INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRONICS

● The Study of Electricity

● Electronics is a branch of physics that deals with the emission, behavior, and effects of electrons (as in electron
ELECTRONICS tubes and transistors) and with electronic devices. It is a much more subtle kind of electricity in which tiny
electric currents (and, in theory, single electrons) are carefully directed around much more complex circuits to
process signals (such as those that carry radio and television programs) or store and process information.

● A resistor is a passive two-terminal component that implement electrical resistance as a circuit element. Resistors
act to reduce current flow, and at the same time, act to lower voltage levels within circuits. In electronic circuits,
resistors are used to limit current flow, to adjust signal level, bias active elements and terminate transmission
lines among other uses

RESISTOR ● FIXED RESISTOR

○ a resistor having a fixed, defined electrical resistance which is not
adjustable.
TYPES OF RESISTORS
● VARIABLE RESISTOR
○ a resistor of which the electrical resistance value can be adjusted

● Just like the Resistor, the Capacitor, sometimes referred to as a Condenser, is a simple passive device that is used
to “store electricity”. The capacitor is a component which has the ability or “capacity” to store energy in the form
of an electrical charge producing a potential difference (Static Voltage) across its plates, much like a small
rechargeable battery

● DIELECTRIC CAPACITOR
○ usually of the variable type were a continuous variation of capacitance is
required for tuning transmitters, receivers and transistor radios

● CERAMIC CAPACITORS
CAPACITORS ○ are made by coating two sides of a small porcelain or ceramic disc with
silver and are then stacked together to make a capacitor
TYPES OF CAPACITORS
● FILM CAPACITOR
○ most commonly available of all types of capacitors, consisting of a
relatively large family with the difference being in their dielectric
properties.

● ELECTROLYTIC CAPACITORS
○ used when very large capacitance values are required.

● An inductor is a passive component that is used in most power electronic circuits to store energy in the form of
magnetic energy when electricity is applied to it. Faraday invented the inductor while discovering the
phenomenon of electromagnetic induction nearly two hundred years ago.

● It uses a conductor that is wound into a coil, and when electricity flows into the coil from the left to the right, this
will generate a magnetic field in the clockwise direction.

● Major purposes: Choking, blocking, attenuating, or filtering/smoothing high frequency noise in electrical circuits.
Storing and transferring energy in power converters (dc-dc or ac-dc)

INDUCTORS ● FIXED CONDUCTOR

○ is a type of inductor which always has the same inductance.
■ AIR-CORE INDUCTOR
■ IRON-CORE INDUCTOR
■ FERRITE-CORE INDUCTOR
TYPES OF INDUCTORS
● VARIABLE CONDUCTOR
○ Inductance of a variable inductor is varied by increasing or decreasing the
number of turns through movable contract on top of the windings. When
the contact on top of the turn is moved, the number of effective turns will
change. The inductance varies with the number of turns.
 BASIC OF SEMICONDUCTOR
● A semiconductor is a substance that has specific electrical properties that enable it to serve as a foundation for
computers and other electronic devices.
WHAT IS
● Semiconductors are the materials which have a conductivity between conductors (generally metals) and non-
SEMICONDUCTOR conductors or insulators (such as ceramics).

● Semiconductor are “part-time” conductors whose conductivity can be controlled.

● Semiconductors are employed in the manufacture of various kinds of electronic devices, including diodes,
transistors, and integrated Circuits.

SEMICONDUCTOR ● Examples of Semiconductors:

● Gallium arsenide, germanium, and silicon are some of the most commonly used semiconductors. Silicon is used
in electronic circuit fabrication and gallium arsenide is used in solar cells, laser diodes, etc

● Single Crystal
○ Single Crystal semiconductors such as germanium (GE), and silicon (SI) have a repetitive crystal structure.
SEMICONDUCTORS
● Compound
MATERIALS ○ Compound semiconductors such as gallium arsenide (GaAs), cadmium sulphide (CdS), gallium nitride
(GaN), and gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP) are constructed of two or more semiconductor materials of
different atomic structure.

