
composition, and construction and maintenance issues, as well as typical pavement thickness and
compositions for specific situations.
Unbound granular pavements with thin bituminous surfacings form the bulk of the rural pavement network,
including National highways. As a result, the volume of traffic, and traffic load, can vary enormously and this
needs to be taken into account in the selection of the most appropriate base and sub-base materials.

4. Materials Design
4.1 Overview
Materials design requires the consideration of the fundamental properties of materials and relating them to
the needs for particular requirements. The broad needs are illustrated in Table 2.3. They are dependent on:
• the position of the material within the pavement structure
• the traffic loading over the design life
• environmental considerations.
More specific requirements are illustrated in Table 4.1 and Table 4.2.
4.2 Strength
4.2.1 Working Strength
Strength can be classified into two broad categories: working strength and ultimate strength. Working
strength can be considered as the reaction of the material to repeated loads and is usually measured as
stiffness or modulus. Modulus is a measure of the recoverable strain that is experienced under load. It is
utilised in performance relationships during design calculations to estimate the number of strain repetitions
that a material will withstand before it reaches some terminal structural state such as fatigue cracking or an
unsatisfactory level of permanent deformation.
Modulus varies with the level of stress applied with unbound materials and varies with temperature and rate
of loading with asphalt.
4.2.2 Ultimate Strength
Ultimate strength is a measure of the shear strength of materials. It is made up of two components: cohesion
and internal friction.
In many cases the measurement of ultimate strength is not specified directly in material specifications but
controlled by the specification of grading envelopes and particle strength and durability requirements.
Ultimate strength requirements are most important in unbound materials as these have the lowest cohesion
values and are most sensitive to changes in moisture conditions.
Tests such as the Modified Texas Triaxial Test enable the classification of unbound materials in terms of the
shear strength and also allow the sensitivity of changes in shear strength with moisture variations to be
assessed.
4.3 Durability/Stability
4.3.1 Deterioration with Time
The properties of pavement materials need to be stable over time. These are assessed by:
• pre-treatment of materials before they are tested for specification compliance by repeated compaction
and/or by the application of artificial weathering
• specific testing of particle deterioration under conditions of abrasion or the application of loading under a
variety of conditions.

Table 4.1: Relationships between granular material properties and requirements of unbound layers
(adapted from Austroads 2003b)
Structural adequacy requirements

High durability
Physical Low Good Good
High High Low or volume
property permeability compaction workability
strength stiffness permanent stability
deformation
hardness
and
– – – tough – tough
crushing
strength
surface
rough – – smooth smooth
texture
particle rounded to
angular angular – – rounded to angular
shape angular
well graded
particle size well graded or
well graded or open well graded
distribution open graded1
graded1
small
large
particle size – – – large – nominal size
nominal size
(< 20 mm)
cohesive
medium medium (6–
fines questionable low high low high/medium
(6–12%) 12%)
content
medium medium (2–
plasticity questionable low – low/medium high/medium
(2–8%) 8%)
density high – –
moisture
low optimum –
content
Note: Macadams can perform well if constrained.
Table 4.2: Relationships between aggregate properties and requirements of surface and bound layers
(adapted from Austroads 2003b)
Structural adequacy requirements

Physical High skid High Good
High
property High tensile resistance durability workability
High stiffness deformation
strength
resistance
hardness and – sound and tough sound and tough
crushing tough
strength
surface texture rough – smooth
angular angular or angular – rounded
particle shape
rounded1
particle size well graded well graded or coarse well graded –
distribution2 open3
air voids low4 high low –
binder content low high low – high
binder high high or low1 high – low
stiffness
Notes:
1. For bituminous surface seal.
2. Including coarse and fine aggregate and filler for asphalt.
3. For open graded asphalt.
4. > 3% for dense graded asphalt.

4.3.2 Volume Stability
Volume stability of materials with time is necessary to prevent permanent deformation of the pavement that
can result in the development of roughness and/or rutting. Changes in volume with time can occur as a result
of physical or chemical breakdown of individual particles or the movement of fines under hydraulic pressure
in open graded materials. This can alter the grading of the material and lead to changes in density under
traffic loading.
Volume changes can also occur with changes in moisture conditions as a result of the shrink/swell
characteristics of the materials but this generally only occurs in poor quality sub-grade materials. This can
lead to rutting, shoving and the development of longitudinal cracking.
Table 4.3 provides a guide to the classification of expansive soils.
Table 4.3: Guide to classification of expansive soils
Expansive nature Liquid Limit (%) Plasticity Index PI x % < 0.425 mm Potential swell (%)*
very high >70 >45 >3,200 >5.0
high >70 >45 2,200–3,200 2.5‒5.0
moderate 50–70 25‒45 1,200–2,200 0.5‒2.5
low <50 <25 <1,200 <0.5
*Swell at OMC and 98% MDD using Standard compactive effort; four-day soak. Based on 4.5 kg surcharge.
Composition Compatibility
4.3.3 Relative Permeability
In general, a philosophy of increasing the permeability of pavement layers with increase in depth from the
wearing surface should be followed. This allows any moisture entering the pavement to flow as quickly as
possible to the bottom, where stresses within the pavement due to traffic loading are at their lowest level.
From there, the moisture can either migrate to the outer edge(s) of the pavement (if the sub-base is more
permeable than the sub-grade) and be removed by a sub-surface drainage system, or be allowed to
percolate through the sub-grade (if the sub-grade is more permeable than the sub-base). However, in many
cases this permeability cannot be achieved in practice.
In some cases a situation may arise where a pavement layer is placed on a significantly less permeable
material, resulting in a ‘permeability reversal’. With unbound granular materials in particular a build-up of
water may occur in the more permeable material, resulting in an adverse effect on pavement performance.
This situation can be avoided by requiring the sub-base material to be at least ten times more permeable
than the base material. Alternatively a sub-surface drainage system can be designed to drain the less
permeable material.
It may also be advisable to chemically modify or stabilise the sub-base material to ensure it has adequate
strength at high moisture contents.
4.4 Environmental Requirements
4.4.1 Sustainability
The United Nations Division for Sustainable Development (1992) definition of sustainability is stated in
Agenda 21: Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future
generations to meet their own needs.

