B.F.

SKINNER

B. F. Skinner also suggested that feelings could be translated into a person's propensity to act in
particular ways. For instance, if someone feels angry toward another person, they are more likely to
exhibit behaviors like yelling at them or possibly even acting out physically against them.

Skinner's most notable discoveries or contributions to the field of psychology include:

 The operant conditioning process (Skinner's theory of learning)

 The notion of schedules of reinforcement
 Introduction of response rates as a dependent variable in research
 The creation of the cumulative recorder to track response rates

Skinner's tremendous contributions to psychology and many other disciplines, like as philosophy and
education, have endured. He made important contributions even if behaviorism is no longer the
dominant school of thought

It has been said that B.F. Skinner's behavioralism theory falls short in its consideration of moral growth.
However, it does not fully take into account the internal aspects that affect moral growth, such as
empathy, conscience, and moral reasoning. Skinner's theory emphasizes the role of reinforcement and
punishment in molding behavior.

Skinner's theory can still be utilized in some ways to explain how moral development occurs. Rewarding
good conduct is one application of reinforcement. When people act morally, positive reinforcement can
be used to reward them, but negative reinforcement can be used to deter them. Although it should only
be employed when absolutely required, punishment can also be used to deter unethical behavior.

Bandura
Albert Bandura's Social Cognitive Theory

According to Bandura, moral behavior is taught to people by watching how other people act and the
results of that behavior. Additionally, they grow a feeling of self-efficacy—a conviction in their capacity
to act morally—which further shapes their conduct.

According to Bandura's theory, moral behavior is learnt through imitation, in which people watch and
copy the actions of those they view as moral role models. They then adopt these actions as their own,
incorporating them into their own moral code.

As people are more inclined to act morally when they believe they are capable of doing so, people's
sense of self-efficacy also plays a part in how morally developed they become.

Generally speaking, Bandura's Social Cognitive Theory offers a helpful framework for comprehending
how moral development happens through observation, modeling, and self-efficacy. Teachers and
parents can support youngsters in forming solid moral principles and behaviors by understanding these
processes.

Julian Rotter | Walter Mischel |

|--------|--------------|----------------|

| Key concepts | - Locus of control<br>- Social reinforcement<br>- Expectancy theory | - Cognitive-

affective personality system<br>- Delay of gratification<br>- Situational variables in behavior |

| Focus | - How individual's perception of control affects their behavior<br>- Role of reinforcement in
shaping behavior | - Interaction of personality and situational variables in behavior<br>- Role of self-
control in behavior |

| Contributions | - Concept of locus of control has implications in areas such as mental health,
education, and interpersonal relationships<br>- Expectancy theory has been applied in fields such as
motivation and performance | - Cognitive-affective personality system provides a comprehensive
framework for understanding individual behavior and development<br>- Delay of gratification research
has implications in areas such as addiction and decision making |

| Criticisms | - Locus of control concept has been criticized for being too simplistic and not accounting
for external factors<br>- Expectancy theory has been criticized for not accounting for unconscious
motives | - Cognitive-affective personality system is complex and difficult to apply in research and
practice<br>- Delay of gratification concept may not have universal applicability across cultures |

George Kelly | Psychology of Personal Constructs |

|--------|--------------|

| Key concepts | - Personal constructs<br>- Constructive alternativism<br>- Fundamental postulate | -

Individuals actively construct their own reality<br>- Personal constructs shape how individuals perceive
and interpret their experiences<br>- Individuals can revise their personal constructs to change their
interpretations of reality |

| Focus | - How individuals make sense of their experiences and perceptions<br>- The role of personal
constructs in shaping behavior and decision making | - The influence of personal constructs on
emotional reactions and psychological well-being<br>- The importance of cognitive flexibility and the
ability to revise personal constructs |

| Contributions | - Introduced the concept of personal constructs, which has been influential in fields
such as personality and clinical psychology<br>- Emphasized the role of cognitive processes in shaping
behavior and experience | - Psychology of personal constructs has been applied in areas such as
psychotherapy, education, and management<br>- Emphasized the importance of individual differences
in personal constructs and how they shape perception and behavior |
| Criticisms | - Critics have argued that Kelly's theory is too abstract and difficult to apply in
practice<br>- Some have questioned the scientific validity of personal constructs | - Some critics argue
that the theory does not address the influence of social and cultural factors on personal constructs and
perception<br>- The theory has also been criticized for being too individualistic and not accounting for
group or societal constructs |