● The energy band definition is, the number of atoms within a crystal stone can be nearer to each other as well as a
number of electrons will interact with each other. The energy levels of electrons within their shell can be caused
What is Energy Band due to the changes in their energy levels. The main feature of the energy band is that the electron’s energy states
of electronics are stable in different ranges. So, the level of energy of an atom will change in conduction bands &
valence bands

● The electrons move in the atoms in certain energy levels but the energy of the electrons in the innermost shell is
higher than the outermost shell electrons. The electrons that are present in the outermost shell are called as
Energy Band Theory Valance Electrons. These valance electrons, containing a series of energy levels, form an energy band which is
called as Valence Band. The valence band is the band having the highest occupied energy.

● Valance Band
○ The electrons move in the atoms in certain energy levels but the energy of the electrons in the innermost shell
is higher than the outermost shell electrons. The electrons that are present in the outermost shell are called as
Valance Electrons. These valance electrons, containing a series of energy levels, form an energy band which
is called as Valence Band. The valence band is the band having the highest occupied energy.

● Conduction Band
○ The valence electrons are so loosely attached to the nucleus that even at room temperature, few of the
valence electrons leave the band to be free. These are called as free electrons as they tend to move towards
the neighboring atoms. These free electrons are the ones which conduct the current in a conductor and hence
Classification of Energy Band called Conduction Electrons. The band which contains conduction electrons is called the Conduction Band.
The conduction band is the band having the lowest occupied energy.

● Forbidden Gap
○ The gap between valence band and conduction band is called as forbidden energy gap. As the name implies,
this band is the forbidden one without energy. Hence no electron stays in this band. The valence electrons,
while going to the conduction band, pass through this. The forbidden energy gap, if greater, means that the
valence band electrons are tightly bound to the nucleus. Now, in order to push the electrons out of the
valence band, some external energy is required, which would be equal to the forbidden energy gap. The
following figure shows the valence band, conduction band, and the forbidden gap. Depending upon the size
of the forbidden gap, the Insulators, the Semiconductors and the Conductors are formed.

TYPES OF ENERGY BAND ● INSULATORS

○ Insulators are such materials in which the conduction cannot take place, due to the large forbidden gap.

○ Examples: Wood, Rubber. The structure of energy bands in Insulators is as shown in the following figure.

○ The following are the characteristics of Insulators.

■ The Forbidden energy gap is very large.
■ Valance band electrons are bound tightly to atoms.
■ The value of forbidden energy gap for an insulator will be of 10eV.
■ For some insulators, as the temperature increases, they might show some conduction.
■ The resistivity of an insulator will be in the order of 107 ohmmeter.
○

● SEMICONDUCTORS
○ Semiconductors are such materials in which the forbidden energy gap is small and the conduction takes place
if some external energy is applied.

○ Examples: Silicon, Germanium. The following figure shows the structure of energy bands in semiconductors.

○ The following are the characteristics of Semiconductors.

■ The Forbidden energy gap is very small.
■ The forbidden gap for Ge is 0.7eV whereas for Si is 1.1eV.
■ A Semiconductor actually is neither an insulator, nor a good conductor.
■ As the temperature increases, the conductivity of a semiconductor increases.
■ The conductivity of a semiconductor will be in the order of 102 mhometer.

● CONDUCTORS
○ Conductors are such materials in which the forbidden energy gap disappears as the valence band and
conduction band become very close that they overlap.

○ Examples: Copper, Aluminum. The following figure shows the structure of energy bands in conductor

○ The following are the characteristics of Conductors.

■ There exists no forbidden gap in a conductor.
 ■ The valence band and the conduction band gets overlapped.
■ The free electrons available for conduction are plenty.
■ A slight increase in voltage, increases the conduction.
■ There is no concept of hole formation, as a continuous flow of electrons contribute the current

● VALENCE BAND
○ It is the band of energy where all the valence electron reside. Also involve the highest energy molecular
orbital.

ENERGY GAP ● CONDUCTION BAND

○ It is a delocalized band of energy level in a crystalline solid which is partially filled with electrons.

● ENERGY GAP
○ An energy range where it is not accessible for an electron.