The Commonwealth Environment Protection and Biodiversity Act 1999 (EPBC Act) addresses Ecologically
Sustainable Development (ESD) in terms of the following principles:
• decision-making processes should effectively integrate both long-term and short-term economic,
environmental, social and equitable considerations
• if there are threats of serious or irreversible environmental damage, lack of full scientific certainty should
not be used as a reason for postponing measures to prevent environmental degradation
• the principle of inter-generational equity, viz. that the present generation should ensure that the health,
diversity and productivity of the environment is maintained or enhanced for the benefit of future
generations
• the conservation of biological diversity and ecological integrity should be a fundamental consideration in
decision-making
• improved valuation, pricing and incentive mechanisms should be promoted.
While there is no universally accepted definition of ESD, the Commonwealth Government has suggested the
following definition for ESD in Australia (Department of Environment and Heritage (DEH) website):
Using, conserving and enhancing the community's resources so that ecological
processes, on which life depends, are maintained, and the total quality of life, now and in
the future, can be increased.
The OECD defines ‘environmentally sustainable transport’ as:

Transportation that does not endanger public health or ecosystems and meets the needs
of access with:
(a) Sustainable use of renewable resources at below their rates of regeneration.
(b) Use of non-renewable resources at below the rates of development of
renewable substitutes (Institution of Engineers, Australia 1999).
Sustainable pavements should have the following characteristics:

• good quality construction to minimise future maintenance and rehabilitation needs and associated
disruptions to traffic
• smooth, quiet wearing surface to minimise energy consumption by traffic and environmental impacts
• be constructed using sustainable materials wherever possible.
4.4.2 Energy Requirements
Pavement construction and maintenance processes consume energy as a result of the:

• production of pavement materials
• transport of pavement materials
• pavement construction processes.
Reductions in energy consumption can be achieved through:

• the use of recycled materials in pavement construction and maintenance
• improving materials and maintenance techniques so that maintenance is required less frequently
• increasing the life of roads to reduce maintenance needs and traffic disruption
• producing smoother roads with less rolling resistance.

A study carried out by Stammer and Stodolsky (1995) in the US illustrates energy consumption and possible
savings that can be made. Estimates of energy consumption are illustrated in Table 4.4 for a number of road-
making activities.
Table 4.4: Estimated energy consumption per lane-km for rural roads (from Stammer and Stodolsky 1995)
Estimated energy consumed

Activity
(104 Mj/lane-km)
new construction 84
reconstruction 34
restoration & rehabilitation 15
resurfacing 5
The use of recycled materials compared to ‘natural’ materials, can produce worthwhile benefits in energy
savings. Table 4.5 and Table 4.6 provide some guidance to the energy consumption associated with the
production of various products and processes related to roadworks.
Table 4.5: Typical energy consumption for material production (from Robinson 2002)
Material Energy Consumption (MJ/tonne)

Portland cement 5,000
pulverised fuel ash 25
quicklime and hydrated lime 5,000
granulated blast furnace slag 40
recycled aggregates 25
recycled asphalt pavement (RAP) 25
crushed rock 50
steel slag aggregate 40
bitumen 630
bitumen emulsion 700
Table 4.6: Typical energy consumption for production/transport of mixed materials and pavement
construction processes (from Robinson 2002)
Energy Consumption
Process
(MJ/tonne)
hotmix asphalt production 300
cold mix asphalt at plant 70
cold mix asphalt in situ 70
road transport per km 1.35–3
rail transport per km 0.4– 0.7
bitumen transport per km 3
excavate untreated material 25
excavate bound material 50
place & compact unbound material 25
place & compact bound material & asphalt 50
place & compact concrete 50–150

4.5 Cost
4.5.1 General
In comparing various alternative pavement types and configurations, cost is a prime consideration and cost
comparisons of various alternatives are necessary.
Alternative projects should be evaluated primarily according to the criterion of minimum total (whole-of-life)
cost, giving consideration also to the safety and service of road users and others who may be affected by the
construction. In many cases, designers do not have information to reliably consider future maintenance and
strengthening costs of various alternatives. However, these details are becoming available (e.g. VicRoads
1993; Porter and Tinni 1993; Bennett and Moffatt 1995; AAPA 2003; Vos, Youdale and Tamsett 2005).
Road user costs are usually excluded from the analysis partly because of lack of reliable information but
mainly because they are essentially similar for alternatives, provided minimum levels of serviceability are
maintained. However, the exclusion of road user costs needs to be carefully considered, particularly for
projects carrying high traffic volumes, as traffic disruption costs caused by maintenance activities can incur
significant road user costs.
There are several methods for economic comparison of alternative designs. The present worth of costs
method is popular as it effectively allows for both uniform series and sporadic events (e.g. routine and
periodic maintenance) which will occur during the service life of the pavement. With the present worth of
costs method, all costs are converted into capital sums of money which, invested now for an analysis period,
would provide the sums necessary for the construction of a project and subsequent maintenance during that
period.
Ownership issues and design and construction risks can also be taken into account during a comparison of
alternatives.
4.5.2 Initial Cost
The initial cost of pavement materials depends on the type of material, quality and uniformity required. In
addition to production costs, transportation (type and distance) and storage requirements need to be taken
into account.
The engineering properties, particularly stiffness and strength, will impact on the thickness and quantity of
material required to withstand the design traffic loading.
4.5.3 Construction Cost
Unit costs for alternative pavement designs will vary widely depending on locality, the availability of suitable
natural and processed materials, and the scale of the project and material standards. These may be
assessed from experience with particular projects. There are, however, several other less obvious costs that
warrant consideration.
For example, some alternatives will require more excavation or more fill (e.g. where surface levels are fixed
by external restraints), they may interfere with utility services, or require more shoulder material than others.
Significant saving in shoulder material can be made, for equivalent performance, for example, by using full
depth asphalt, cemented pavements or composite pavements which are thinner than an unbound granular
pavement. Consequently, comparing the cost per square metre of the pavement alone is often misleading.
Comparative costs should be expressed as a cost per kilometre for the full pavement and shoulder cross-
section width or as a total cost per project (including all overheads).
Overheads, and other non-productive costs, which are not necessarily included in the pavement unit costs,
may vary with the type of pavement used. Such costs include the following:

• Provision for traffic: alternatives which take longer to build usually incur higher traffic control costs. Some
alternatives can be built under traffic while others may require a sidetrack.
• Cost of time due to wet weather and the need to dry and rework material: in wet climates these costs can
be very significant and often unpredictable. Alternatives using bound material tend to be quicker to build
and avoid the cost of reworking.
• Establishment costs: these include the costs associated with the setting up and transport of plant, etc.
• Supervision costs: supervision costs are time-dependent. Alternatives which are slower to construct tend
to cost more to supervise.
There are significant economies of scale in some paving operations for larger projects, particularly for supply
and laying of materials. In many cases, designers may not have sufficient information to make an accurate
comparison of the construction costs of various structurally equivalent alternatives. In such cases it may be
desirable to call alternative tenders.
4.5.4 Maintenance and Rehabilitation
The nature and extent of future pavement maintenance and rehabilitation is dependent on pavement type.
For example, routine maintenance costs of rigid pavements are generally less than those of unbound flexible
pavements because they should be limited to joint repairs and minor structural repairs rather than
resurfacing.
In conducting cost comparisons based on present worth analyses, an assessment must be made of future
annual routine maintenance requirements, periodic maintenance treatments such as resurfacing, and
rehabilitation such as structural overlays or strengthening.
To reduce whole-of-life maintenance costs it is desirable to ensure that, as far as possible, any deep-seated
pavement failure modes, such as fatigue failure of cemented sub-bases, are minimised in the design phase.
This ensures that any long-term periodic maintenance and rehabilitation treatments are limited to surface-
based treatments which minimise traffic disruption and maintenance costs.
4.5.5 Replacement/Salvage Costs
The salvage value of the pavement at the end of the analysis period is difficult to assess and is dependent
on several factors, including:
• the continued use of an existing alignment
• the feasibility of upgrading or strengthening a pavement with an overlay
• the possibility of recycling existing paving materials, either on- or off-site in a plant or in situ
• any legacy issues relating to pavement materials
• the need to remove the pavement before reconstruction.
For some of these options there will be significant road user impacts and costs which will need to be
accounted for in the economic modelling.
In cases where the existing pavement is of no use and must be removed, the salvage value is negative. In
some cases there may be legacy issues that need to be addressed. With ever-changing requirements for
disposal and recycling of materials, the future cost of disposal/recycling may be difficult to estimate.
Despite the uncertainties, some guidance can be given as to how to evaluate salvage value.
For a project where the predicted condition of the pavement at the end of the analysis period is such that the
base layer could serve as the sub-base layer for the subsequent next project, then the salvage value is equal

to the cost in current dollars for construction in, say, 25 years of a pavement to sub-base level (less any
costs for tidying up the works, scarification, compaction, drainage renovation, etc.), discounted to the
evaluation year.
Similarly, for a project where the predicted condition of the pavement at the end of the analysis period is
such that the base layer could serve as the sub-grade layer for the subsequent next project, then the salvage
value is equal to the cost in current dollars for construction in, say, 25 years of a pavement to sub-grade
formation (less any costs for tidying up the works, scarification, compaction, drainage renovation, etc.),
discounted back to the evaluation year.
However, for a project in which the pavement still has significant residual load-carrying capacity at the end of
the analysis period, it is necessary to pro-rata the value of the base layer only in proportion to the residual life
as a proportion of the original life when new. In the calculation of the remaining salvage value of the rest of
the pavement (sub-base, sub-grade, earthworks, drainage, etc.) this is added to the residual value of the
base layer.
For analyses which take account of road user costs in the evaluation, then the estimated road user costs
beyond the end of the analysis period, which would have accrued if the pavement had served its full term,
also need to be discounted back as a credit to the overall road user costs.
4.5.6 Road User Costs
Road user costs are usually excluded from the analysis partly because of a lack of reliable information but
often because they are essentially similar for each of the alternatives, provided minimum levels of
serviceability are maintained.
Nevertheless, road user costs can have a significant impact on the selection of the optimum design where
there are differences in the level and frequency of maintenance activities, in the duration of construction
delays or in the levels of traffic safety, noise or ride quality, all of which increase road user costs. As such,
the exclusion of road user costs needs to be carefully considered, particularly for projects carrying high traffic
volumes, as traffic disruption costs caused by maintenance activities can incur significant road user costs. If
the duration of maintenance activities is different for each of the alternatives, road user costs should be
included.
For alternatives involving frequent maintenance activities, the road user costs associated with delays and
diversions may be significant on roads with high traffic volumes. Methods of analysis to assess road user
costs may be found in Thoresen and Roper (1996) and Austroads (1999).

5. Materials Production
5.1 Materials Search
In rural regions, natural gravels or rock deposits are often sourced to provide local material for the
construction of sealed and unsealed pavements as well as in some cases producing sealing aggregates.
The identification of geological sources is typically determined from geological plans, surveys and site
exploration. Details of these processes can be found in Andrews (2007).
Approvals to extract natural materials include environment, heritage and the development of quarry
management plans and quarry licensing by the relevant State Road Authority.
5.2 Extraction, Crushing and Stockpiling
Natural materials are extracted using many different techniques, e.g. excavators, rippers, scrapers, graders,
front-end loaders, bulldozers and blasting. Where crushing is required it is undertaken either with fixed or
mobile crushing plant or processed on the road alignment using grid and impact rollers or ‘rock busters’.
There are a number of different types of crushers, including hammer mill, cone, jaw, gyratory, impactors, etc.
Their selection depends upon the nature of the product being produced (i.e. crushed rock or sealing
aggregate) and the type of rock source. A detailed reference on crushing can be found in the Pennsylvania
Crushing Corporation Handbook (1984).
Produced material may then be stockpiled for later use or in holding stockpiles pending specification
compliance verification through laboratory testing.
5.3 Uniformity and Quality
5.3.1 Methods of Production
The variability of the source materials and methods of production can have a significant impact on the
uniformity of the final materials produced. For example, the ripping and stockpiling of ridge gravel by a
bulldozer in a rural area is likely to produce a more variable material than by drilling, blasting, crushing and
the blending of rock from a hard rock quarry. However, the variability also needs to be matched with the
quality of materials required for a specific job and the reliability level of the pavement under consideration.
5.3.2 Quality Control
The provision of materials of a uniform quality that meets specified requirements is necessary to provide
assurance to the purchaser.
Most materials are supplied under Quality Assured (QA) contracts. Quality systems are defined in AS/NZ
ISO 9002 (Standards Australia and Standards New Zealand 1997):
The supplier shall identify and plan the production processes which directly affect quality,
and shall ensure that these processes are carried out under controlled conditions.
This means the supplier must prepare a Quality Plan which forms the basis for surveillance and technical
audit by the customer. Guidance for the development of Quality Plans is given in Standards Australia and
Standards New Zealand (1998).
Assurance can be gained from the use of statistical process control (SPC) which is a method of monitoring,
controlling and, ideally, improving a process through statistical analysis. Guidance on SPC may be found in
AAPA (1997).