George Kelly's psychology of personal constructs does not directly address moral development.
However, the concept of personal constructs can help explain how individuals develop their moral
beliefs and values.

Personal constructs are mental tools that individuals use to make sense of their experiences and
perceptions. As individuals encounter new situations and information, they may revise their personal
constructs to better understand and interpret these experiences. These personal constructs can include
moral beliefs and values. For example, a person may hold a personal construct that stealing is always
wrong, and this construct may shape their moral decision making.

Kelly's theory emphasizes the importance of cognitive flexibility and the ability to revise personal
constructs. This could suggest that individuals have the capacity to revise their moral beliefs and values
as they encounter new information or experiences. This process can be influenced by factors such as
education, socialization, and exposure to diverse perspectives.

Overall, while George Kelly's psychology of personal constructs does not directly address moral
development, the concept of personal constructs can offer insights into how individuals develop and
revise their moral beliefs and values.

Here is a matrix outlining Jean Piaget's cognitive development theory:

| Stage | Age Range | Key Characteristics | Example |

|-------|-----------|---------------------|---------|

| Sensorimotor | Birth to 2 years old | Coordination of sensory input to motor actions and object
permanence develops | Infants learn to control their bodies and develop object permanence, realizing
that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen. An infant may search for a toy that has
been hidden from view. |

| Preoperational | 2 to 7 years old | Egocentric thinking, symbolic play, and use of language | Children
begin to use symbols, but may struggle with understanding others' perspectives. For example, a child
might think that a tall glass contains more liquid than a short glass of the same volume. |

| Concrete Operational | 7 to 11 years old | Logical reasoning and understanding of conservation tasks
develop | Children begin to understand that objects conserve volume, number, and mass despite
changes in appearance. For example, a child might understand that the same amount of liquid poured
into a tall and short glass is still the same amount. |

| Formal Operational | 11 years old and up | Abstract reasoning, scientific thinking, and hypothetical-
deductive reasoning develop | Adolescents and adults can think logically, reason about complex
problems, develop hypotheses, test theories, and understand abstract ideas. For example, a teenager
might think about hypothetical situations and consider the consequences of different outcomes. |

Note that these age ranges are only approximate and may vary based on individual differences and
cultural factors. Additionally, some individuals may not reach the formal operational stage, and others
may continue to develop cognitive skills beyond this stage.

Jean Piaget's cognitive development theory has had a significant impact on moral development theory.
According to Piaget, children develop morality through a series of stages, beginning with a sense of
justice and an understanding of rules and regulations. As children mature, they become more aware of
the consequences of their actions and develop a sense of responsibility. They also begin to understand
the relationship between their behavior and the feelings of others. This understanding of the
consequences of their actions helps them to develop a moral code of conduct which they can use in the
future. By understanding how their actions may affect the feelings of others, children can learn to be
responsible and to be compassionate towards others.
| Theory | Application
|

|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|-----------------------------------------
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| George Armitage Miller's theory of information processing suggests that the human mind is limited in
its ability to process information. This theory states that our ability to process information is limited by
our capacity to store and recall information.
| 1. Education: Teachers and educators use Miller's theory to create effective instructional activities that
support learners’ cognitive abilities. 2. Business: Miller's theory can be used by businesses to create
effective workplace environments and to improve their productivity. 3. Medicine: Miller's theory can be
used to improve diagnostic accuracy and to better understand how the brain processes information. 4.
Psychology: Miller's theory can be used to understand how the brain functions and to diagnose and
treat various mental health disorders. |