● The emission of electron from a metallic surface by the application of energy is called photoelectric emission

● The amount of photoelectric emission depends upon the intensity of light falling upon the emitter and the
frequency of radiation.
FIELD AND
PHOTOELECTRIC ● The amount of energy is given by the relation:
EMISSION E=hf
where,
E = the energy of photons in joules
h = plank’s constant in joules second (6.625x10−34)
f = frequency of photons in HZ

● an extremely pure semiconductor

● It has little current conduction capability at a room temperature.

Intrinsic semiconductor
● It has equal numbers of negative charge carriers (electrons) and positive charge carriers (holes).

● Example: Silicon and Germanium.

● To be used in electronic devices, the conducting properties of intrinsic semiconductor are significantly increased
by adding a small amount of suitable impurity, it is then called Extrinsic Semiconductor.
Extrinsic semiconductor ● The process of adding impurities to a pure semiconductor is known as Doping.

● The numbers of negative charge carriers (electrons) and positive charge carriers (holes) are not equal

● P-Type
○ is formed when trivalent impurities are doped to a pure semiconductor providing a large number of free
electrons in it.

CLASSIFICATION OF ○ Examples of Trivalent Atoms: Aluminum, Boron, Gallium

EXTRINSIC
SEMICONDUCTOR ● N-Type
○ is formed when pentavalent impurities are doped to a pure semiconductor providing a large number of free
holes in it.

○ Examples of Pentavalent: Arsenic, Antimony, Phosphorus

● The flow of current in the semiconductor constituted by the drift electrons available in the conduction band and
DRIFT CURRENT holes available in the valence band, which are formed due to external (heat) energy supplied to them, is known as
drift current.

● How Does Temperature Affect The Conductivity Of Semiconductors ?

● The electrical conductivity of semiconductors increases as temperature increases. When temperature increases the
Effects of Temperature on electrons can jump from the valence band to the conduction band in the semiconductor.
Conductivity of ● At absolute zero(0 K)
Semiconductor ● No free electron is available in semiconductor for conduction.

● Above absolute zero

● more electrons become excited, jumping to the conduction band from the valence band

PN Junction Diode ● A p-n junction diode is a basic semiconductor device that controls the flow of electric current in a circuit. It has a
(Semiconductor Diode) positive (p) side and a negative (n) side created by adding impurities to each side of a silicon semiconductor.

● A region around the junction from which the charge carriers (free electrons and holes) are depleted is called the
Depletion layer depletion layer.

● A potential difference built up across the pn junction which restricts further movement of charge carriers across
Potential Barrier the junction is known as potential barriers.

a. Forward Biasing
When the positive terminal of a d.c. source or battery is connected to p-type and negative terminal is
connected to n-type semiconductor of a pn junction, the junction is said to be in forward biasing.
FORWARD &
REVERSE BIASING a. Reverse Biasing
When the positive terminal of a d.c. source or battery is connected to n-type and negative terminal is
connected to p-type semiconductor of a pn junction, the junction is said to be in reverse biasing.

The characteristics are studied under three heads viz:

Characteristic of
● Zero External Voltage
Semiconductor ● Forward Biasing
● Reverse Biasing
 ● Avalanche breakdown
○ is a phenomenon that can occur in both insulating and semiconducting materials. It is a form of electric
current multiplication that can allow very large currents within materials which are otherwise good
insulators. It is a type of electron avalanche.
Breakdown in Junction Diode
● Zener breakdown
○ occurs in heavily doped junctions in which the transition from the p side to the n side is very abrupt. Under
these conditions, the potential barrier separating carriers on the two sides of the junction is very narrow, and
a quantum mechanical process called tunneling can take place.

A specially designed silicon diode which is optimized to operate in the breakdown region is known as zener diode.

Characteristics of Zener Diode

1. Its characteristics are similar to an ordinary diode with the exception that it has a sharp (or distinct) breakdown
voltage called zener voltage 𝑣𝑧

2. It can be operated in any of the three region i.e. forward, leakage or breakdown. But usually it is operated in the
breakdown region.

3. The voltage is almost constant (𝑣𝑧) over the operating region.

Zener Diode
4. Usually, the value of (𝑣𝑧) at particular test current 𝐼𝑧𝑟 is specified in the data sheet.

5. During operation it will not burn as long as the external circuit limits the current flowing through it below the
burn out value i.e 𝐼𝑧𝑚 (the maximum rated zener current).