SPC is used to:

• ensure that the material meets specified requirements
• ensure the uniformity of the material
• determine, at an early stage, real variations in the process to allow adequate time for corrective measures
to be taken
• identify monitoring periods of consistent production that can be used as a basis for continuous
improvement of the process.
It has four basic steps:

• measure the process
• eliminate variances in the process to make it consistent
• monitor the process
• improve the process to its best target value.

6. Construction
6.1 Operating Environment Considerations
6.1.1 Climatic Considerations
Climatic considerations that need to be taken into account in the selection of pavement materials fall
primarily into two categories: moisture conditions, and temperature conditions.
Moisture
The moisture regime associated with a pavement has a major influence on its performance. The
stiffness/strength of unbound materials and sub-grades is heavily dependent on the moisture content of the
materials. Further guidance may be obtained from Wallace (1974) and NAASRA (1974 and 1983). The
design, construction, and maintenance of subsurface drainage systems for roads are described in VicRoads
(2004).
The factors that influence the moisture regime within and/or beneath a pavement and which must be
assessed include:
• rainfall/evaporation pattern
• reactivity of the sub-grade to variations in the moisture regime
• permeability of the wearing surface
• depth of the watertable or to water-bearing strata
• relative permeability of the pavement layers
• whether or not shoulders are sealed
• the type of vegetation to be used in medians or on verges, and their proximity to the pavement
• the form of pavement construction (boxed or full width)
• pavement drainage, e.g. availability of table drains, subsurface drainage, etc.
Moisture changes in pavements usually result from one or more of the following sources:
• seepage from higher ground to the road pavement
• fluctuations in the height of the watertable
• infiltration of water through the surface of the road pavement and the shoulders
• an abrupt, significant decrease in the relative permeabilities of the successive layers in the pavement
(permeability reversal) causing saturation of the materials in the vicinity of the permeability reversal
• the transfer of moisture, in either the liquid (i.e. soil suction) or vapour states, as a result of moisture
content or temperature differences within or beneath the pavement, including transfer due to the moisture
content at construction differing from the equilibrium moisture content
• the transfer of moisture due to osmotic pressure in the vicinity of the root structures of large vegetation.
Of the above sources only the initial four can be controlled by the installation of properly-designed sub-grade
and pavement drains. Subgrade drains are only effective when sub-grade moisture is subject to hydrostatic
head (i.e. positive pore pressures). It is not uncommon for fine-grained sub-grade materials to have
equilibrium moisture content above optimum moisture content yet, because they are still only partially
saturated, they cannot be drained.

The moisture conditions in unbound granular pavement materials can also have a major effect on
performance. When the degree of saturation of unbound granular materials exceeds about 70%, the material
can experience significant loss of strength/stiffness.
These sources of moisture infiltration are illustrated in Figure 6.1.
Figure 6.1: Moisture movements in road pavements
Unbound materials are the most susceptible in terms of strength loss due to changes in moisture conditions.
However, cracked cemented materials can be susceptible to the pumping of fines in the presence of
moisture and traffic loading and asphalt can sustain moisture-related damage and stripping in the presence
of moisture and traffic loading.
Temperature
The temperature environment has a major influence on the performance of some pavement materials.
Asphalt becomes stiff and relatively brittle at low temperatures, when it is susceptible to fatigue cracking, but
it is soft and viscoelastic at higher temperatures, when it is susceptible to permanent deformation.
Permanent deformation characteristics are considered in the asphalt mix design procedure.
The distribution of temperature, both on a daily and a seasonal basis, has an important bearing on the
performance of pavements surfaced with asphalt (Dickinson 1981). The effect of temperature changes in
asphalt on pavement performance is a complex matter which must be taken into account at the design stage.
For example, if traffic loading occurs at night when temperatures are low, and the asphalt is relatively brittle,
then a considerable reduction in the life of a thin asphalt surfacing may occur due to the onset of flexural
cracking. On the other hand, if traffic loading occurs during periods of high temperature, then this may lead to
increased strains in the lower layers of the pavement if these layers are composed of cemented material. If

the lower layers are unbound materials, however, then the higher stresses induced in the unbound materials
will result in higher moduli values being achieved.
Climatic effects, and particularly temperature, have a significant effect on the ageing of materials. Asphalt
gains stiffness with time and, in the case of thick asphalt layers, increases of the order of four from the initial
stiffness over the design life have been recorded without performance being affected (Butcher 1997;
Chaddock and Pledge 1994; Nunn 1996; Nunn et al. 1997; Nunn 1998). Oxidation, which occurs near the
surface of asphalt pavements, can lead to brittleness and ravelling, and hence a loss of performance of the
surfacing.
For pavement design, the temperature of the asphalt can be characterised in terms of the Weighted Mean
Annual Pavement Temperature (WMAPT). The WMAPT takes into account the relationship between asphalt
temperature and the fatigue life of thick asphalt pavements. It was derived using a method published by
Shell (1978).
Values of WMAPT applicable to all regional centres in Australia and New Zealand, and details of the method
used to calculate them, are documented in Appendix 6.1 of Austroads (2004). (This Guide will be
superseded by Part 2 of the Austroads Guide to Pavement Technology.)
Temperature may also affect the properties and performance of cemented layers and concrete. It can have a
significant effect on the rate of strength gain of these materials and, if high temperatures occur during
construction and curing, drying out will result, impairing both the ultimate strength and fatigue characteristics
of the materials. Low temperatures during the curing period can also limit the strength gain of cemented
materials and threaten the achievement of design strength values.
Concrete base layers in rigid pavements are subject to environmental movements that are related to the time
of construction and also the short-term and long-term shrinkage characteristics of the concrete (RTA, NSW
1991). These movements can result in significant stresses in the pavement and joints which can impact on
pavement performance.
Diurnal temperature changes over a 24-hour period can also influence the performance of base concrete
layers in rigid pavements because curling movements are induced in the slab at various stages throughout
the day. Movements of slabs during (cold) night-time conditions, for example, can be related to the period of
heaviest trafficking, especially near the edge of the slab.
6.1.2 Traffic Loading Considerations
Traffic loading considerations can have a significant impact on the performance of pavement materials,
particularly those at or near the wearing surface.
While asphalt stiffness can vary significantly as a result of diurnal and seasonal temperature variations, being
a viscoelastic material, it can also vary as a result or rate of loading (traffic speed). Increases in stiffness of
up to 300% can occur as traffic speeds increase from crawl speeds to highway speeds.
In addition, on steep grades there can be significant shear loads exerted from the drive wheels of trucks and
at intersections horizontal shear forces are induced by the acceleration and braking of vehicles.
High tyre pressures can also produce high shear stresses in pavement materials in the base layer.
6.2 Handling and Spreading
6.2.1 Transportation
The transportation and handling of pavement materials must be carried out in such a way so as to minimise
segregation and contamination in order to deliver the materials to the work site in a condition that will
facilitate its spreading and compaction.