George Miller's Theory of Information Processing suggests that humans process information in a
sequential manner that involves three stages: input, processing, and output. This theory can be related
to moral development in that the stages of input, processing, and output can be seen as representing
the three stages of moral development proposed by Lawrence Kohlberg: pre-conventional morality,
conventional morality, and post-conventional morality. In the pre-conventional stage of moral
development, people process information by making decisions based on what is personally beneficial. In
the conventional stage, people process information by considering how their decisions will affect those
around them. In the post-conventional stage, people process information by considering the universal
principles that will lead to the fairest outcome. Thus, Miller's Theory of Information Processing can be
seen as a way to understand and explain how people go through the different stages of moral
development.
Atkinson and Shiffrin Model of Information Processing Theory

| Stage | Atkinson and Shiffrin Model |

|------|-----------------------------|

| Sensory Memory | The initial stage of information processing where sensory input is briefly stored. |

| Short-Term Memory | The second stage of information processing where information is held in an
active state for a short period of time. |

| Long-Term Memory | The third stage of information processing where information is stored for a long
period of time and can be retrieved. |

| Retrieval | The final stage of information processing where stored information is recalled and used. |

Atkinson and Shiffrin's Information Processing Theory can be used to understand moral development in
a few ways. First, this theory suggests that information is processed in stages, which can be applied to
moral development. As a person processes information, they form beliefs and opinions about right and
wrong, which then inform their moral decisions. Additionally, the theory suggests that information is
stored in memory, which can lead to the formation of schemas around moral values. These schemas can
then be used to guide moral decision-making. Finally, the theory suggests that information can be
retrieved from memory in order to make informed decisions, which can be used to help individuals
make moral decisions. By understanding how Information Processing Theory can be used to explain
moral development, individuals can gain a better understanding of their own moral thought processes.

Baddeley-Hitch Model of Working Memory:

| Component | Main Function |

|-----------|--------------|

| Phonological Loop | Rehearsal of verbal material |

| Visuo-spatial Sketchpad | Manipulation/visualization of spatial information |

| Central Executive | Attentional control and integration of information |

| Episodic Buffer | Integration of information from different sources |

The Baddeley and Hitch model of working memory relates to moral development in that it provides an
understanding of how people can use their working memory to weigh the consequences of their choices
and make decisions that are based on moral principles. This model can help explain how people learn to
make decisions that are consistent with their moral beliefs. For example, working memory can be used
to recall relevant information and evaluate the potential outcomes of a decision, which can help guide
behavior in moral situations. Additionally, working memory is necessary for the development of social
skills, which has an impact on a person’s moral development.

Lev Vygotsky's Socio-Cultural Theory Matrix

| Element | Description |

| --- | --- |

| Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) | The difference between what a learner can do without help
and what they can do with help from someone more knowledgeable. |
| Internalization | The process of taking something from the social world into an individual's own mental
processes. |

| Scaffolding | The support that a more knowledgeable person provides that allows the learner to move
from what they can do on their own to what they can do with help. |

| Private Speech | An individual's self-directed speech that is used to regulate their behavior and
thinking. |

| Social Interaction | The exchange of ideas and information between individuals. |

| Culture | A shared set of norms, values, beliefs, and practices that are passed down from one
generation to the next. |

| Collaborative Learning | Learning that occurs when two or more people work together to solve a
problem or complete a task. |

Lev Vygotsky's socio-cultural theory relates to moral development through the idea of the Zone of
Proximal Development (ZPD). This is the idea that people can learn and grow through the guidance of a
more knowledgeable other. In terms of moral development, this could mean that a more knowledgeable
caretaker or teacher can provide guidance to a child in developing their own moral code and
understanding of right and wrong. This guidance can help the child internalize the moral code that has
been taught to them, and they can use it to make their own decisions and judgments in the future.

| Stage | Age Range | Description

|

| ------------- | ------------ | ------------------------------------------------------------------|

| Pre-conventional | 0-7 years | Morality is externally controlled by rewards and punishments |

| Conventional | 7-11 years | Morality is focused on obedience to rules and social convention |

| Post-conventional | 11+ years | Morality is based on principles and values that are rationally chosen
|
Piaget's theory of moral development is a stage theory that proposes that moral development occurs in
distinct and sequential stages. These stages are based on cognitive development, which in turn is
influenced by social and cultural factors. According to Piaget, moral development begins with simple
rules and obedience, and progresses to an understanding of moral principles and an inner sense of right
and wrong.