Application

1. Meter Protection
2. Voltage Regulator
3. Wave Shaping Circuit

Photo Diode ● A diode that is optimized for its sensitivity to light is known as photodiode.

● A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor device that emits light when an electric current flows through it.
When current passes through an LED, the electrons recombine with holes emitting light in the process. LEDs
allow the current to flow in the forward direction and blocks the current in the reverse direction.
LED (Light Emitting Diode)
● Light-emitting diodes are heavily doped p-n junctions. Based on the semiconductor material used and the amount
of doping, an LED will emit coloured light at a particular spectral wavelength when forward biased.

● The electrical power is generated transmitted and distributed as d.c. for economical reasons. As an alternating
voltage is available at the mains. But most of the electronic circuit need d.c. voltage for their operation. Therefore
the rectifier is the heart of power supply.
Diode as Rectifier
The rectifier can be of two types:
○ Half Wave Rectifier
○ Full Wave Rectifier

● In half wave rectifier when a.c. supply is applied at the input only positive half cycle appears across the load,
Half Wave Rectifier whereas the negative half cycle is suppressed.

● In this case aan ordinary transformer is used in place of a centre taped transformer. The circuit contains four
Full Wave Rectifier diodes D1, D2, D3 and D4 connected to form a bridge.

● A voltage multiplier is an electrical circuit that converts AC electrical power from a lower voltage to a higher DC
voltage

1. Half-wave voltage doubler is a voltage multiplier circuit whose output

voltage amplitude is twice that of the input voltage amplitude.

2. Full-wave voltage doubler is a voltage multiplier with a multiplication

Voltage multiplier factor of two.
Types of Voltage multiplier
3. Voltage tripler is the circuit where we get the thrice of the peak input
voltage

4. Voltage quadrupler is a circuit in which the output voltage is quadruple, or

4 times, the amplitude of the input voltage.

● helps to regulate voltage across small loads. A Zener diode is a semiconductor device with a p-n junction causing
Zener diode regulator the current to flow in a forward or backward direction.

● What Is a Filter? A filter is a circuit capable of passing (or amplifying) certain frequencies while attenuating other
frequencies. Thus, a filter can extract important frequencies from signals that also contain undesirable or
irrelevant frequencies.
FILTER
● Electronic filters remove unwanted frequency components from the applied signal, enhance wanted ones, or both.
They can be: passive or active. analog or digital.

● In electronics, a clipper is a circuit designed to prevent a signal from exceeding a predetermined reference voltage
level. A clipper does not distort the remaining part of the applied waveform.
CLIPPER CIRCUITS
● Clipper Circuits are used to clip off a portion of wave from an input signal. Main element is diode and it is used
in two ways series and parallel.

● A clamper (or clamping circuit or clamp) is an electronic circuit that fixes either the positive or the negative peak
CLAMPER CIRCUITS excursions of a signal to a defined voltage by adding a variable positive or negative DC voltage to it
● Clipper and clamper circuits are electronic circuits used for the modification of AC signals.

● The clipper circuit can clip a portion of the AC waveform while the clamper shifts the DC level of the AC signal.
They are quite different yet have almost similar circuit designs.
 BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR
BIPOLAR JUNCTIONS ● A Semiconductor device consisting of two pn junctions formed by sandwiching either p type or n type
TRANSISTOR semiconductor between a pair of opposite types is known as a transistor.

● NPN Transistor
○ A transistor in which two blocks of n-type semiconductor are separated by a thin layer of p-type
semiconductor is known as NPN Transistor.V

● PNP Transistor
○ A transistor in which two blocks of p-type semiconductors are separated by a thin layer of n- type
semiconductor is known as PNP Transistor.
TWO TYPES OF BIPOLAR
JUNCTIONS TRANSISTOR ● Collector
○ The section on the other side of the transistor that collects the major portion of the majority carriers supplied
by the emitter is called collector.

● Base
○ The middle section which forms two pn junctions between emitter and collector is called base.
○ The Section on one side of the transistor that supplies a large number of majority carriers (electrons if emitter
is n- type and holes if the emitter is of p-type) is called emitter.