There are special considerations that need to be taken into account for particular materials and these are
provided in other parts of the Guide to Pavement Technology. For example, the temperature of asphalt is
critical as is the working time of cemented materials and the moisture contents of unbound materials.
6.2.2 Placing and Workability
As with transportation, placing of materials is critical to ensuring the long-term performance of pavement
materials.
Placement by paver for all materials ensures greater uniformity and reduces segregation and generally
provides the best control over layer thickness. In addition, particular types of materials such as asphalt,
cemented materials and unbound granular materials have specific placement needs, such as meeting
working time requirements for stabilised materials, which are addressed in detail in other parts of the Guide
to Pavement Technology.
Workability refers to the ability of a material to be placed and compacted to the required condition and shape.
It depends on grading and moisture content of unbound granular and cemented materials as well as asphalt
temperature.
6.3 Compaction and Curing
6.3.1 Compaction Standards
The purpose of compaction is to:

• ensure a minimum standard of density is reached so that the compacted materials meet the specified
requirements in terms of shear strength, stiffness, permeability and deformation resistance
• ensure that the level of uniformity of compaction is adequate so that the load-bearing properties of the
material are relatively constant.
Compaction standards are based on achieving a level of relative compaction, i.e. achieving a density which
is a percentage of a density based on the application of a standard compactive energy to a suitably prepared
specimen of the material.
Testing and Acceptance
Statistical techniques are utilised to determine the number and location of test samples within a uniform lot in
order to determine the relative density level and hence acceptance or rejection.
6.3.2 Curing and Trafficking
Curing of materials after placement and compaction is necessary so as to avoid premature failure under
traffic. Asphalt needs to be cured after rolling to ensure the temperature is low enough so that the mix has
sufficient stiffness and resistance to permanent deformation. In heavily-trafficked situations in hot climates
asphalt can remain ‘green’ or susceptible to premature damage for some weeks after laying.
For cemented materials, adequate curing is required to ensure that the design values of stiffness and
strength are achieved before substantial trafficking occurs to minimise the risks of premature fatigue failure.
For unbound granular materials, curing may be required to allow dissipation of pore pressures built up during
compaction or to dry back the material so as to provide adequate shear strength to resist traffic loading.

6.4 Occupational Health and Safety
6.4.1 Safety
Safety is of paramount importance in all aspects of manufacture, supply, delivery, placement and curing of
pavement materials and should be addressed in the Quality Plan.
6.4.2 Exposure
Exposure to hazards should be minimised at all times. Typical hazards that may be involved when working
with pavement materials include: dust, noise, fumes, materials at high temperature, construction equipment,
chemical additives and traffic.
6.4.3 Work Practices
Work practices must be implemented that provide a healthy and safe working environment for all people who
utilise it. Resources should be directed towards:
• overall safe and healthy working environments and procedures and safe plant and equipment
• elimination of hazards/procedures in the workplace which can cause death, injury or occupational disease
• appropriate and adequate accident prevention measures and reporting procedures
• appropriate and adequate occupational health and safety training and educational programs.
It is also important to have an accredited rehabilitation program for injured employees.

7. In-Service Performance
7.1 Maintenance Regime
The pavement maintenance regime will have a marked bearing on the type, extent and cost of maintenance
interventions required. Maintenance is required so that the structural layers of the pavement can maintain
their design/as-constructed properties over the design life.
If a pro-active maintenance routine is established where preventative maintenance (such as crack sealing) is
carried out, the rate of deterioration of the pavement wearing surface and the structural components of the
pavement will be minimised.
If this is not the case and, for example, moisture is allowed to enter the pavement structural layers, quite
rapid deterioration in the performance of those layers may occur as they lose their structural capacity. This
can result in the need for major rehabilitation or reconstruction of the pavement.
7.2 Wear Resistance
7.2.1 Skid Resistance
Loss of skid resistance of a pavement wearing surface can have a number of causes including:
• polishing of aggregate
• surface profile deficiencies (rutting, etc.)
• flushing and bleeding
• ravelling and stripping.
Skid resistance is a measure of the friction between the vehicle tyre and the road surface. It will depend on
both the microtexture and the macrotexture of the surfacing, as well as the presence of moisture and its film
thickness. Microtexture has a wavelength of < 0.5 mm whilst macrotexture has a wavelength of 0.5 to 50
mm.
For bituminous wearing surfaces, microtexture relates primarily to the surface texture of the individual larger
aggregate particles which is in turn influenced by the degree of polishing of the aggregate. Macrotexture is
primarily provided by the shape of, and the space between, the aggregate particles.
For concrete surfaces, microtexture is provided by the fine aggregate particles in the mix, whilst
macrotexture is provided by texturing, such as tyning, applied during placing and finishing.
At low traffic speeds, a fine-textured surface may provide an adequate level of skid resistance. As road
speed increases, a greater level of macrotexture is required in order that the vehicle tyre can move water
away from the tyre/road surface interface and maintain surface contact.
7.2.2 Abrasion/Ravelling/Stripping
Abrasion, ravelling and stripping occur most frequently in asphalt or sprayed seal wearing surfaces where
there is either inadequate binder or the binder has aged and become brittle due to oxidation and the
aggregate is plucked from the surface by the action of traffic. Areas of high traffic stress such as
intersections exacerbate the problem.