Piaget's theory relates to moral development as it argues that children's cognitive abilities and
understanding of their surroundings influence their moral reasoning. In other words, as children grow,
they become more capable of understanding complex moral issues and develop a deeper sense of right
and wrong. This view implies that moral development is not just a matter of learning rules and following
them, but rather a complex process of cognitive, social, and emotional development. Furthermore,
Piaget's theory highlights the importance of children's social experiences in shaping their moral
reasoning. Therefore, parents, educators, and caregivers can play an essential role in fostering children's
moral development by providing appropriate experiences and opportunities for learning and growth.

Matrix of Kohlberg's Moral Development Theory:

| Stage | Age Range | Description |

|-------|-----------|-------------|

| Stage 1: Obedience and Punishment Orientation | Childhood | Children in this stage believe that right
behavior is doing what they are told because adults always know what is right. They fear punishment
and focus on avoiding it. |

| Stage 2: Individualism and Exchange | Childhood | This stage represents increasing independence from
the external authority figures. Children realize that different individuals have different needs and,
consequently, different opinions on what constitutes good behavior. The focus is on reciprocity, and
they begin to consider how others can benefit from their actions. |

| Stage 3: Interpersonal Relationships | Adolescence | In this stage, people focus on being good in order
to be seen as being good by others. This stage emphasizes the importance of social relationships and
empathy. Moral reasoning at this stage is based on people's desire to preserve good relationships and
avoid bad ones. |
| Stage 4: Maintaining Social Order | Adolescence | Individuals in this stage become aware of society's
increasingly complex expectations and rules. Duty, respect, and law-and-order come into play as
individuals try to understand how to best perform their particular role in society. This stage prioritizes
respect for authority, maintenance of social order, and the common good. |

| Stage 5: Social Contract and Individual Rights | Adulthood | Here, individuals recognize that society is
made of individuals with different values and opinions, leading to a more relativistic and subjective
moral reasoning. One's beliefs and values are seen as central and are balanced against social contracts
that guarentee other's welfare. The focus is on protecting individual rights and ensuring that the rules
established by the majority protect those rights. |

| Stage 6: Universal Principles | Adulthood | This stage represents the highest moral reasoning. It
focuses on the development of broad ethical principles that apply to all humans, regardless of culture or
personal religious beliefs. Moral reasoning is guided by these overarching principles based on human
rights, such as justice, compassion, and respect for human dignity. Individuals hold these principles as
more important than any particular law or social contract. |

Kohlberg's moral development theory proposes that moral development is a cognitive process that
occurs in stages, rather than being a fixed and innate quality. The theory suggests that individuals
develop their moral reasoning abilities through exposure to increasingly complex and abstract moral
situations, leading to a greater understanding of moral concepts such as justice, fairness, and the greater
good.

According to Kohlberg's model, everyone progresses through the same stages of moral development,
although the rate and level to which individuals reach these stages may vary. The theory holds that
individuals who reach higher stages of moral reasoning tend to make more ethical and socially
responsible decisions.

Overall, Kohlberg's moral development theory highlights the importance of moral education and
exposure to diverse moral situations in fostering and developing moral reasoning abilities. By
understanding the stages of moral development, individuals and educators can work towards promoting
moral growth and potentially creating a more ethical society by promoting greater understanding,
thoughtful reflection, and empathy for others.
Gilligan's Theory of Moral Development is an alternative to Lawrence Kohlberg's theory of moral
development, which focused primarily on the moral reasoning of males. Gilligan's theory highlights the
differences in moral reasoning between males and females.