● Biasing is the process of providing DC voltage which helps in the functioning of the circuit. A transistor is based
BJT BIASING in order to make the emitter base junction forward biased and collector base junction reverse biased, so that it
maintains in active region, to work as an amplifier.

1. Fixed bias (base bias)

2. Collector feedback bias.

TYPES OF BJT BIASING 3. Fixed bias with emitter resistor.

4. Voltage divider biasing or emitter bias.

a. Voltage divider with AC bypass capacitor.
b. Emitter bias.

WHAT ARE THE ● Transistor biasing makes analog and digital operation of a transistor possible. Without transistor biasing, BJT
PURPOSE OF BJT amplifiers fail to deliver the required output across load terminals. The optimum value of transistor bias voltage is
BIASING equal to two times the required AC output voltage peak.

WHAT ARE THE ● Due to the development of heat, the stabilization criterion of the circuit gets degraded.
DISADVANTAGE OF
BIASING ● As the value of the stability factor gets high results in thermal runaway.

● Common-base terminology is derived from the fact that the :

○ base is common to both input and output of the configuration.

○ base is usually the terminal closest to or at ground potential.
COMMON BASE
CONFIGURATION ● All current directions will refer to conventional (hole) flow and the arrows in all electronic symbols have a
direction defined by this convention.

● Note that the applied biasing (voltage sources) are such as to establish current in the direction indicated for each
branch.

● It is called common-emitter configuration since :

○ emitter is common or reference to both input and output terminals.

○ emitter is usually the terminal closest to or at ground potential.
COMMON EMITTER
CONFIGURATION ● Almost all amplifier design is using connection of CE due to the high gain for current and voltage.

● Two sets of characteristics are necessary to describe the behavior for CE ;input (base terminal) and output
(collector terminal) parameters.

● Also called emitter-follower (EF).

● It is called common-emitter configuration since both the signal source and the load share the collector terminal as
a common connection point.

● The output voltage is obtained at emitter terminal.

COMMON COLLECTOR
CONFIGURATION ● The input characteristic of common-collector configuration is similar with common-emitter configuration.

● Common-collector circuit configuration is provided with the load resistor connected from emitter to ground.

● It is used primarily for impedance-matching purpose since it has high input impedance and low output
impedance.

● To determine the characteristics of a transistor in cb configuration, the circuit is arranged as shown in fig.5(a) The
Characteristics of Common emitter to base voltage V can be varied by adjusting the potentiometer R1. A CB series resistor Rs is inserted in
Base (CB) Configuration the emitter circuit to limit th emitter current Ie otherwise the value of Ie may change to a large value even if the
setting of potentiometer R1 is changed slightly.

INPUT ● In cb configuration the curve plotted between emitter current Ie and the emitter base voltage VEB at constant
CHARACTERISTICS collector base voltage V is called input characteristics. CB

INPUT RESISTANCE ● The ratio of change in emitter base voltage (delta Veb) to the resulting change in emitter current (delta Ie) at
constant collector base voltage (Vcb) is known as input resistance, i.e

● Input resistance, p1= delta Veb/delta Ie at constant Vcb

 ● The value of input resistancep1 is very low. Its value further decrease with the increase in collector base voltage
Vcb since the curve tends to become more vertical. The typical value of input resistance varies from a few ohms
to 100 ohms.

● In CB configuration, the curve plotted between collector current Ic and collector base voltage Vcb at constant
OUT CHARACTERISTICS emitter current Ig is called output characteristics. Number of characteristics curves can be plotted for different
settings of Vcb. Fig.7 shows the input characteristics of a typical pnp transistor in common base configuration.

● The ratio of change in collector base voltage (delta Vcb) to the resulting change in collector current (delta Ic) at
constant emitter current (Ie) is known as output resistance, i.e
OUTPUT RESISTANCE
● output resistance, r0 = delta Vcb/delta Ic at constant Ie.

CHARACTERISTICS OF
COMMON EMITTER ● To determine the characteristics of a transistor in CE Configuration, the circuit is arranged to this.
CONFIGURATION (CE)
● In CE configuration the curve plotted between base current Ib and the emitter base voltage Vbe at constant
INPUT collector emitter voltage Vce is called input characteristics.
CHARACTERISTICS ●
●

● The ratio of change in emitter base voltage (delta Veb) to the resulting change in base current (delta Ib) at
constant collector emitter voltage (Vce) is known as input resistance, i.e
INPUT RESISTANCE Ri = delta Vbe/delta Ib at constant Vcb

● In CE configuration, the typical value of input resistance is of the order of a few hundred ohms.

