JOE SIWALE

(UNDERSTANDING)
CHEMISTRY
(GRADE 11)

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JOE SIWALE

JOE SIWALE

First published, 2018

Printed by Joe in Zambia

About the book

This book has been produced so as the learners can easily understand chemistry. This will help the
learners to get good grades in chemistry after writing their exams.

About the author

This book has been developed by Joe Siwale. I completed my grade 12 at St. Paul’s secondary school
located in Chipata compound in 2016.

AVAILABLE BOOKS
-Understanding Biology (10, 11 & 12)

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-Understanding Commerce (10, 11 & 12)

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-Understanding Chemistry (10, 11 & 12)

I can’t change the direction of the wind, but I can adjust my sails to always reach my destination
– Jimmy Dean.
How difficult life may seem, there is always something you can do and succeed at – Stephen
Hawking.
Do the best you can until you know better , then when you know better, do better – Manja
Angelon.
if you are afraid of getting old, you are afraid of walking up each day – Joe Siwale.

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JOE SIWALE

CHEMISTRY

TOPICS
1 The periodic table……………………………………………………………………………..3
2 Mole concept…………………………………………………………………………………….11
3 Acids, Bases and salts………………………………………………………………………..30
4 Rates of chemical reaction…………………………………………………………….....47

1) THE PERIODIC TABLE

The periodic table is the way of arranging and classifying of elements according to their increase
in atomic number, their physical and chemical properties. The periodic table was introduced by

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JOE SIWALE

a Russian chemist called Dmitin Mendeleyva in 1869. The periodic table is made up of Groups
and Periods.

Groups
Groups are vertical columns of elements in the periodic table. We have eight Groups of elements
on the periodic table. The Group to which an elements belongs to depend on the valency electron
of the element except for Group VIII or 0. The valency electrons are the electrons in the outer-
most shell. These electrons determines the chemical properties of an element. So all the
elements in a Group have similar reactions, because they have the same number of electrons in
the outer-most shell. All groups are represented by the Roman numeral I, II, III, IV, V, VI, VII and
VIII or 0. The elements in the block between Group II and Group III are called the transitional
metals. The table below shows the Group numbers with their common names and the number
of valency electrons.

Group Common Number of valency

number Name Electrons
I Alkali metals 1
II Alkaline earth metals 2
III 3
IV 4
V 5
VI 6
VII Halogens 7
VIII or 0 Inert gases or noble gases 2 for helium and 8 for the rest

Periods
The Periods are the horizontal rows of elements in the periodic table. There are seven periods in
total on the periodic table. The period to which an element belongs to depends on the number
of occupied shells it has in its electronic structure. For example H and He have one occupied
electron shell, therefore they are in period 1. From Li to Ne the elements have two occupied
electron shells, therefore they are all in period 2. From Na to Ar the elements have three occupied
electron shells, therefore they are all in period 3.
The examples given above for period 1, 2, and 3 are said to be short periods while the other
periods such as period 4, 5, 6 and 7 are called the long periods.
Metals, Non- metals and Metalloids
Elements can be classified as metals, non-metal and metalloids. The metals make up the most of
the elements on the periodic table. They are over 80% of elements that are metals on the periodic

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JOE SIWALE

table. The metals are found on the thick black line of the periodic table while the non-metals are
found on the right side of the thick black on the periodic table. Metalloids are elements that have
the properties of metals and non-metals. These elements are found on either side of the thick
black line on the periodic table. An example of a metalloid is silicon.

Group I elements (Alkali metals)

The Group I elements are also known as the alkali metals. They are highly reactive and do not
occur in nature in their elemental form. Only the first three of elements in Group I can be stored
in the laboratory. These three elements include lithium, sodium and potassium. If these metals
are stored in the labs, they are stored under oil to prevent reaction with oxygen and water. The
other elements such as Rb, Cs and Fr are violently reactive and cannot be stored in the labs.
Physical properties
(i) Since Group I elements are metals, they are good conductors of both heat and
electricity.
(ii) Are soft and easy to cut with a knife.
(iii) Are silvery when freshly cut.
(iv) They have a low density that they can front on water.
(v) They have a low melting and boiling points compared with most metals.
(vi) React spontaneously and vigorously with water and oxygen, so they must be stored
under oil or paraffin.
Chemical properties
All the elements in Group I have one electron in the outer-most shell. So, they react by losing this
electron to form a single, positively charged ion.

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JOE SIWALE

A Group I element To According to the

Reacts: produce Equation
Vigorously with An oxide Alkali metal + oxygen → metal oxide
oxygen Example: 4Li (s) + O2(g) → 2Li2O(s)
With cold water An alkali and Alkali metal + cold water → metal hydroxide + H2 gas
hydrogen gas Example: 2Na(s) + 2H2O(l) → 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g)
With a halogen A salt or Alkali metal + halogen → metal halide (salt)
metal halide Example: 2K(s) + Cl2(g) → 2KCl(s)

The trends in the properties of the Group I elements

The alkali metals are the most reactive metals on the periodic table. As you down Group I,
reactivity increases while melting and boiling points decreases. This means that Fr is the most
reactive metal in Group I and it has the lowest melting and boiling points compared to any other
alkali metals while Li is the most unreactive metals in Group I and it has the highest melting and
boiling points compared to any other alkali metal. Alkaline metals react to lose an outer electron.
So the bigger the atom, the more the reaction of the element will be meanwhile melting and
boiling points decrease because the attraction between the atoms get less strong as the atom
get larger.
Why are the alkali metals so reactive
Alkali metals are so react because they need to lose only one electron to gain a stable outer shell
like the noble gases.so they have a strong drive to react with other elements and compound, in
order to give up this electron. They form ions. The compounds the form are ionic compounds.
For example sodium chloride is made up of the ions Na+ and Cl−.
Group II elements (Alkaline earth metals)
Groups II elements are also known as the alkaline earth metals. These elements are not as
reactive as Group I elements and they can be stored in their elemental form in sealed containers.
Alkaline earth metals are found in the earth’s crust in rock structure.
Physical properties
(i) Are soft and can be easily be cut with a knife although they are slightly harder than
the alkali metals.
(ii) Show a silvery colour when freshly cut.
(iii) Have a low density.
(iv) Are good conductors of both heat and electricity.
(v) Have a higher melting and boiling points than alkali metals.
Chemical properties

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These elements all two valence electrons in the out most shell. Alkaline earth metals react by
losing the two electrons to form an ion with a charge of 2+.

A Group II element To According to the

Reacts: produce Equation
slowly with oxygen A layer of Alkaline earth metal + oxygen → metal oxide
(in air) metal oxide on Example: 2Be (s) + O2(g) → 2BeO(s)
its surface
With cold water An alkali and Alkaline earth metal + cold water → metal hydroxide +
(except Be and Mg) hydrogen gas H2 gas
Example: Mg(s) + 2H2O(l) → Mg(OH)2(aq) + H2(g)
With a halogen A salt or metal Alkaline earth metal + halogen → metal halide (salt)
halide Example: Ca(s) + Cl2(g) → CaCl2(s)
With a dilute acid A salt and Alkaline earth metal + acid → salt + hydrogen gas
hydrogen gas Example: Sr(s) + HCl(aq) → SrCl2(aq) + H2(g)

The trends in the properties of the Group II elements

In Group II, reactivity increases as you go down the Group while melting and boiling points
decreases. So the most reactive metal in Group II is Ra and it has the lowest melting and boiling
points that any other element in Group II. Be has the highest melting and boiling points and it is
less react that any other element in Group II.
Group VII elements (Halogens)
Group VII elements are also known as the halogens. Halogens are known metals and are always
found as diatomic compounds in nature. A diatomic compound is a compound that is made up
of two similar atoms. Fluorine is the most abundant element of the halogens in the earth’s crust,
but it is found combined with other elements in compound form.
Physical properties
(i) Are coloured; Fluorine a pale yellow gas, Chlorine a green gas, Bromine a red-brown
volatile liquid and Iodine a black shiny solid.
(ii) Are non-metals.
(iii) Exist as diatomic molecules (for example F2, Cl2, Br2, and I2).
(iv) They are poisonous.
(v) Are poor conductors of both heat and electricity.
(vi) Have low melting and boiling points.
Chemical properties
Group VII elements all have seven valence electrons in the outer most shell. They react by gaining
one electron to form a single, negatively charged ion.