The main factors that influence the rate of ageing of the binder are the:
• inherent durability of the binder
• temperature of the binder in service
• exposure of the binder to oxygen.
7.2.3 Unsealed Roads
Unsealed roads normally have greater crossfall than sealed roads to minimise moisture infiltration but this
can lead to scouring in periods of heavy rain. Scouring can occur transversely and longitudinally. It can be
caused by a lack of compaction, steep grades, lack of crossfall and the build-up of material on the shoulders
or rutting in the wheelpaths that prevents surface water from flowing off the pavement.
Scouring is less likely to occur in well-graded materials that contain crushed stone with a maximum particle
size of about 40 mm (ARRB Transport Research 2000).
In arid areas, wind erosion can occur as a result of naturally-occurring wind or wind generated by vehicles
using the road, while ravelling and corrugations can also be common traffic induced problems. Well-graded
materials with moderate plasticity perform better in such situations.
Unsealed pavements are addressed in detail in Part 6 of the Guide to Pavement Technology (Andrews
2007).
7.3 Visibility
7.3.1 Conspicuity
Conspicuity (the ability to see) is generally not used as a primary driver for the selection of road pavement
surfacings. However, the type of pavement surfacing and particularly the surface texture of the surfacing can
play a role in enhancing the conspicuity of line markings.
During daytime the conspicuity of line markings depends on the luminance of the line marking and on the
contrast between the marking and the background of the road surface. The luminance of the road marking
paint is measured by the luminance factor which should be 45% or higher. The luminance factor is the ratio
of the luminance of a surface (e.g. road-marking paint) divided by the luminance of a standard white surface.
The greater the difference in the luminance factor between the marking and the road surface, the greater is
the contrast and the more conspicuous is the marking. Bituminous surfaces have an advantage over
concrete surfaces in this regard.
During the night, and in the absence of exterior lighting, the conspicuity of markings depends on the extent
the headlight beam is reflected back to the motorist’s eye from the discrete devices such as raised pavement
markers, pavement markings and delineators.
The ratio of the intensities of light illumination on an object and that reflected to the observer's eye is called
retroreflectivity. Retroreflectivity is measured by the Coefficient of Luminous Intensity (CIL) whilst the
retroreflectivity of painted surfaces is measured by CIL/m2. At present CIL/m2 is measured at an optical
geometry of 1.5° observation angle and 3.5° co-entrance angle. The common range of retroreflectivity of new
paint with drop-on glass beads is normally in the range of 250 + 50 CIL/m2. With time, line marking
deteriorates, glass beads are lost and the retroreflectivity gradually decreases.

Because there is a good correlation between the decrease in retroreflectivity and the wear of painted
surfaces, retroreflectivity values are also used to assess the condition of line marking and its daytime
performance. For retention of daytime conspicuity it is considered desirable to keep the line marking’s
retroreflectivity above 100 CIL/m2. In practice, when line markings are repainted, the residual retroreflectivity
is often in the range 70 to 80 CIL/m2.
Long life markings, such as thermoplastic with drop-on beads, will have an initial retroreflectivity value of 250
+ 50 CIL/m2. After the top layer with the drop-on glass beads is worn and the beads within the thermoplastic
are exposed, the retroreflectivity of the long life marking drops to a constant long-term value. The
retroreflectivity of long-life markings such as thermoplastic is normally within the range 110 to 150 CIL/m2
due to the glass beads being mixed into the product. The retroreflectivity generally does not drop below 100
CIL/m2 because, as the surface of the marking is worn, new glass beads become exposed.
When the road surface is wet and a film of water covers the glass beads, the markings’ retroreflectivity is
negligible and consequently, during rainfall, the conspicuity of the markings may be poor. The larger the
beads, the better their performance in wet conditions.
At night, when the road is wet, and when the stopping distances are increased, the conspicuity of markings
assumes critical importance. Conspicuity of markings at night in wet conditions can be improved by using
raised pavement markers and by increasing the diameter of the glass beads to 1 mm or more. Increasing the
texture depth of the pavement surfacing can also improve the conspicuity of markings. The aim should be
that, when the road is wet, retroreflectivity of the markings should be at least 60 CIL/m2.
7.3.2 Dust Generation
The generation of dust from unsealed road surfaces or road surfaces undergoing construction or
maintenance can create considerable safety and environmental issues.
Dust suppression can be effected in the short-term by the application of dust suppressants. In the long term,
dust can be controlled by sealing the wearing surface or by using base material that has dust-resistant
properties (optimum plasticity that resists the formation of dust and still has adequate strength and wear
properties).
Dust palliatives act as surface stabilisers and should have the following characteristics:
• prevent particles from becoming airborne
• resist traffic wear
• retained in the pavement (i.e. not lost through evaporation)
• resistant to ageing
• environmentally compatible
• easily applied
• cost effective.

Dust palliatives fall into five broad categories (ARRB Transport Research 2000; Foley, Cropley and
Giummarra 1996; Andrews 2007):
• Surfactants (wetting agents): these substances reduce the surface tension of the applied liquid and allow
greater particle wetting and better binding action with the soil.
• Salts (chlorides): dust suppression occurs by the reduction of repulsive forces acting between soil
particles and the absorption of water from the air at high humidities.
• Adhesives (lignin sulphonates): these compounds are by-products of the pulp and paper industries and
provide a seal over the surface. They act as clay dispersants, making clay more plastic at lower moisture
contents.
• Petroleum products: dust is controlled primarily by agglomeration of fine soil particles.
• Polymers (polyacrylamides): these products are water soluble and develop polymer chain bonding with
soil particles.
Dust suppression on unsealed roads is discussed in more detail in Part 6 of the Austroads Guide to
Pavement Technology – Unsealed Pavements (Andrews 2007).