● In CE configuration, the curve plotted between collector current Ic and collector emitter voltage Vce at constant
OUTPUT
base current Ib is called output characteristics. A number of characteristics curves can be plotted for different
CHARACTERISTICS settings of Ib.

● The ratio of change in collector emitter voltage (delta Vce) to the resulting change in collector current (delta Ic) at
constant base current (Ib) is known as output resistance, i.e

OUTPUT RESISTANCE Ro=delta Vce/delta Ic at constant Ib

● The output resistance of CE configuration is less than the CB configuration as the slope of output characteristics
is more in this case. Its value is of the order of 50 kilo ohm.

● A complementary metal-oxide semiconductor (CMOS) is the semiconductor technology used in most of today’s
integrated circuits (ICs), also known as chips or microchips. CMOS transistors are based on metal-oxide
CMOS semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET) technology. It has extensive application in computer logic
design the relatively high input impedance, fast switching speeds, and lower operating power levels of the CMOS
configuration have resulted in a whole new discipline referred to as CMOS logic design.

● Is a type of MOSFET (metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor). VMOS is also used for describing the
V-groove shape vertically cut into the substrate material. VMOS is an acronym for “vertical metal oxide
VMOS TRANSISTOR semiconductor”, or “V-groove MOS”. Vertical metal oxide silicon FET(VMOS). The term vertical is due
primarily to the fact that the Channel is now formed in the vertical direction rather than the horizontal direction as
for the Planar device.

● Stands for junction field effect transistor. The JFET is a three terminal semiconductor device and the terminals
are: Source (S), Drain (D) and Gate (G). JFET has a channel between source and drain. The channel is the path
between the source and drain for current to flow.
JFET
● The junction field effect transistor (JFET) can only be operated in the depletion mode. It is used in various
applications like voltage variable resistor, digital switch, amplifier, etc.

● Stands for metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor. The MOSFET is a four terminal semiconductor
MOSFET device where the terminals are: source (S), drain (D), gate (G) and body (or substrate). MOSFET is a field effect
transistor with a MOS structure. MOSFETs are high speed and low-loss operation transistors.

● Input Characteristics
○ The curve describes the changes in the values of input current with respect to the values of input voltage,
keeping the output voltage constant.

● Output Characteristics
CHARACTERISTICS OF ○ The curve is obtained by plotting the output current against output voltage, keeping the input current
VARIOUS TRANSISTORS constant.

● Current Transfer Characteristics

○ This characteristic curve describes the variation of output current in accordance with the input current,
keeping the output voltage constant.
 TRANSISTORS AMPLIFIER AND APPLICATION
● No electronics system can work without an amplifier.
● Can the voice of a singer reach everybody in the audience in a hall if the PA system (Public Address system)
fails? It is just because of the enlargement or the amplification of the signal picked up by the microphone that we
INTRODUCTION TO
can enjoy a music orchestra.
AMPLIFIERS
● Amplification means enlargement of a weak signal by an electronic circuit without any distortion in the signal.
The electronic circuit or device which amplifies the signal is known as Amplifier.

● An electronic circuit which uses only a single transistor with a proper bias and additional components based on
the requirements that will provide an output.

Single - stage Amplifier COMPONENTS OF SINGLE-STAGE AMPLIFIER

● Biasing Circuit
● Coupling Capacitor
● Bypass capacitor

MULTI-STAGE ● A multistage amplifier is a type of electronic amplifier that is made up of two or more single-stage amplifiers that
AMPLIFIER are linked together.

● Gain
○ the ratio between the magnitude of output and input signals

● Bandwidth
○ the width of the useful frequency range

● Efficiency
○ the ratio between the power of the output and total power consumption

● Linearity
○ the extent to which the proportion between input and output amplitude is the same for high amplitude and
low amplitude input

● Noise
○ a measure of undesired noise mixed into the output

● Output Dynamic Range

○ the ratio of the largest and the smallest useful output levels
AMPLIFIER
● Slew Rate
CHARACTERISTICS ○ the maximum rate of change of the output

● Rise Time
○ the time taken for the output to change from 10% to 90% of its final level when driven by a step input.