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A halogen To According to the

Reacts: produce Equation
An (acidic) halogen + hydrogen gas → hydrogen halide
With hydrogen hydrogen Example: F2 (g) + H2(g) → 2HF(s)
halide
With water An acid Halogen + water → acid
(except I and Br) Example: Cl2(g) + H2O(l) → HOCl(aq)* + HCl(g)**
With a metal A salt or Metal + halogen → metal halide (salt)
metal halide Example: 2K(s) + Cl2(g) → 2KCl(s)

The trends in the properties of Group VII elements

In this Group as you go down the Group, reactivity decreases while melting and boiling points
increases. Reactivity decreases because of the size of the element. A halogen atom is able to
attract an extra electron into its outer shell because the positive charge on the nucleus. As the
atoms get bigger, their outer shell get further from the nucleus. The force of attraction get less
so the element get less reactive. Melting and boiling points increases as you go down the group
because the attraction between molecules increases. More energy is needed to help the escape
from the solid to form liquid and from liquid to form gas.
Why are they so reactive?
Halogens are reactive because they only need one electron for them to reach a stable outer most
shell of 8 electrons, so they have a strong drive to react with other elements or compounds, to
gain this electron. That is why they are so reactive.
When halogens react with metal atoms they accept electrons, forming are halide ion. So the
products are ionic. For example the reaction between Calcium and Chlorine gives Calcium
Chlorine, made up of Ca2+ and Cl−. When they react with non-metals such as hydrogen and
carbon, they share electrons forming molecules with covalent bonds. For example hydrogen and
chlorine share electrons to form hydrogen chloride, HCl.
Uses of halogens
(i) Small amounts of chlorine purify drinking water by killing bacteria’s.
(ii) Chlorine is used to breach wood pulp to make white paper because it is a bleaching
agent.
(iii) Are used to make photographic films when combined with silver to make silver
halides.
(iv) Small amounts of iodine are needed in our bodies to prevent the swelling of the
thyroid gland. Iodine is used to form the hormone thyroxine that is produced by the
thyroid gland. Iodine is also used as an antiseptic.
(v) Small amounts of Fluorine ions are added to tap water and tooth paste to prevent
tooth decay.
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JOE SIWALE

Harmful effect
(i) Fluorine and Chlorine vapours are extremely poisonous.
(ii) Liquid bromine is very corrosive and great care has to be taken to keep it off your skin.
Group VIII elements (Noble gases)
Group VIII elements are also known as the noble gases or the rare gases or the inert gases. This
group of non-metals contain the elements Helium, Neon, Argon, Krypton and Xenon.
Physical properties
(i) Are non-metals.
(ii) Colourless gases, which occur naturally in air.
(iii) Are odourless.
(iv) Are monoatomic gases because they exist as singe atoms.
(v) They are unreactive because they have a full outer-most shell.
(vi) They have a low melting and boiling points.
Why are they unreactive?
Atoms react in order to gain a stable outer shell of electrons. They do this by either gaining or
losing electrons. But the gases of the noble gases already have a stable outer shell with two for
helium and 8 for the rest of the noble gases. So they atoms have no need to react in order to gain
or lose electrons.
Trends in their physical properties
As you go down the Group, the density of elements increases and also their boiling points. The
density increases because as you go down the Group, the mass number of noble gases increases.
Uses of noble gases
(i) Helium is used to fill balloons since it is light and not reactive.
(ii) Neon is used in advertising signs. It grows red, but the colour can be changed by
mixing it with other gases.
(iii) Argon is used to fill light bulbs because it does not react with the filament. It also
protects the metals during welding.
(iv) Krypton and Xenon are used in photographic flash units and lamps.
Transitional elements
Transitional elements are the elements in the middle of the periodic table. They are found
between Group II and Group III elements on the periodic table. All transitional elements are
metals. They are 30 transitional elements on the periodic table. Transitional elements include
metals that we use every day or the metals that we are familiar with such as iron, copper, silver,
gold, zinc and aluminium. The fourth abundant metal in the earth’s crust is iron after oxygen,

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JOE SIWALE

silicon and aluminium. We use iron more than we do use all the other metals put together. This
is because on our dependence on steel, which is an alloy of iron, carbon and other transitional
metals.
Physical properties
(i) They are all shiny.
(ii) They are hard, tough and strong metals.
(iii) Have a high melting and boiling point except mercury that has the melting point of
-39oc.
(iv) Are malleable (can be hammered into different shapes).
(v) Are ductile (can be draw into wires).
(vi) Are good conductors of both heat and electricity.
(vii) They are not reactive.
(viii) Have a high density.
(ix) Form coloured ions in aqueous solution. Copper (II) sulphate solution is an example
which is blue in colour.
Chemical properties
(i) Have variable valences, hence they have variable charges, such as copper (Cu + and
Cu2+) and iron (Fe2+ and Fe3+).
(ii) They form strong alloys with each other.
(iii) They have oxidation stages.
(iv) Most transitional elements can form complex ions. For example if you add ammonia
to a solution containing copper (II) ions, a pale blue precipitate of copper (II) hydroxide
forms. It dissolves again if you add more ammonia, giving a deep blue solution.
(v) They show no clear trends in reactivity.
Uses of transitional elements
(i) Transitional elements are used as catalyst in industries in order to speed up chemical
reactions. For example, iron catalyst is used in the manufacture of ammonia and nickel
catalyst is used in the manufacture of margarine.
(ii) Used in the manufacture of paints.
(iii) As good conductors of both heat and electricity, copper is used to make electrical
wires and aluminium is used to make pots and pans for cooking.
(iv) Used to make alloys. For example, steel is made from iron and carbon, brass from
copper and zinc, mirror or bronze from copper and tin.
Some individual transitional metals have specific uses:
(i) Tungsten is used to make tools and filaments in light bulbs because it has a very high
melting and boiling points.

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(ii) Lead is used in paints. It is added to paint to speed up drying, increases durability and
resist moisture that causes corrosion. But lead is poisonous metal. It can damage
nerve connections and cause blood and brain disorders. It is not used in every day
paints, but it is still used on military vehicles.
Hydrogen
Hydrogen is placed on top of the periodic table because it can be placed in Group I or Group VII.
It can be placed in Group I because hydrogen has one electron in the outer most shell like the
alkali metals. Hydrogen can be placed in Group VII because it only one electron for it to be stable
like halogens.

2) THE MOLE CONCEPT

A mole is a quantity of a substance. The symbol for a mole is mol.
Avogadro’s constant or number
A mole (mol) of particles contains exactly 6022000000000000000000000 particles. This number
is called the Avogadro’s constant (NA), and it is written in short form as 6.02×1023. The Avogadro’s
constant is named after an Italian scientist called Avogadro. The 1023 tells you to move the
decimal point 23 places to the right, to get the full number. One mole of the substance is
6.02×1023 particles of the substance. So one mole magnesium contains 6.02×1023 magnesium
atoms. Also one mole of copper contains 6.02×1023 copper atoms.
Molar mass
Molar mass (M) is the mass of one mole of atoms or molecules. The units of molar mass are
measured in grams per mol (g/mol). The mass of one mole of a substance is the same as the
relative formula mass or molecular mass of the substance.
Example
(i) 1 mole of oxygen atom (with relative mass of 16) has a molar mass of 16g/mol.
(ii) 1 mole of sodium atom (with relative mass of 23) has a molar mass of 23g/mol.
(iii) 1 mole of oxygen gas (with relative mass of 32) has a molar mass of 32g/mol.
(iv) 1 mole of boron atom (with relative mass of 11) has the molar mass of 11g/mol.
The table below shows the relationship between relative mass and molar mass for some
substances.

Substance Relative mass (Mr) Molar mass (M)

H 1 1g/mol

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H2 2 2g/mol
Co2 44 44g/mol
H2SO4 98 98g/mol
O2 32 32g/mol

When you are dealing with mass, molar mass and the moles of a substance, we use the formula
below:
m
n= M

where:
n= Number of moles (mol).
m= Mass of the substance (g).
M= Molar mass (g/mol).
Example
(1) How many moles are there in 0.35g of water.
Data
m= 0.35g
M= 18g/mol
n= ?
m
n=
M
0.35
n=
18

n= 0.19mol
(2) Find the number of moles in 0.5g of an oxygen atom.
Data
M= 0.5g
M= 16g/mol
n= ?
m
n=
M
0.5
n=
16
n= 0.031g/mol
(3) What is the mass of 0.001mol of hydrogen gas.
Data
n= 0.001mol

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M= 2g/mol
m= ?
m n m
n= = m= n × M
M 1 M
m= n × M
m= 0.001 × 2
m= 0.002g/mol
(4) Find the molar mass and name the element using the periodic table fi its:
(a) Mass is 2g and the number of moles is 0.05mol.
Data
m= 2g
n= 0.05mol
M= ?
m
M=
n
2
M=
0.05
M= 40g/mol Element= Calcium 40Ca20
(b) If the mass is 5.211g and the number of moles is 0.193mol.
Data
m= 5.211g
n= 0.193mol
M= ?
m
M=
n
5.211
M=
0.193
M= 27g/mol Element= Aluminium 27Al13
Calculating particles
To find the number of particles in one mole of substance, we use the formula below;
X= n × NA
Where:
X= Number of particles (atoms, ions or molecules)
n= Number of moles (mol)
NA= Avogadro’s constant (6.02 × 1023)
Example
(1) Determine the number of particles in 2mol of NaCl.
Data

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n= 2mol
NA= 6.02 × 1023
X= ?
X= n × NA
X= 2 × 6.02 ×1023
X= 1.204 × 1024 particles
(2) Calculate 12.04 × 1023 particles of hydrogen gas to mole.
Data
NA= 6.02 × 1023
X= 12.04 × 1023
n= ?
X
n=
NA
12.04 ×1023
n=
6.02 × 1023
n= 2mol
(3) How many particles of magnesium are contained in 2.4g of the substance?
Data
m= 2.4g
m= 24g/mol
NA= 6.02 × 1023
n= ?
x= ?
m
n=
M
2.4
n= 24
n= 0.1mol
X= n × NA
X= 0.1 × 6.02 × 1023
X= 6.02 × 1022 particles
(4) Calculate the number of moles:
(a) Molecules in 15g of H2SO4.
Data
m= 15g
M= 98g/mol
NA= 6.02 × 1023
n= ?
X= ?
m
n=
M
15
n=
98

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JOE SIWALE

n= 0.153mol
X= n x NA
X= 0.153 x 6.02 x 1023
X= 9.211 molecules
(b) Atoms in 20g of AlCl3.
Data
m= 20g
m= 133.5g/mol
NA= 6.02 x 1023
n= ?
X= ?
m
n= M
20
n= 133.5
n= 0.15mol
X= n x NA
X= 0.15 x 6.02 x 1023
X= 9.03 x 1023 Atoms
(c) Moles in 3.01 x 1023 atoms of NaOH.
Data
X= 3.01 x 1023
NA= 6.02 x 1023
n= ?
X
n=
NA
3.01 x 1023
n=
6.01 x 1023
n= 5mol
(d) Mass in 5.02 x 1023 particles of MgO.
Data
NA= 6.02 x 1023
X= 5.02 x 1023
M= 40g/mol
n= ?
m= ?
X
n=
NA
5.02 x 1023
n=
6.02 x 1023
n= 8mol
m= n x M
m= 8 x 40