8. End of life
Pavement materials at the end of their design life have long-term implications in terms of their sustainability
and salvage/disposal characteristics.
8.1 Sustainability
The definitions of sustainability and ecologically sustainable development and transport have been
addressed in Section 4.5.1. The thrust of sustainability with regard to the use of pavement materials is for
reuse wherever feasible.
The benefits of reusing or recycling pavement materials are (Resource NSW 2003):
• energy savings compared to ‘natural’ products
• reduced need to dispose to landfill sites
• protecting stocks of natural resources
• protecting the environment from further degradation
• potential cost savings
• ecologically sustainable development.
The value of recycled products, in terms of energy saving and environmental benefits, is growing and there
are now a number of well established industry by-products that are regularly used as, or in the manufacture
of pavement materials. These include:
• slag products (Australasian Slag Association 1999 and 2002)
• coal combustion products (Ash Development Association of Australia 2005)
• recycled building materials (Institute of Public Works Engineering Australia 2003)
• recycled rubber products (Austroads 2006)
• recycled asphalt products (Austroads 1997).
8.2 Salvage/Disposal
At the end of the design life for pavements there are a number of options for the pavement materials. These
options and their costs have been discussed in Section 4.6.5.
The circumstances of each job will dictate what can be done with the existing pavement materials. There are
a number of possible scenarios:
• A new pavement is to be built on the same alignment as the old pavement. In this case the existing
pavement may be utilised in situ as a foundation (sub-grade or sub-base or base) for the new pavement,
depending on the type of materials, level constraints, etc. In some cases, the existing pavement may
simply require a new surfacing. Alternatively, the existing materials may be recycled either in situ or on- or
off-site for re-use on the same job or another job.
• A new pavement is to be built on a new alignment adjacent to the old pavement. In this case the existing
materials may be recycled either on or off site for re-use on the same job or another job. If recycling is not
feasible the material may have to be disposed of to a landfill site.
• A new pavement is to be built on a new alignment on a new greenfield site. In this case the existing
materials may be recycled either on- or off-site for re-use on the same job or another job. If recycling is
not feasible the material may have to be disposed of to a landfill site.

References
Andrews, RC 2007, Austroads guide to pavement technology: Part 6 – unsealed roads (in preparation).
ARRB Transport Research 2000, Unsealed roads manual – guidelines for good practice. Australian Road
Research Board, Vermont South, Vic.
Ash Development Association of Australia 2005, Guide to the use of coal combustion products (fly ash and
furnace bottom ash) in roads and embankments. ADAA, Sydney.
Australasian Slag Association 1999, A guide to the use of steel furnace slag in asphalt and thin bituminous
surfacings. ASA, Wollongong, NSW.
Australasian Slag Association 2002, A guide to the use of iron and steel slags in roads. ASA, Wollongong,
NSW.
Australian Asphalt Pavement Association 1997, Asphalt plant process control guide. Implementation Guide
3, AAPA, Kew, Vic.
Australian Asphalt Pavement Association 2003, Guide to the comparison of pavement alternatives.
Implementation Guide 7, AAPA, Kew, Vic.
Australian Asphalt Pavement Association 2004, Guide to the selection and design of flexible pavements.
Implementation Guide 6, AAPA, Kew, Vic.
Austroads 1997, Asphalt recycling guide. AP-44/97, Austroads, Sydney.
Austroads 1998, Guide to stabilisation in roadworks. AP-60/98, Austroads, Sydney.
Austroads 1999, Economic evaluation of road investment proposals – unit values for road user costs at June
1997 and June 1998. AP-142/99, Austroads, Sydney.
Austroads 2003a, Guide to the selection of road surfacings. AP-G63/03, Austroads, Sydney.
Austroads 2003b, Guide to production and specification of natural granular materials, crushed rocks and
aggregates. Draft for public comment, T&E.P.C.023, Austroads, Sydney.
Austroads 2004, Pavement design: a guide to the structural design of road pavements. AP-G17/04,
Austroads, Sydney.
Austroads 2006, Guide to the selection and use of polymer modified binders and multigrade bitumen.
AP-T42/06, Austroads, Sydney.
Austroads & Australian Asphalt Pavement Association 2004, Asphalt guide. Austroads, Sydney.
Bennett, DW and Moffatt, MA 1995, Whole-of-life maintenance requirements for heavy duty pavements.
Research Report ARR 264, Australian Road Research Board, Vermont South, Vic.
Butcher, M 1997, Ageing characteristics of asphalt. MTRD Report 76‒1, Transport SA, Materials Technology
Section, Walkerville, SA.
Chaddock, BCJ and Pledge, K 1994, Accelerated field curing of bituminous roadbase. Project Report PR87,
Transport Research Laboratory, Crowthorne, UK.
Department of Environment and Heritage, Ecologically sustainable development. Viewed 24 October 2006,
www.deh.gov.au/esd
Dickinson, EJ 1981, Pavement temperature regimes in Australia: their effect on the performance of
bituminous constructions and their relationship with average climatic indicators. Special Report SR 23,
Australian Road Research Board, Vermont South, Vic.
Foley, G, Cropley, S and Giummarra, G 1996, Road dust control techniques: evaluation of chemical dust
suppressants' performance. Special Report SR 54, Australian Road Research Board, Vermont South,
Vic.