Here is a matrix summarizing Gilligan's Theory of Moral Development:

| Stage | Age | Description |

|-------|-----|-------------|

| Stage 1: Orientation to individual survival | Infancy | The individual is focused on their own survival
and well-being. |

| Stage 2: Orientation to goodness as self-sacrifice | Early childhood | The individual begins to consider
the needs and wants of others, but still prioritizes their own needs. |

| Stage 3: The morality of caring and being responsible | Adolescence - Adulthood | The individual sees
the importance of caring for others and taking on responsibilities for the well-being of others. |

| Stage 4: The morality of nonviolence | Adulthood | The individual understands the interconnectedness
of all people and seeks to avoid harm to others. |

| Stage 5: The morality of the ethic of care | Adulthood | The individual prioritizes the needs of others
over their own needs and works to promote the well-being of all individuals. |

It's important to note that Gilligan's theory is focused on the moral development of females, but it can
also be applied to males and people of all genders.

Gilligan's Theory of Moral Development is a framework that describes how individuals, specifically
females, develop their moral reasoning and decision-making abilities. It provides an alternative to
Lawrence Kohlberg's theory of moral development, which focused primarily on the moral reasoning of
males.

Gilligan's theory emphasizes the importance of empathy, caring, and relationships in moral
development. It suggests that females, in particular, may prioritize caring for others and maintaining
relationships over abstract principles and rules.

The stages of Gilligan's theory build upon each other, with individuals progressing from a focus on their
own survival and well-being to a broader concern for the well-being of others and the larger community.

Overall, Gilligan's theory highlights the role of social and cultural contexts in shaping moral development
and recognizes the value of diverse perspectives and experiences in shaping moral reasoning. It has
been influential in promoting a more inclusive and diverse understanding of moral development.

Turiel's Social Domain Theory is a framework that describes how individuals differentiate and reason
about different social domains of knowledge. Here is a matrix summarizing Turiel's Social Domain
Theory:

| Domain | Description | Examples |

|--------|-------------|----------|

| Moral | Concerns violations of human welfare, rights, and dignity | Hitting, stealing, lying, cheating |

| Conventional | Concerns social norms, customs, and traditions | Table manners, dress codes, traffic
rules |

| Personal | Concerns individual preferences, choices, and rights | Choice of music, friends, hobbies |

| Social-conventional | Concerns rules and conventions that regulate social interactions | Greetings,
turn-taking, politeness |
Turiel's theory proposes that individuals differentiate between these domains of knowledge and use
different reasoning processes to make judgments within each domain. For instance, individuals may
view moral violations as objectively wrong and deserving of punishment, while violations of social-
conventional norms may be seen as more subjective and less deserving of punishment.

Turiel's Social Domain Theory has been influential in understanding moral development and socialization
processes, and in recognizing the importance of context and culture in shaping moral reasoning and
decision-making.

Turiel's Social Domain Theory is a theory of social cognition that posits that individuals develop different
cognitive domains for social understanding, including moral, social-conventional, and personal domains.
The theory suggests that each domain has its own social rules, expectations, and norms, which are
learned through social interactions and experiences.In relation to moral development, Turiel's theory
suggests that morality is just one of several social domains that individuals develop, and that moral
reasoning and judgment are distinct from social-conventional reasoning and personal reasoning. The
theory suggests that moral judgments are based on the principles of justice, harm, and welfare, and that
individuals develop moral reasoning skills through interactions with others.

According to Turiel's theory, moral development is a gradual and ongoing process that is influenced by
social and cultural factors, as well as individual factors such as cognitive development. The theory
suggests that moral development involves learning and internalizing social norms and values, and that
individuals develop more complex and sophisticated moral reasoning skills over time.

Overall, Turiel's Social Domain Theory provides a framework for understanding how individuals develop
moral reasoning skills, and how these skills are influenced by social and cultural factors. The theory
emphasizes the importance of social interactions and experiences in shaping moral development, and
highlights the distinctiveness of moral reasoning from other types of social reasoning.