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JOE SIWALE

m= 320g
Molar volumes of gases
Avogadro’s law states that equal volumes of molecular gases under the same conditions of
temperature and pressure contain equal numbers of molecules. When we compare the
volumes of gases, we must keep their temperatures and pressures the same. The molar volume
is the volume occupied by 1 mole of gas. The molar volume (Vm) of a gas is the volume that it
occupies at some standard temperature and pressure (STP) or at room temperature and
pressure. The molar volume at STP is 22.4dm3 and at RTP is 24dm3.
To calculate the volume of a gas at STP or RTP, we use the equation;
V= n x Vm
Where:
n= Moles of gas (mol) conversion of volume units:
V= actual volume of the gas (dm3) 1000cm3= 1dm3
Vm= Molar volume of the gas 1litre= 1dm 3
Example
(1) What volume does 0.25mol of CO2 occupy at r.t.p?
Data
Vm= 24dm3 V= n x Vm
n= 0.25mol V= 0.25 x 24
V= ? V= 6dm3
(2) What is the volume of 0.1mol of oxygen gas at standard temperature and pressure (STP)?
Data
n= 0.1mol V= n x Vm
Vm= 22.4dm 3 V= 0.1 x 22.4
V= ? V= 2.24dm3
(3) What is the volume of 4g of hydrogen gas at RTP?
Data
m= 4g V= n x Vm
M= 2g/mol V= 2 x 24
Vm= 24dm 3 V= 48dm3
n= ?
V= ?
m
n=
M
4
n=
2

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JOE SIWALE

n= 2mol
(4) What is the mass of 72000cm3 of oxygen gas measured at s.t.p?
Data
V= 72dm3 m= n x M
Vm= 22.4dm 3 m= 3.214 x 32
M= 32g/mol m= 102.848g
n= ?
m=?
V= n x Vm
n x Vm= V
n x vm V
=
Vm Vm
V
n=
Vm
72
n=
22.4
n= 3.214mol
(5) A gas cylinder has a capacity of 125cm3. Calculate:
(a) The moles of CO2 that can fully occupy it at RTP.
Data
V= 0.125dm3
Vm= 24dm3
n= ?
V
n=
Vm
0.125
n=
24
n= 0.0052mol
(b) The mass of CO2 that can fully occupy it at STP.
Data
V= 0.125dm3 m= n x M
Vm= 22.4dm 3 m= 0.0056 x 44
M= 44g/mol m= 0.25g
n= ?
m= ?
V
n=
Vm
0.125
n=
22.4
n= 0.0056mol
(6) Calculate the number of atoms of He gas at RTP, if the gas occupies a volume of 40dm3.
Data
V= 40dm3 X= n x NA

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JOE SIWALE

Vm= 24dm3 X= 1.67 x 6.02 x 1023

NA= 6.02 x 1023 X= 2.77 x 1022 Atoms
n= ?
X= ?
V
n=
Vm
40
n=
24
n= 1.67mol
Molar concentration
Concentration is the number of moles of solute present in 1dm3 of a solution. In this case, the
units of concentration are mole per dm3 (mol/dm3) or Molar (M). Concentration can also be
defined as the mass of solute present in 1dm3 of a solution. The units in this case is grams per
dm3 (g/dm3).
They are two formulas that we can use to calculate the concentration of the solution. These
formulas are given below;
n
(i) C=
V
Where:
C= Concentration of the solution (mol/dm3)
n= Amounts of solute (mol)
V= Volume of the solution (dm3)
m
(ii) C=
V
Where:
C= Concentration of the solution (g/dm3)
m= mass of solute (g)
V= volume of the solution (dm3)
Example
(1) A solution of sodium Iodine (NaI) in water contains 3g of solute in 100cm3 of solution.
Calculate its concentration in:
(a) g/dm3
Data
m= 3g
V= 0.1dm3
C= ?
3
C=
0.1
C= 30g/mol
(b) mol/dm3

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JOE SIWALE

Data
m= 3g
V= 0.1dm3
M= 150g/mol
n= ?
C= ?
m
n=
M
3
n=
150
n= 0.02mol
n
C=
V
0.02
C=
0.1
C= 0.2mol/dm3 or M
(2) (a) How many moles are contained in 200cm3 of solution of 0.02M NaOH.
Data
V= 0.2dm3 n= C x V
C= 0.02M n= 0.02 x 0.2
n= ? n= 0.04mol
(b) Calculate the mass of NaOH used.
Data
n= 0.04mol m= n x M
M= 40g/mol m= 0.04 x 40
m= ? m= 1.6g
(3) 0.5g of AlCl3 are dissolved in 2litres of solvent. Calculate the concentration of the
solution in;
(a) g/mol
Data
m= 0.5g
V= 2dm3
C= ?
0.5
C=
2
C= 0.25g/mol
(b) mol/dm3
Data
V= 2dm3
m= 0.5g
M= 133.5g/mol
n= ?
C= ?

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JOE SIWALE

n
n=
V
0.5
n=
133.5
n= 0.004mol
0.004
C=
2
C= 0.002mol/dm3
Calculating mole, mass and volume from equations
Balanced chemical equations can be used to replace sentences describing reactions. Equations
gives the actual ratio of the reaction particles that is:
(i) The ratio of moles of reactants and products.
(ii) The ratio of mass of reactants and products.
However, the exact amounts of reactants and products can be calculated from chemical
equations. An example of a balanced chemical equation is given below;
2H2 + O2 → 2H2O
We can say that we have:
(a) 2 moles of hydrogen gas react with 1 mole of oxygen gas to produce 2mole of water.
(b) 4g of hydrogen gas react with 32g of oxygen to produce 36g of water.
Example
(1) Calculate the mass of carbon required to reduce 7.95g copper (II) oxide to copper
according to the equation.
2CuO + C → 2Cu + CO2
Data
Mole ratio
2 mole of copper (II) reacts with 1 mole of carbon
Mass ratio
CuO C
m= n x M m= n x M
m= 2 x 80 m= 1 x 12
m= 160g m= 12g
160g of copper (II) oxide is reduced by 12g of carbon.
160g → 12g
7.95g → x
16og𝑥 12g x 7.95g
=
160g 160g
x= 0.596g of carbon

20
JOE SIWALE

(2) Calcium reacts with water to form an insoluble suspension of calcium hydroxide.
Hydrogen gas is produced. Calculate the mass of hydrogen gas produced from 10g of
calcium
Ca + 2H2O → Ca(OH)2 + H2
Data
Mole ratio
1 mole of calcium produces 1 mole of hydrogen gas.
Mass ratio
40g of calcium produces 2g of hydrogen gas.
40g → 2g
10g → x
40g𝑥 2g x 10g
= x= 0.5g of hydrogen gas
40g 40g
(3) calculate the volume of hydrogen at RTP produced from 1dm3 of ammonia in the
equation below;
2NH3 → N2 + 3H2
Data
Mole ratio
2 moles of ammonia produces 3 mole of hydrogen gas.
Volume ratio
NH3 H2
V= n x Vm V= n x Vm
V= 2 x 24 V= 3 x 24
V=48dm 3 V= 72dm3
48dm3 of ammonia produces 24dm3 of hydrogen gas.
48dm3 → 72dm3
1dm3 → x
48𝑥 1 x 72
=
48 48
x= 1.5dm3 of hydrogen gas
(4) Calculate the volume of hydrogen gas produced from 3.01dm3 of magnesium at STP.
The reaction between magnesium and steam is given below.
Mg + H2O → MgO + H2
Data
Mole ratio
1 mole of Mg gives 1 mole of H2
Volume ratio
22.4dm3 of Mg gives 22.4dm3 of H2
22.4dm3 → 22.4dm3
3.01dm3 → x
22.4𝑥 22.4 x 3.01
=
22.4 22.4

21
JOE SIWALE

x= 3.01dm3 of hydrogen gas

(5) Calculate the volume of carbon dioxide at RTP produced from 10g of calcium carbonate.
Write a balanced chemical equation.
Solution
CaCO3 → CaO + CO2
Mole ratio
1 mole of CaCO3 produces 1 mole of CO2
m
n=
M
10
n=
100
n= 0.1mol of CaCO3
V= n x Vm
V= 0.1 x 24
V= 2.4dm3
Volume ratio
24dm3 → 24dm3
2.4dm3 → x
24𝑥 24 x 2.4
=
24 24
x= 2.4dm3 of carbon dioxide
(6) Calculate the mass of calcium oxide produced when 14.8g of calcium hydroxide are
heated according to the equation.
Ca(OH)2 → CaO + H2O
Data
Mole ratio
1 mole of calcium hydroxide produces 1 mole of calcium oxide.
Mass ratio
78g of calcium hydroxide produces 56g of calcium oxide.
78g → 56g
14.8g → x
78𝑥 56 x 14.8
=
78 78
x= 11.2g of calcium oxide
The empirical formula
The empirical formula is the formula that shows the ratio of atoms found in the compound. It
shows the number of atoms in their simple ratio.
Steps to follow when finding the empirical formula
(i) Identify the elements contained in the compounds.
(ii) Identify the masses contained of the elements contained in the compound.