Institute of Public Works Engineering Australia 2003, Specification for the supply of recycled materials for
roads, earthworks and drainage. www.ipwea.org.au/greenspec, viewed 24 October 2006.
Institution of Engineers, Australia 1999, Sustainable transport – responding to the challenges. Sustainable
Energy Transport Taskforce report, IEAust., Barton, ACT.
National Association of Australian State Road Authorities 1974, Prediction of soil moisture conditions for
pavement design. Proceedings of the 7th Australian Road Research Board Conference 7(8), pp. 172‒212.
Australian Road Research Board, Vermont South, Vic.
National Association of Australian State Road Authorities 1976, Pavement materials. Part 3 – crushed rock.
NAASRA, Sydney.
National Association of Australian State Road Authorities 1980, Pavement materials. Part 2 – natural gravel.
sand clay and soft and fissile rock, NAASRA, Sydney.
National Association of Australian State Road Authorities 1982a, Pavement materials. Part 1 – search.
NAASRA, Sydney.
National Association of Australian State Road Authorities 1982b, Pavement materials. Part 4 – aggregates.
NAASRA, Sydney.
National Association of Australian State Road Authorities 1983, Guide to the control of moisture in roads.
NAASRA, Sydney.
National Association of Australian State Road Authorities 1984, Report on strain alleviating membranes.
Construction and Maintenance Committee Internal Report, NAASRA, Sydney.
Nunn, ME 1996, The characterisation of bituminous macadams by indirect tensile stiffness modulus. Report
160, Transport Research Laboratory, Crowthorne, UK.
Nunn, ME 1998, Design of long-life pavements for heavy traffic. Focusing on Performance: AAPA
Pavements Industry Conference, 1998, Surfers Paradise, Queensland, Australian Asphalt Pavement
Association, Kew, Vic., 18 pp.
Nunn, ME, Brown, A., Weston, D and Nicholls, JC 1997, Design of long-life flexible pavements for heavy
traffic. Report 250, Transport Research Laboratory, Crowthorne, UK.
Porter, KP and Tinni, A 1993, Whole-of-life cost analysis for heavy duty pavements. MR-1, Australian
Asphalt Pavement Association, Kew, Vic.
Pennsylvania Crusher Corporation 1984, Handbook, PCC, Broomall, PA.
Roads and Traffic Authority, New South Wales 1991, Concrete pavement manual. RTA, Sydney.
Resource NSW 2003, Specification for supply of recycled material for pavements, earthworks and drainage,
issue no 2.0, viewed 24 October 2006,
www.resource.nsw.gov.au/data/18-6%20Green%20Spec%202003.pdf
Robinson HL 2002, Maximising the use of sustainable, green, recycled and low energy materials in high
specification road construction. Proceedings of the 3rd Euroslag Conference, Nottingham, UK, Euroslag,
Duisburg-Rheinhausen.
Shell 1978, Pavement design manual. Shell International, London.
Stammer, RE (Jnr) and Stodolsky, F 1995, Assessment of energy impacts of improving highway
infrastructure materials. Centre for Transportation Research, Energy Systems Division, Argonne National
Laboratory, Argonne, Illinois.
Standards Australia & Standards New Zealand 1997, Quality system guidelines, Part 2: guide to AS/NZS
ISO 9001, AS/NZS ISO 9002, and AS/NZS ISO 9003 for construction. AS 3905.2–1997, SAA, Strathfield,
NSW.
Standards Australia and Standards New Zealand 1998, Quality management and quality system elements,
Part 5: guidelines for quality plans. AS/NZS 2004 (1998), Strathfield, NSW.
Thoresen, T and Roper, R 1996, Review and enhancement of vehicle operating cost models: assessment of
non urban evaluation models. Research Report 279, ARRB Transport Research, Vermont South, Vic.

United Nations Division for Sustainable Development 1992, AGENDA 21: the Earth Summit strategy to save
our planet. United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, 1992, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil,
Boulder, Colo., Earth Press.
VicRoads 1993, Guide to pavement design: supplement to Austroads guide to the structural design of road
pavements. Technical Bulletin 37, VicRoads, Kew, Vic.
VicRoads 2004, Drainage of sub-surface water from roads. Technical Bulletin 32, VicRoads, Kew, Vic.
Vos, RM, Youdale, GP and Tamsett, P 2005, Proposed methodology to include ownership issues and risk
assessment in life cycle costing. AAPA Pavements Industry Conference, 2005, Surfers Paradise,
Queensland, AAPA, Kew, Vic., 15 pp.
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AGPT04-07 Guide To Pavement Technology Part 4 Pavement Materials

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Guide to Pavement Technology Part 4:

• Format updated. • Roads and Maritime Services New South Wales

ISBN 978-1-921329-34-0 Pages 36 • Main Roads Western Australia

Austroads Project No. TP1159

In particular this publication describes:

Austroads 2007 | page i

4. Materials Design ................................................................................................................................... 14

5. Materials Production ............................................................................................................................ 22

Austroads 2007 | page ii

6.4.3 Work Practices.......................................................................................................................... 28

7. In-Service Performance ....................................................................................................................... 29

8. End of life .............................................................................................................................................. 33

Austroads 2007 | page iii

The following nine guides are being developed:

Guides generally consist of various parts and in some cases sub-parts.

1.1 Guide to Pavement Technology

The Guide to Pavement Technology consists of the following 11 parts:

Austroads 2007 | page 1

• Part 10: Sub-Surface Drainage

In particular this publication describes:

Detailed advice on individual materials can be found in the following sub-parts:

Part 4A: Granular Base and Sub Base Materials

Part 4B: Asphalt

Part 4C: Materials for Concrete Road Pavements

Part 4D: Stabilised Materials

Austroads 2007 | page 2

Part 4E: Recycled Materials

Part 4F: Bituminous Binders

Part 4G: Geotextiles and Geogrids

Part 4H: Test Methods

Part 4I: Earthworks Materials

Part 4J: Aggregate and Source Rock

Part 4K: Seals

Complements Parts 3, 4F and 4J.

Part 4L: Stabilising Binders

Austroads 2007 | page 3

Table 1.2: Key websites pertinent to selection of pavement materials

Austroads 2007 | page 4

2.2 Evaluation Framework

Figure 2.1: Framework for selection of pavement materials

Austroads 2007 | page 5

2.3 Categories of Pavement Materials

Figure 2.2: Components of flexible and rigid pavement structures

Austroads 2007 | page 6

Table 2.1: Purpose of the various road components

Pavement component Purpose

Table 2.2: Distress modes for flexible and rigid pavements

Pavement type Distress mode Likely causes Materials affected

cracking traffic associated: asphalt, cemented

Austroads 2007 | page 7

Pavement type Distress mode Likely causes Materials affected

Table 2.3: Structural and functional requirements for pavement layers

Pavement layer Structural considerations Functional considerations

Austroads 2007 | page 8

These material categories and characteristics are listed in Table 2.4.

Table 2.4: Pavement material categories and characteristics

Pavement material category

Austroads 2007 | page 9

3.1 Data Collection

Austroads 2007 | page 10

Table 3.1: Project scope and required background data

Austroads 2007 | page 11

3.2 Construction and Maintenance Considerations