● Settling Time
○ the time taken for the output to settle to within a certain percentage of the final value

● Ringing
○ to an output variation that cycles above and below an amplifier's final value and leads to a delay in reaching a
stable output.

○ the result of overshoot caused by an underdamped circuit.

● Overshot
○ the amount the output exceeds its final, steady-state value

● Stability
○ the ability to avoid self-oscillation

● It can be defined as an amplifier which has feedback lane that exists between o/p to input. In this type of
FEEDBACK AMPLIFIER amplifier, feedback is the limitation which calculates the sum of feedback given in the following amplifier.

● Positive Feedback
○ It is a type of amplifier in which the source signal and the feedback signal are in the same phase. Thus, the
feedback signal applied increases the strength of the input signal.
TYPES OF FEEDBACK
AMPLIFIERS ● Negative Feedback
○ In this type of amplifier source signal and the feedback signal are out of phase with each other. Thus, the
feedback signal is applied to decrease the strength of the input signal.

● These devices are very useful as pulse generating, storing and counting circuits. They are basically two-stage
amplifiers with positive feedback from the output of one amplifier to the input of the other.

Feedback is supplied in such a manner that one transistor is driven to saturation and the other to cut-off.

There are three basic types of AMVs:

1. Astable multivibrator (AMV)

2. Monostable multivibrator (MMV)
MULTIVIBRATORS (MVS) 3. Bistable multivibrator (BMV)

Uses of Multivibrators

1. As frequency divider.
2. As sawtooth generators.
3. As square wave and pulse generators.
4. As a standard frequency source.
5. Specialized uses in radar and TV circuits.
6. As memory elements in computers.
 WHAT IS SIGNAL ● Signal generator is an instrument that generates an electrical signal in either the audio or radio- frequency range.
GENERATOR Audio signal generator produces audio frequencies (sine wave and/or square waves).

● Audio Generators
○ is a signal generator that is limited to frequencies in the audible range.

The signal generators can be
classified into the following
categories:
● Function Generator
○ It generates simple repetitive waveforms of varying magnitudes and frequencies. It uses a signal generator
circuit and an electronic oscillator to generate signals, which act as stimuli for testing and designing
purposes.
● Pulse generator
○ A pulse generator is either an electronic circuit or a piece of electronic test equipment used to generate
rectangular pulses.

● Radio frequency (RF) Generator

○ A radio frequency generator is designed to generate and send radio frequency energy.

● An electronic oscillator is an electronic circuit that produces a repetitive, oscillating signal, often a sine wave or a
What are Oscillators? square wave. Common example of signals generated by oscillators include signals broadcast by radio and
television transmitters.

● Sinusoidal( or Harmonic) Oscillators

Electronic Oscillators ○ Which produces a sine wave form.
divided into two following
groups: ● Non- Sinusoidal Oscillator
○ They produce an output which has rectangular, square or as saw tooth waveform or is of pulse shape.

Classification of Sinusoidal
Oscillations
● Damped Oscillations
○ Oscillation whose amplitude keeps decreasing with time.
● Undamped Oscillation
○ Oscillation whose amplitude remains constant, does not change with time

● is a four-layer semiconductor device, consisting of alternating P-type and N-type materials (PNPN).

Thyristor ● A thyristor usually has three electrodes: an anode, a cathode and a gate, also known as a control electrode.

● The most common type of thyristor is the silicon-controlled rectifier (SCR).

● BT169 Thyristor
○ has a capacity to hold 500 milliamps

● BT152 Thyristor
Three(3) types of a Thyristor ○ can hold up to 13 Amps

● 25RIA120 Thyristor
○ can exceed over 20 amps.

● LASCR or light activated SCR is a semiconductor device which turns ON when it is exposed to light. The
LASCR constituent element of SCR is silicon, and it works like a rectifier, and thus, it is termed as Silicon Controlled
Rectifier. The LASCR is a type of thyristor which is triggered by photons present in the light rays.