22
JOE SIWALE

(iii) Divide the mass of each element by its relative atomic mass.
(iv) Divide the answer by the smallest value.
(v) The answers are the ratio of the elements and hence the empirical formula.
Example
(1) The compound has 50% sulphur and 50% oxygen. Determine the empirical formula.
S O
50% : 50%
50 50
:
32 16
1.56 : 3.125
1.56 3.125
:
1.56 1.56
1 : 2.0025
1:2 hence the empirical formula is SO2
(2) An experiment shows that 32g of sulphur combines with 32g of oxygen to form the
compound sulphur dioxide. What is the empirical formula?
S O
32 : 32
32 32
:
32 16
1 2
1:2 hence the empirical formula is SO2
(3) A compound of magnesium and chlorine is found to contain 25.3% of magnesium by
mass. Calculate the empirical formula for the compound.
Mg Cl
25.3% : 74.7%
25.3 74.4
:
24 35.5
1.1 : 2.1
1 : 2
1:2 hence the empirical formula is MgCl2
(4) In an analysis of black copper oxide, the percentage of copper was found to be 79%. What
is the percentage of oxygen and hence find the empirical formula of this compound.
x% + 79%= 100%
x% = 100% − 79%
x%= 21%
Oxygen= 21%
Cu O
79% : 21%
79 : 21

23
JOE SIWALE

79 21
:
64 16
1.23 : 1.31
1 : 1
1:1 hence the empirical formula CuO
(5) A compound containing Aluminium and oxygen was found to contain 52.94% and 47.06%
by mass respectively. Calculate the empirical formula of the compound.
Al O
52.94% : 47.06%
52.94 : 47.06
52.94 47.06
:
27 16
1.96 : 2.94
1.96 2.94
:
1.96 1.96
1 : 1.5
1x2 : 1.5x2
2 : 3
2:3 hence the empirical formula is Al2O3
Molecular formula
The molecular formula shows the actual number of atoms that combine to form a molecule. The
molecular formula gives more information of a compound. For instance CH2 can represent a
number of compounds if multiplied by a factor n.
If n= 2; (CH2)2= C2H4
n= 3; (CH2)3= C3H6
so CH2 is the empirical formula where as the formula got after multiplying by the factor n is
referred to as the molecular formula.
Working out the molecular formula
To find the molecular formula for unknown compound, you need to know:
(i) The empirical formula.
(ii) The formula mass of the compound.
(iii) Then calculate the value of n for the substance by;
𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
n=
𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑖𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
Thereafter, multiply the numbers in the empirical formula by this number n.
Example

24
JOE SIWALE

(1) Octane is a member of the alkaline family. Its percentage compound is 84.2% carbon and
15.8% hydrogen. Its formula mass is 144. What is the molecular formula?
C : H
84.2 15.8
:
12 1
7.02 : 15.8
7.02 15.8
:
7.02 7.02
1 : 2.25
1x4 : 2.25x4
4 : 9
C4H9 is the empirical formula
Empirical formula mass
C4H9= (4x12) + (9x1)
= 48 + 9
= 57g/mol
𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
n=
𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑖𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
114
n=
57
n= 2
(C4H9)2
C8H18 is the molecular formula
(2) What is the molecular formula of a compound containing 40.1% of carbon, 6.6% hydrogen
and 53.3% oxygen, if the compound has a relative molecular mass of 60g/mol.
C H O
40.1 6.6 53.3
: :
12 1 16
3.34 : 6.6 : 3.33
3.34 6.6 3.33
: :
3.34 3.34 3.34
1 : 1.98 : 1
1 : 2 : 1
CH2O is the empirical formula
Empirical formula mass
CH2O= (1x12) + (2x1) + (1x16)
= 12+2+16
= 60g/mol
𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
n=
𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑖𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
60
n=
30
n= 2
(CH2O)2
25
JOE SIWALE

C2H4O2 is the molecular formula

Limiting reagent
A limiting reagent is the reagent that is in less quantity during a reaction. The limiting reagent
determines the amount of product formed. The other reagent that react with the limiting reagent
will be in excess.
Steps to follow when finding the limiting reagent
(i) Write the balanced chemical equation for the reaction.
(ii) Convert all given masses, volumes, concentration or number of particles to mole.
(iii) Calculate the required mole ratio (RMR) from the balanced chemical equation.
(iv) Calculate the available mole ratio (AMR) from the mass, volume, concentration or
number of particles given in the question.
(v) If the AMR is greater than the RMR, the denominator of the AMR is the limiting
reagent. But if the AMR is less than the RMR, then the numerator of the AMR is the
limiting reagent.
(vi) Use the limiting reagent to find the mass, volume, concentration or number of
particles of the product or unknown reagent.
Example
(1) Sodium and oxygen react to produce sodium oxide. If 3g of sodium react with 5.5g of
oxygen;
(a) Write a balanced chemical reaction with state symbols for this reaction.
4Na(s) + O2(g) → 2Na2O(s)
(b) Calculate the limiting reagent in the equation.
Mass ratio
3g of Na react with 5.5g of O2
Mole ratio
Na O2
3 5.5
n= n=
23 16
n= 0.13mol n=0.34mol
4 0.13
RMR= =4 AMR= = 0.38
1 0.34
Since the AMR is less than the RMR the numerator of the AMR is the limiting reagent.
In this case, sodium is the liming reagent.

(c) The mass of sodium oxide formed.

Data
n= 0.13mol (cause Na is the liming reagent) m= n x M
M= 62g/mol m= 0.13 x 62

26
JOE SIWALE

m= ? m= 0.06g of Na2O
(2) Nitrogen gas reacts with hydrogen gas to form ammonia gas.
(a) Write a balanced chemical equation with state symbols for this reaction.
N2(g) + 3H2(g) → 2NH3(g)
(b) If 0.1g of nitrogen and 0.05g of hydrogen was used during the reaction, calculate:
(i) The limiting reagent.
Mass ratio
0.1g of nitrogen gas react with 0.05g of hydrogen gas.
Mole ratio
N2 H2
0.1 0.05
n= n=
28 2
n= 0.004mol n= 0.025mol
1 0.004
RMR= = 0.333 AMR= = 0.16
3 0.025
Hence hydrogen gas is the limiting reagent because AMR is greater than the
RMR and in this case hydrogen is the denominator.
(ii) The mass of ammonia gas formed.
Data
n= 0.025mol m= n x M
M= 17g/mol m= 0.025 x 17
m= ? m= 0.425g of Ammonia gas
(iii) The volume of ammonia gas produces at;
(a) RTP (b) STP
Data Data
n= 0.025mol V= n x Vm n= 0.025mol V= n x Vm
Vm= 24dm 3 V= 0.025 x 24 Vm= 22.4dm 3 V= 0.025 x 22.4
V= ? V= 0.6dm 3 V= ? V= 0.56dm3
Dilution
Dilution is the decrease in concentration of a solution. You will discover that most of the solutions
are prepared by diluting a more concentrated solution. This is done by adding more solvent
without adding more solute. Diluted solutions are mostly prepared in the laboratory for
experiments. You will discover that during dilution, the number of moles of solutes before
dilution will be equal to the number of moles of solutes after dilution. Due to this, we can write
the formula of dilution as shown below;
Moles of solute before dilution = Moles of solute after dilution
C1V1 = C2V2
Where:

27
JOE SIWALE

C1= Initial concentration

V1= Initial volume
C2= Final concentration
V2= Final concentration
Example
(1) How much water must be added to 20cm3 of 0.2M of HCl solution to produce a solution
that has a concentration of 0.16M?
Data
C1= 0.2M
V1= 20cm3
C2= 0.16M
V 2= ?
C1V1 = C2V2
0.2 x 20 = 0.16 x V2
4 = 0.16V2
0.16V2 = 4
0.16V2 4
=
0.16 0.16

V2= 25cm3
V= V1−V2
V= 25cm3−20cm3
V= 5cm3
(2) A solution of NaOH has a volume of 100cm3 and concentration 1.5M. Calculate the new
volume that can be reached if the new concentration would be 0.5M.
Data
C1= 1.5M C1V1 = C2V2
V1= 100cm3 1.5 x 100 = 0.5 x V2
C2= 0.5M V2= 300cm3
V2= ?

28
JOE SIWALE

(3) A solution of sulphuric acid has a concentration of 5M and volume of 2litres. If you add
water to sulphuric acid and the volume rises to 2.5 litres, calculate the concentration of
H2SO4.
Data
C1= 5M C1V1 = C2V2
V1= 2L 5 x 2 = C2 x 2.5
C2= ? C2= 4M
V2= 2.5L
Percentage yield
During a chemical reaction you will discover that the amount of product actually formed in the
chemical reaction is less than the amount that can be calculated from the equation. This can be
caused due to some impurities and other reasons. We can calculate the amount of product that
we should produce in a reaction before allowing the reaction to start. This is called theoretical
yield. Once the reaction is complete and the actual amount of product is weighed, we can
determine the actual (experimental) yield. Therefore, the percentage yield can be defined as the
measure of the efficiency between the actual yield and the theoretical yield.
The formula for percentage yield is given below;
𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑
Percentage yield= x 100%
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑

Example
(1) Calcium reacts with hydrochloric acid to form calcium chloride and hydrogen gas.
(a) Write a balanced chemical equation with state symbols for this reaction.
Ca(s) + 2HCl(aq) → CaCl2(aq) + H2(g)
(b) If 40g of calcium had to react with hydrochloric acid and 60g of calcium chloride was
produced, calculate the percentage yield.
Mole ratio
1 mole of calcium produces 1 mole of calcium chloride.
Mass ratio
Ca CaCl2
m= n x M m= n x M
m= 1 x 40 m= 1 x 111
m= 40g m= 111g
40 → 111
40 → x
40𝑥 111 x 40
=
40 40

29
JOE SIWALE

x= 111g
𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑
Percentage yield= x 100%
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑
60
= x 100%
111
= 54.5%
Percentage purity
Percentage purity indicates the amount of pure substance present in a sample of chemical
substance. The percentage of the substance refers to that reactants and not the product, in some
cases. The formula of percentage purity is given below;
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
Percentage purity= x 100%
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒

Example
(1) An impure sample of Na2SO4 has a mass of 1.56g. This sample is dissolved and allowed to
react with BaCl2 solution. The resulting precipitate has a mass of 2.15g. calculate;
(a) The percentage purity (b) The actual mass of Na 2SO4
Na2SO4 + BaCl2 → BaSO4 + 2NaCl = 1.56g x 60.93%
Mole ratio = 0.95g of Na2SO4 was
1 mole of Na2SO4 forms 1 mole of BaSO4 present in the impure
Mass ratio sample.
Na2SO4 BaSO4
m= n x M m= n x M
m= 1 x 142 m= 1 x 233
m= 142g m= 233g
142 → 233
x → 2.15
233x = 142 x 2.15
x= 1.31g of Na2SO4
𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑
Percentage purity= x 100%
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑
1.31
= x 100%
2.15
= 60.93%

3) ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS

Acids
Acids are not always dangerous substances that must be handled with care. Many people
usually take in acids in their bodies without realising that they have taken in acid. Acids can be

30
JOE SIWALE

taken in the body through vinegar that contains ethanoic acid, citrus fruits such as lemons,
grapefruit and oranges have citrus acid in the juice and daily products such as sour milk and
yogurt that contains lactic acid. These acids have a low PH that is why they are safe to eat.
Properties of acids
(i) Have a sour taste.
(ii) They are corrosive (strong acids are dangerous and they burn the skin).
(iii) Acids are neutralised by bases.
(iv) They change colours of indicators.
(v) They change blue litmus paper to red.
An acid is a substance that forms a hydrogen ion (H+) when it dissolves in water. This forms an
aqueous solution of hydrogen ions. The acids that we use in the laboratory are all aqueous
solutions of acids. When an acid is dissolved in water, it ionizes to form a positively charged
hydrogen ion and a negatively charged ion. We can write a generalized equation of an acid that
ionises in water, like this:
HX(aq) → H+(aq) + X−(aq)
We can apply these generalised equation to real examples:
(a) HCl(aq) → H+(aq) + Cl−(aq) (hydrogen ions and chloride ions)
+ −
(b) HNO3(aq) → H (aq) + NO3 (aq) (hydrogen ions and nitrate ions)
But, the hydrogen ion does not stay like this in the solution. It quickly bonds with water to form
a hydronium ion (H3O+). This is the ion that gives an acid all of its properties.
HX(aq) + H2O(l) → H3O+(aq) + X−(aq)
We can apply this to the real examples:
(a) HCl(aq) + H2O(l) → H3O+(aq) + Cl−(aq) (hydronium ions and chloride ions)
+ −
(b) HNO3(aq) + H2O(l) → H3O (aq) + NO3 (aq) (hydronium ions and nitrate ions)
The table below shows some common acids found in the laboratory.

ACID FORMULA
Hydrochloric acid HCl
Sulphuric acid H2SO4
Nitric acid HNO3
Ethanoic acid CH3COOH

Bases

31
JOE SIWALE

Bases are the opposite of acids. We usually use bases in our daily lives. For example soap is used
for washing which contains soda (sodium carbonate), cement used for building which is made
from quick lime (calcium hydroxide) and baking soda (bicarbonate of soda) is used in baking. A
base that is soluble in water is called an alkali.
Properties of alkalis
(i) Alkalis have a bitter taste.
(ii) They have a soapy or slippery feel.
(iii) They are corrosive (strong alkalis are dangerous and can burn the skin).
(iv) Alkalis are neutralised by acids.
(v) They change the colour of indicators.
(vi) They turn a red litmus paper into blue colour.
Some common alkalis are given in the table below;

ALKALI FORMULA
Ammonia NH3
Sodium hydroxide (soda ash) NaOH
Potassium hydroxide (pot ash) KOH
Magnesium hydroxide Mg(OH)2
Calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2
Barium hydroxide Ba(OH)2

A base a substance that forms a hydroxide ion (OH−(aq)) when it dissolves in water. Sometimes,
the hydroxide ion is formed because the base is an ionic substance that already contains a
hydroxide ion, such as NaOH:
NaOH(aq) → Na+(aq) + OH−(aq)
Sometimes, the hydroxide ion is produced because of the reaction between the base and water.
NH3(aq) + H2O(l) → NH+(aq) + OH−(aq)
A metal oxide (a base) reacts with water to produce a hydroxide (an alkali), which then realises a
hydroxide ion in the solution:
CaO(s) + H2O(l) → Ca(OH)2(aq)
Ca(OH)2(aq) → Ca2+(aq) + 2OH−(aq)
But, only the oxides of metals from Group I and II of the period table are soluble in water. Copper
is a transitional metal and it can form an oxide, but copper oxide is not soluble in water.
Therefore, it cannot form an alkali.

32
JOE SIWALE

The strength of acids and bases

Strong acids
Strong acids are acids that completely ionize in water to form hydronium ions. Example of strong
acids are sulphuric acid, hydrochloric acid and nitric acid:
HCl(aq) → H3O+(aq) + Cl−(aq)
HNO3(aq) → H3O+(aq) + NO3−(aq)
Weak acids
Weak acids are acids that partially ionize in water. The remaining unionized acid particles
remain unchanged. The double arrow indicates that the reaction is reversible. Those ions that
didn’t ionize can also recombine to form acid molecules. Examples of weak acids are
phosphoric acid, carbonic acid and ethanoic acid:
⃑⃑⃑ 3H+(aq) + PO43−(aq)
H3PO4(aq) ←
⃑⃑⃑ H+(aq) + CH3COO−(aq)
CH3COOH(aq) ←
The strength of an acid depends on the number of ions present in a solution. A strong acid ions
completely in aqueous solution producing many hydrogen ions. A weak acid ionises to produce
fewer ions. Thus why you will discover that if a similar piece of magnesium ribbon was to react
with hydrochloric acid of 2M and carbonic acid of 2M, the reaction of hydrochloric acid will be
faster than that of carbonic acid. The reaction of hydrochloric acid is faster because strong acids
such as hydrochloric acid ionise fully in aqueous solution yielding many hydrogen ions which
enable its reaction with metals and other substances to proceed much faster and more rapidly
than the case with weak acids.
Strong alkalis
A strong alkali dissociates completely in water. When we dissolve solid sodium hydroxide (NaOH)
in water, it dissociates completely into its Na+ and OH− ions. The solution contains positive and
negative ions, but no NaOH molecules remain. These dissociation reactions are irreversible.
Therefore, we write the reaction using a single arrow. Examples of equations showing the
completely dissociations of strong alkalis are given below:
NaOH(aq) → Na+(aq) + OH−(aq)
KOH(aq) → K+(aq) + OH−(aq)
A weak alkali partially dissociates in water. The remaining base molecules remain unchanged.
But, the reaction is reversible. Therefore, we write the reaction using a double arrow, to that the
reaction is reversible.
⃑⃑⃑ NH4(aq) + OH−(aq)
NH4OH ←

33
JOE SIWALE

The strength of alkalis depend on the number of ions present in the compound.
Comparing concentration and strength of acids and bases.
Concentration refers to the number of moles of an acid or base in 1A concentration of an acid
can either be concentrated or diluted. A concentrated acid or base has more dissolved moles in
a given aqueous solution whereas the diluted acid or base has less moles dissolved in the given
volume of solution. This is why the concentration and the strength of an acid or base are not the
same. Foe example a diluted acid has less moles of acid dissolved in the aqueous solution but a
weak acid is the acid that partially dissociates in water. This also applies to alkalis. Thus why a
solution can be a concentrated strong acid or base or a diluted weak acid or base. The differences
between the concentration and the strength of an acid or a base are given below;

Concentration Strength
Concentration is the amount of acid or alkali The strength of an acid or alkali is the number
dissolved in 1dm3 of a solution. of molecules that can dissociate or ionize to
form ions.
A concentration of an acid or alkali can be The strength of an acid or alkali cannot be
changed. changed.
The concentration of a solution (acid or alkali) The strength of an acid or alkali can either be
can either be concentrated or diluted. weak or strong.
The concentration of an acid or alkali can be The strength of an acid or alkali cannot be
affected by water. For example adding more affected by water. For example adding more
water to acid forms a diluted acid. water to the weak, the acid will remain weak.

The PH scale
The PH scale is the scale that shows the degree of acidity and alkalinity of a solution. The scale
ranges from 0 to 14. The PH of 7 indicates a neutral solution such as pure, distilled water.
Solutions that have the PH of less than 7 are acidic. The solution contains hydrogen ions. The
lower the PH, the more the acidic the solution is and more hydrogen ions it contains. For example
a solution of PH 2 is a stronger acid than a solution of PH 3. The solutions that have the PH of
more than 7 are alkaline. The solution contains hydroxide ions. The higher the PH, the more
alkaline the solution is and the more hydroxide ions it contains. For example, a solution with PH
6 is said to be a weak alkali than the one with a PH 6.9.

Neutral
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Acidity increases Alkalinity increases
Measuring PH levels

34
JOE SIWALE

The PH levels of an acid or an alkali can be measured using a PH meter, acid-base indicators and
universal indicators. The precise numerical values of a solution can be obtained using a PH meter
while the approximate values can be obtained using the various acid-base indicators.
PH meter
A hand-held PH meter consist of a probe and a display unit. The probe is dipped into the solution
and the display shows the PH reading (digitally or on the scale). It is useful for measuring the PH
levels in lakes, dams and rivers. It is also used in the laboratory of industries, sewage and
hospitals. In hospitals it is used to investigate small but significant changes of PH in blood and
other body fluids.
Acid-base indicators
Acid-base indicators are coloured chemical substances that change colour depending on whether
they are in an acid or an alkaline solution. Acid-base indicators are mostly dyes. These indicators
show if a solution is acidic or alkalinity with the colour change in the solution, but they do not
indicate the strength of an acid or alkali. The below shows some common acid-base indicators
that are found in a school laboratory.

Indicator Colour in acid Colour in alkali

Litmus Red Blue
Methyl orange Red Yellow
Bromothymol blue Yellow Blue
Phenolphthalein Colourless Pink

Universal indicator
A universal indicator is a mixture of different (several) indicators. It gives a different colour for
each PH unit. It can be in paper or liquid form. Universal indicator paper can be dipped into a
solution and the resulting colour can be matched with PH values given on the colour chart.
Reactions between acids and bases
When an acid reacts with a base, they neutralize each other. This means that the acid counteracts
the properties of the base, and the base counteracts the properties of the acid. These type of
reaction is known as neutralization reaction. In a neutralization reaction, water is formed as a
product. Neutralization reactions can include the following:
(a) Acid + base
An acid reacts with a base to form a salt and water only. The hydrogen ion of the acid and
the hydroxide ion of the base combine to form water.
Acid + base → salt + water
Example: H2SO4(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) → Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)
Ionically: 2H+(aq) + 2OH−(aq) → 2H2O(l)

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JOE SIWALE

(b) Acid + metal oxide

An acid reacts with a metal oxide to form a salt and water.
Acid + metal oxide → salt + water
Example: 2HCl(aq) + CuO(s) → CuCl2(aq) + H2O(l)
Ionically: 2H+(aq) + CuO(aq)→ Cu2+(aq) + H2O(l)
(c) Acid + metal carbonate
An acid reacts with metal carbonates and hydrogen carbonates to produce salt, water and
carbon dioxide.
Acid + metal carbonate → salt + water + carbon dioxide
Example: 2HCl(aq) + CaCO3(s)→ CaCl2(aq) + H2O(aq) CO2(aq)
Ionically: 2H+(aq) + CaCO3(s) → Ca2+(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
An acid also can undergo a reaction with a metal to form a salt and hydrogen gas. But this type
of a reaction is not a neutralization reaction because water is not formed as a product.
Acid + metal → salt + hydrogen gas
Example: HCl(aq) + Mg(s) → MgCl2(aq) + H2(g)
Ionically: 2H+(aq) + Mg(s) → Mg2+(aq) + H2(g)
The uses of acids and bases
(i) Control of soil PH
Different plants require suitable PH range for optimum growth and yield. If the soil is
too acidic or alkaline, this can cause plants to die. When the soil is too acidic,
limestone is added to the soil. Limestone contains quick lime (CaO) or slaked lime
(Ca(OH)2) that helps to reduce the acidic of the soil. If the soil is very alkaline, its PH
can be lowered by applying acidic fertilizers such as ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3).
(ii) Disposing or recyclering car batteries
Car batteries are known as lead acid batteries. The acid found in batteries is very
strong and corrosive sulphuric acid. To dispose or recycle these car batteries, sulphuric
acid must first be neutralised by a base. Because if sulphuric acid is disposed on the
environment, it can cause damage on the environment.
(iii) Dental protection
When one eats food and this food is not removed from the teeth that remains in the
mouth by brushing the teeth, the bacterials will convert them into acids. The acids will
start to dissolve the enamel. At first this condition is not painful. But when the
condition reaches the pulp cavity, the condition becomes painful and the teeth must
be removed. To prevent the acid from dissolving the enamel, the teeth must be
brushed with tooth paste that contains sodium bicarbonate (baking soda), which
removes the stains, provides the forming action and neutralizes acids.
Formation of salts

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JOE SIWALE

A salt is a chemical substance that is formed from the cation and the anion. A salt can also be
decried as a compound formed from the cation of the base and anion of the acid. For example
NaCl salt can be prepared from NaOH and HCl. NaCl salt contains the cation Na + from the base
NaOH and Cl− from the acid HCl. Salts can be formed in many ways and some ways are given
below;
(a) Through a reaction of an acid and an alkali.
KOH(aq) + HCl(aq) → KCl(aq) + H2O(l)
(b) Between a reaction of a metal and an acid.
Zn(s) + H2SO4(aq) → ZnSO4(aq) + H2(g)
(c) Through a reaction of an insoluble base and acid.
CuO(s) + H2SO4(aq) → CuSO4(aq) + H2O(l)
(d) When a ammonium compound reacts with an alkali, the salt that forms is a combination
of the cation of the alkali with the anion of the ammonium compound.
(NH4)2SO4(s) + Ca(OH)2(aq) → CaSO4(aq) + 2NH3(g) + 2H2O(l)
Classification of salts
The classification of salts can be done according to their nature, water content and their solubility
in water. According to their nature, salts are classified into acidic, alkaline and neutral salts. When
classifying salts according to their water content, there are classified into hydrated and anhydrous
salts. According to their solubility in water, salts are classified into soluble and insoluble salts.
Acidic, alkaline and neutral salts
(a) Acidic salts
These are types of salts that are formed from the anion of the strong acid and the cation
of a weak base. The aqueous solution of this salt will have a PH of less than 7. If this
aqueous solution is tested with an indicator, it will give a result in an acidic condition. For
example, NH4Cl is made from the strong acid HCl and the weak base NH4OH.
(b) Alkaline salts
These are types of salts that are formed from the anion of the weak acid and the cation
of a strong base. The aqueous solution of this salt will have a PH of more than 7. If this
aqueous solution is tested with an indicator, it will give a result in an alkaline condition.
For example, NaCO3 is made from the weak acid H2CO3 and the strong base NaOH.
(c) Neutral salts / Normal salts
Neutral salts are types of salts that are produced from the anion of the strong acid and
the cation of a strong base. Neutral salts are also referred to as normal salts. The aqueous
solution of this salt will have a PH of 7. If this aqueous solution is tested with an indicator,
it will give a result in a neutral condition.
Hydrated and anhydrous salts

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JOE SIWALE

A salt that is formed from an acid-base reaction can be removed from the solution by evaporating
the liquid. Solid salts usually form crystals when the cations and anions combine. Sometimes the
water gets trapped within the crystal structure. This trapped water is called the water of
hydration or the water of crystallization. The salt that contains water is called the hydrated salt.
Examples of hydrated salts are copper (II) sulphate and cobalt (II) chloride. The water of
crystallization can be removed through evaporation. The salt then becomes anhydrous salt.
Soluble and insoluble salts
Soluble salts are salts that dissolve in water to form a homogenous uniform solution. Insoluble
salts don’t dissolve in water. These insoluble salts form a solid which is referred to as a
precipitate.
Soluble rules
Salts can be easily be identified as soluble or insoluble salts by making use of solubility rules.
Solubility rules are a summary of observations made and confirmed about solubility of various
salts. They helps us to predict which salts are soluble or insoluble in water.
The rules state:
(a) All sodium, potassium and ammonium salts are soluble.
(b) All nitrate salts are soluble.
(c) All chlorides are soluble except lead (II) chloride and silver chloride.
(d) All sulphates are soluble except lead (II) sulphate, barium sulphate and calcium sulphate.
(e) All carbonates are insoluble except carbonates of sodium, potassium and ammonium.
(f) All hydroxides are insoluble except those of alkali metals, ammonium and barium.
These rules are given in the table below:

SALT SOLUBLE INSOLUBLE

Sodium, potassium and All salts of sodium, potassium None is insoluble
ammonium salts and ammonium
Nitrates All nitrate salts None is insoluble
Chlorides Most chloride salts Silver chloride and lead chloride
Sulphates Most sulphate salts Barium sulphate, lead sulphate
and calcium sulphate
Carbonates Only carbonates of sodium, All other carbonates
potassium and ammonium
Any alkali metal hydroxide, Most hydroxide
ammonium hydroxide and
barium hydroxide

Preparation of salts

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JOE SIWALE

Salts can be easily be prepared if you know soluble and insoluble salts.
Preparation of soluble salts
The following methods can be used to prepare soluble salts.
(a) Reaction dilute acid with a metal.
(b) Reaction of dilute acid with an insoluble carbonate.
(c) Reaction of dilute acid with an insoluble base.
(d) Reaction of dilute acid with an alkali.
Reaction of dilute acid with a metal (displacement reaction)
Salts of metals above hydrogen in the reactivity series can be prepared using this method.
However, salts of reactive metals such as potassium, sodium and calcium cannot be prepared by
this method because their explosive nature of reaction with acids. Never try this at home or in
the school laboratory. Displacement method of salt preparation is suitable for preparing salts of
magnesium, aluminium, zinc and iron. The reaction of lead with acid is too slow. Copper, silver
and gold do not react with acid because they are below hydrogen in the reactivity series. Because
these metals are below hydrogen in the reactivity series, they are not able to displace the
hydrogen ion H+ in the acid so that they can form salts.
Zinc sulphate can be made by reacting dilute sulphuric acid with zinc metal.
Zn(s) + H2SO4(aq) → ZnSO4(aq) + H2(g)
These are the steps:
(1) Add the zinc to the acid in a beaker. (2) Some zinc is still left (the zinc was in excess).
It starts to dissolve and hydrogen remove it by filtration. This leaves an aqueous

39
JOE SIWALE

bubbles off. Bubbling stops when all solution of zinc sulphate.

the acid is used up.

(3) Heat the solution to evaporate some Water, to obtain a saturate solution. Leave this to

cool. Crystals of zinc sulphate appear.

Reaction of dilute acid with insoluble metal carbonates
Magnesium sulphate can be made by reacting dilute sulphuric acid with magnesium carbonate.
MgCO3(s) + H2SO(aq) → MgSO4(aq) + CO2(g) + H2(g)
These are the steps:
(1) Add the MgCO3 to the acid in a beaker. (2) Heat the beaker gently for 1 to 2 minutes
Stir gently the mixture using the glass rod to ensure that the reaction is complete.

40
JOE SIWALE

(3) Filter off the excess carbonate and correct (4) pour the clear solution into the evaporating
the filtrate. dish and place it on the gauze on the tripod.
Heat the solution gently over a medium
Bunsen frame so that water boils stedily.

(5) Boil about half a liguid away then set it

aside to cool.

Reaction of dilute acid with an insoluble base

Copper will not react with dilute hydrochloric acid or sulphuric acid. So to make copper (II)
sulphate, you must start with a base such as copper (II) oxide, which is insoluble. The reaction
that takes place is:
CuO(s) + H2SO4(aq) → CuSO4(aq) + H2O(l)
The method is quite like the one used to form zinc sulphate from zinc metal and sulphuric acid.

41
JOE SIWALE

(1) Add some copper (II) oxide to the sulphuric (2) remove the excess solid by filtering.
acid. It dissolves on warming and the solution This leaves a blue solution of copper (II)
turns blue. Add more until no more will dissolve. sulphate water.

(3) Heat the solution to obtain the saturated solution Then leave it to cool. Crystals of copper

(II) sulphate form.

Reaction of dilute acid and an alkali (neutralization reaction)
It is dangerous to add sodium to acid. So to make sodium salts, start with sodium hydroxide. You
can make sodium chloride like this:
NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
Both reactants are soluble and no gas bubbles off. So how can you tell when the reaction if
complete? By carrying out titration. In a titration, the reactant is slowly added to the other in the
presence of an indicator. The indicator changes colour when the reaction is complete. This is
known as the end point of the titration. So you know how much reactant is needed for a complete
reaction. Now you can mix the correct amounts, without the indicator.
The steps in making sodium chloride
(1) Put 25cm3 of sodium hydroxide in the conical (2) Add the acid from the burette, just a little
flask, using a pipette. Add two trops of at a time. swirl the flask carefully, to help
phenolphthalein. the acid and alkali mix.

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JOE SIWALE

(3) The indicator suddenly turns colourless. So the
the
alkali has all been used up. The solution is now
neutral. Add no more acid.
25cm3
(5) Now repeat without the indicator (it would be
to
an impurity). Put 25cm3 of alkali in the flask.
Add the correct amount of acid to neutralise it.
(4) Find how much acid you added, using
scale on the burette. This tells you how
much acid is needed to neutralise
of the alkali.
(6) Finally, heat the solution from the flask
evaporate the water. White crystals of
sodium chloride will be left behind.

Preparation of insoluble salts by precipitation

Insoluble salts can be made by precipitation. Barium sulphate is an insoluble salt. You can make
it by making solutions of barium chloride and sodium sulphate.

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JOE SIWALE

The equation for the reaction is:

BaCl2(aq) + Na2SO4(aq) → BaSO4(s) + 2NaCl(aq)
The ionic equation is:
Ba2+(aq) + SO2−(aq) → BaSO4(s)
The steps in making barium sulphate:
(a) Make up the solutions for barium chloride and sodium sulphate.
(b) Mix them. A white precipitate of barium sulphate is forms at once.
(c) Filter the mixture. The precipitate is trapped in the filter paper.
(d) Rinse the precipitate by running distilled water through it.
(e) Then place it in a warm oven to dry.
Salt, water and air
Many salts that are soluble tend to absorb water vapour from the air. These types of salts are
referred to as hygroscopic salts. Hygroscopic salts are types of salts that are soluble in water and
tend to absorb water vapour from the air. An example of a hygroscopic salt is table salt (NaCl)
that damps and tend to stick together in humid weather in a salt shaker. Other example of
hygroscopic salts include potassium carbonate, anhydrous calcium chloride and anhydrous
sodium sulphate. This phenomenon is not only seen in salts, however nature fibres, such as
cotton, mohair and jute are also hygroscopic, to a degree.
Some salts absorb so much water that they start to dissolve. We describe these salts as
deliquescent salts. Calcium chloride is an example of a deliquescent salt. Calcium chloride is
scattered on roads to settle dust in dry and sandy areas. On the form of powder or flakes, it
absorbs more than its own weight in water and forms a liquid that keeps the road wet. Calcium
chloride is hygroscopic but when placed on the road it undergoes deliquescence.
White anhydrous copper (II) sulphate becomes a hydrated blue salt when water is added. If left
exposed to air for long enough, the blue salt will form a white coating on the outside. This is
because the water of crystallization evaporates from the crystals near the surface, and the
anhydrous white powder forms again slowly. We say that these salts that can lose water of
crystallization through evaporation are efflorescent salts.
Types of oxides
Oxides are chemical compounds that contain more oxygen atoms combined with one other
element. Oxides can be classified according to their acidic and basic properties.
Acid oxides

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JOE SIWALE

Acid oxides are oxides of non-metals. These include the elements in Groups 4 to 7 on the periodic
table. These non-metals are usually gases. Acid oxides form acidic solutions with water. Some
examples are given below:
(a) Sulphur dioxide + water → sulphurous acid
SO2(g) + H2O(l) → H2SO3(aq)
(b) Carbon dioxide + water → carbonic acid
CO2(g) + H2O(l) → H2CO3(aq)
Acidic oxides produce salts when they combine with bases:
Sulphur dioxide + sodium hydroxide → sodium sulphite + water
SO2(g) + NaOH(aq) → Na2SO3(aq) + H2O(l)
Basic oxides
Basic oxides are the oxides of the Group II and Group II metals. If soluble in water they react with
water to produce hydroxides (alkalis). Some examples are given below:
(a) Potassium oxide + water → potassium hydroxide
K2O(s) + H2O(l) → 2KOH(aq)
(b) Sodium oxide + water → sodium hydroxide
Na2O(s) + H2O(l) → 2NaOH(aq)
Basic oxides reacts with acids to form salts:
Na2O(s) + 2HCl(aq) → 2NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
Amphoteric oxides
Amphoteric oxides are oxides that can behave as acid or as a base, depending on the substance
they react with. Amphoteric oxides are the oxides of some metals from Groups other than Group
I and II and the metalloids.
When an amphoteric oxide reacts with an acid, it behaves like a base. This reactions produces a
salt and water. For example:
ZnO(s) + HCl(aq) → ZnCl2(aq) + H2O(l)
When an amphoteric oxide reacts with a base, it behaves like an acid. This reaction produces a
salt and water. For example:
ZnO(s) + NaOH(aq) → Na2ZnO2(aq) + H2O(l)
Neutral oxides

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JOE SIWALE

Neutral oxide are oxides that have neither acidic nor basic properties. When they react with a
base or an acid, they don’t form a salt. Neutral oxides are formed from some oxides of non-
metals. Example of neutral oxides are water, carbon monoxide (CO) and dinitrogen oxide (N 2O).
Qualitative analysis
Qualitative analysis is the analysis of chemical substances using their colour, aroma, melting and
boiling points and solubility. It also involves the identification of the solids, liquids, gases or ions
produced in a chemical reaction.
Identification of cations and anions
Cations
The table below summarises the various tests for cations of ammonium, aluminium, calcium,
copper (II), iron (II), iron (III) and zinc using sodium hydroxide or ammonia solutions.

To test Add some If the cation is Then add The ionic equations…….
for……. dilute…… present……. excess
solvent
NH4+ NaOH NH3 gas is No reaction NH4+(aq) + OH−(aq) → NH3(g) + H2O(l)
(+heat) liberated occurs
Al3+ NaOH A white ppt ppt dissolves Al3+(aq) + 3OH−(aq) → Al(OH)3(s)
NH3 forms ppt remains
Ca2+ NaOH A white ppt ppt remains Ca2+(aq) + 2OH−(aq) → Ca(OH)2(s)
forms
Cu2+ NaOH A blue ppt ppt remains Cu2+(aq) + 2OH−(aq) → Cu(OH)2(s)
NH3 forms ppt dissolves
Fe2+ NaOH A pale green ppt remains Fe2+(aq) + 2OH−(aq) → Fe(OH)2(s)
NH3 ppt forms ppt remains
Fe3+ NaOH A red-brown ppt remains Fe3+(aq) + 3OH−(aq) → Fe(OH)3(s)
NH3 ppt forms ppt remains
Zn2+ NaOH A white ppt ppt dissolves Zn2+(aq) + 2OH−(aq) → Zn(OH)2(s)
NH3 forms ppt dissolves

Anions
The table below summarises the various tests for the carbonate, chloride, iodine, nitrate and
sulphate ions in solution.

To test Add some………. If the anion is The ionic equation is…….

for…….. present…….
CO32− Dilute HCl Bubbles of 2H+(aq) + CO32−(aq) → CO2(g) + H2O(l)
hydrogen gas
form

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JOE SIWALE
Cl− Dilute HNO3 then A white ppt
aqueous AgNO3 forms
I− Dilute HNO3 then A yellow ppt
aqueous AgNO3 forms
NO3− NaOH solution, Ammonia gas is
then small flakes of liberated
aluminium foil
SO42− Dilute HCl, then A white ppt
Ba(NO3)2 solution forms
Identification of gases
To test for: Perfume this test:
Ammonia (NH3) Place damp universal
indicator paper in the gas.
Carbon dioxide (CO2) Bubble the gas through
limewater (an aqueous
solution of calcium
hydroxide).
Chlorine gas (Cl2) Place damp universal
indicator in the gas.
Hydrogen gas (H2) Collect some of the gas in
the test tube, then hold a
burning match in the
mouth of the test tube.
Oxygen gas (O2) Collect some of the gas in
the test tube, then hold a
glowing (not burning)
splint in the mouth of the
test tube.
Sulphur dioxide (SO2) Bubbles the gas through
an acidified potassium (VI)
dichromate (K2Cr2O7)
solution.
4) Rates of chemical reactions
Ag+(aq) + Cl−(aq) → AgCl(s)
Ag+(aq) + I−(aq) → AgI(s)
8Al(s) + 3NO3−(aq) + 5OH−(aq) + 2H2O(l)→
3NH3(g) + 8AIO2−(aq)
Ba2+(aq) + SO42−(aq) → BaSO4(s)
If the gas is present:
The indicator paper will turn blue
(ammonia gas is alkali). You will also
notice the sharp, pungent smell of
ammonia
The lime water will turn milky (CO2 is
slightly acidic, so it react with Ca(OH)2 to
produce a white precipitate of CaCO3).
The indicator paper will first turn red
(because chlorine gas is acidic) and then
white, because chlorine gas is the only
gas that has a bleaching effect.
The flame will go out and you will hear a
popping sound. (H2 gas reacts strongly
with oxygen when lit).
The splint will ignite spontaneously.
(fuel burn more readily in pure oxygen
than in air).
The orange solution will turn green (the
sulphur will react with K2Cr2O7 to
produce a green precipitate Cr2(SO4)3.
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JOE SIWALE

A chemical reaction is an action that involves the reactants to produce the products. A chemical
reaction can be represented by an equation. An equation is a chemical sentence that represents
what is going on in a chemical reaction. An equation can either be a word equation or a chemical
equation. The generalised word equation can be written as:
Reactants → products
This tells as that during the course of the reaction, the reactants get used up and their
concentration (number of moles) decreases, while the concentration (number of moles) of the
products increases. So we can tell how fast a reaction is going at a certain time by looking at
either:
(a) The rate at which the reactants decreases.
(b) The rate at which the products are formed.
The rate of the reaction can be described as the speed at which a reaction takes place.
Slow and fast reaction
A reaction can either be a slow or fast reaction depending on several factors. The types of
reactants that are used in a chemical reaction are the ones that determine a reaction a reaction
to be either slow or fast.
Examples of fast reactions are:
(a) The reaction between sodium and water where the bubbles of hydrogen are produced
fast.
(b) The reaction of silver nitrate solution with sodium chloride solution. This reaction is fast
because a white precipitate is immediately formed.
Examples of slow reactions are:
(a) Concrete setting. This reaction is quite slow. It will take a couple of days for the concrete
to fully harden.
(b) Rust formed on an old car. This is usually a very slow reaction. It will take years for the car
to rust completely away.
Collision theory
According to the collision theory, for a reaction to take place, the particles of the reacting
substances must collide with each other. But not all collision can result in a chemical reaction.
Only an effective collision result in a chemical reaction. An effective collision between particles
occurs when reacting particles:
 Collide with the correct orientation (so, the correct sides of the particles must face each
other).

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JOE SIWALE

 Have enough kinetic energy to get closer enough to each other so that they can overcome
the force of repulsion between them.
Therefore, any condition that will bring about more effective collisions among the reacting
substances will affect the rate of reaction.
Graphical representation of the rates of reaction
We can plot a graph of change in concentration against time to give a graphical representation
of the rate of the reaction. The rate of a reaction does not stay the same throughout the reaction.
It:
 Proceeds quickly at the start (when the rate is very high).
 Slows down over time (as the rate decreases).

The gradient of the graph can be used to determine the rate of the reaction. The stepper the
gradient, the faster the reaction is proceeding. Therefore:
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 (𝑜𝑟 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛)
Rate= 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒

∆ mass ∆m
= or
∆ time ∆t
∆ volume ∆v
= or
∆ time ∆t
∆ concentration ∆c
= or
∆ time ∆t

Graph of products
The graph of concentration of products against time has a curve with a positive gradient that
decreases. This indicates that the concentration of the products increases rapidly at the start of

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JOE SIWALE

the reaction. But, as the reaction proceeds, the rate at which the products are made decreases.
The graph of concentration against time for the products is given below;

Graph for reactants

The graph of concentration of reactants against time has a curve with a negative gradient that
decreases. This indicates that the concentration of the reactants decreases rapidly at the start of
the reaction. But, as the reaction proceeds, the rate at which the reactants are used up decreases.
The graph of concentration against time for the reactants is given below;

Therefore, the gradient indicates the following:

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JOE SIWALE

 At the start of the reaction, the speed of the reaction is the highest. The rate at the start
of any reaction is always fastest at the start of the reaction.
 As the reaction progresses, the speed of the reaction slows down.
 After sometime, the graph levels off. This indicates the end of this reaction. No more
products are being made and no more reactants are being used up.
Measuring the rate of the reaction
The rate of the reaction can be measured by using different experimental techniques depending
on the type of the reaction. We can use these experimental techniques to measure how fast
reactants are used up, or how fast products are formed. Some of these techniques are given
below.
(a) Change in mass
This technique is only used on reactions that produces gases. You will discover that the
reactants decrease if a gas is formed and allowed to escape into the air. Using this
technique, we measure and record the mass of the reactants and the time. The reacting
mixture is placed on a digital scale and the stopwatch is started when the reaction starts.

(b) Change in volume

During the reaction, the volume gas produced increases as the reaction processes. The
volume of the gas formed is collected and measured at regular intervals. The gas can be
collected with a gas syringe or in an inverted burette.
(c) Colour change
If there is a colour change during a reaction, we can measure the time interval over which
the reaction mixture changes from one colour to another.
(d) Conductivity
If ions are produced during a reaction, we can measure the conductivity of the reaction
mixture over time. The more the ions there are in the solution, the better the solution
conducts electricity. Increased conductivity means an increased electrical current, which
we measure with a sensitive ammeter.

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JOE SIWALE

Factors that affect the rate of a reaction

(1) Surface area of reacting particles
The farce area of a reacting particle can either be large or small. When large reacting
particles are used, they lower the rate of the reaction. These large particles they lower
the rate of reaction because most of the particles won’t be exposed in the reaction. This
will result in the collision of reactants not to be effective and thus the reaction will slow
down. When small particles of reactants are used in a reaction, they is an increase in the
rate of reaction. The reaction increases because most atoms or molecules are being
exposed in the reaction. This result in more effective collisions in a given time. The
diagram below shows the two reactions of using large particles of calcium carbonate
small particles of calcium carbonate with hydrochloric acid.

More CO2 in beaker B was produced per second than in beaker A.

We can use graphs to compare the amount of product formed verses time. When large reactants
are used and when fine powered of reactants are used. The graph of product formed has a
stepper gradient when a powered reactant is used than large reactants.

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JOE SIWALE

(2) Concentration
Concentration is the amount of solute in a unit volume of a solution. Therefore, the more
solute in a given volume, the closer together the reacting particles are. This increases the
chances that the reacting particles will collide. The number of effective collisions per unit
time will determine the rate of the reaction.

High concentration Low concentration

(3) Temperature
When temperature increases, more particles have enough kinetic energy to have an
effective collision. This increases the rate at which the particles collide with each other.
In turn, this leads to an increase in the rate of reaction. But when temperature reduces,
the particles will not have enough kinetic energy to have an effective collision. This will
slow down the rate of a reaction.
(4) The nature of the reactants
The nature of the reactants is the reactivity of reactants naturally. They are some
chemicals that react faster than other. For example Group I metals react faster than
Group II metals. So if calcium reacts with water, this reaction is faster than the reaction
of magnesium with water. This is because calcium belongs in Group I and magnesium in
Group II and metals in Group I react faster than in Group II.
(5) Pressure

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JOE SIWALE

The pressure in the reaction vessel only affects the reactions that are in the gaseous state.
A high pressure on particles brings them very close together. This results in an increase in
collisions amongst the particles, which means there is an increase in the speed of the
reaction. A low pressure on particles makes particles to be far apart. This results in a
decrease in collision of particles amongst themselves, which means that the rate of
reaction will be slow.
(6) The presence of a catalyst
A catalyst is a chemical substance that speeds up the rate of a chemical reaction but
remains unchanged during the process. Catalysts increase the rate of a reaction by
helping to break the chemical bonds in reactant molecules. According to the collision
theory, in order for two molecules to react, a minimum amount of collision energy is
needed. We call this minimum amount of collision energy the activation energy (Ea). A
catalyst lowers the required activation energy by providing an alternative path (with a
lower activation energy). So, there are more particles with sufficient kinetic energy to
undergo an effective collision. More effective collisions increase the rate of the reaction.
Catalyst are often used to speed up industrial chemical reactions. Iron oxide is used as a
catalyst in the production of ammonia from nitrogen and hydrogen gas. The catalytic
converter in a car exhaust contains platinum, which serves as a catalyst to change carbon
monoxide, which is toxic, into carbon dioxide. Nickel is used as a catalyst in the production
of margarine from vegetable oils.
(7) Light intensity
Light (when viewed as an electromagnetic wave) is considered to be an energy source and
has sufficient impact energy to break chemical bonds. This energy is more than enough
to overcome the activation energy. The greater the intensity or energy of light, the more
reactant molecules are likely to gain kinetic energy, so the faster the reaction should be.
Methane reacts very slowly with chlorine in the dark, but the rate of the reaction is much
faster in the presence of ultraviolet light.

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