Name: Celestyn Nicole Junmet L.

Villanueva Subject: ME-222L (MACHINE SHOP THEORY)

Year & Section: BSME - 2A

ASSIGNMENT NO. 1
1) Describe a Machine Shop
➔ A Machine Shop makes metal parts and components for use in a wide variety of
machines. The parts are usually cut on a lathe, milling machine, or saw to
specific dimensions, materials, finishes and tolerances. Machine shops support
everything from small engine repair shops to engine manufacturers, airframe
manufacturing, ship builders, heavy equipment makers and car makers. If it
has metal parts, there is a machine shop involved, either in house or contracted
out.

2) Importance of Machine Shop in an Engineering Industry

➔ CNC precision machining is the process of producing parts with tight tolerances.
The materials used and the number of features that must be machined on a part
determine how precise a job needs to be. High-precision machining involves
factors with single-digit or even sub-micron tolerances.
■ CNC precision machining
High-precision machining is an increasingly important part of the
manufacturing process. Whether you need to make a small screw or a complex
circuit board, precision machining will help you create the exact parts you need.
These parts can be as small as a few millimeters or as complex as a 45-pound
engine block. Many high-tech industries require exact details to meet stringent
tolerances.
High-precision machining requires a variety of tools to achieve the desired
results. CNC Milling centers and lathes are standard in modern machine shops.
Some shops still use traditional manual mills for more intricate work. Other
services include grinding and secondary operations, threading, and welding. In
addition, many shops, like Intrex Aerospace Machine Shop, offer engineering,
design, and CAD drawing assistance.
■ Improves product quality
High-precision machining can help businesses achieve many business goals. It
enables companies to develop new products with minimal time investment and
the flexibility to experiment with niche markets. Once the demand for the
product has been identified, the company can scale up production.
Moreover, a functional prototype instills confidence in the product among
potential investors and stakeholders. In addition, precision machining can help
businesses save on overhead costs. The savings from eliminating monthly
salaries and periodic wages can be channeled toward crucial business functions.
These savings can help companies reach a broader customer base.

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 Another way to improve product quality in a high-precision machine shop is by
using an inspection system like HighQA. This technology uses digital tools to
identify defects and provide feedback to machinists. It also implements a
standard measurement routine to measure tens of thousands of dimensions,
eliminating human error.
■ Produces parts with tight tolerances
Tolerances are critical for many parts in many different industries, including
medical equipment, aerospace components, and computer components. Too
much or too little patience can cause problems. Tolerances vary depending on
the environment and function of the part. If the tolerance is too tight, it can
result in excessive movement of a system, and if it is too loose, it can result in
grinding or sticking.
A high-precision machine shop uses the highest level of tools, software, and
engineering talent to produce parts that have tight tolerances. It pushes the
limits of available materials and design specifications. These parts can be very
complex and require a high level of skill and experience. This type of machine
shop is prevalent in the automotive, medical, and aerospace industries.
■ Offers competitive prices
A high-precision machine shop will be your best option if you need parts made
to precise tolerances.
CNC machining produces parts that have minimal labor and internal scrap, and
it also reduces costs. CNC technology used by precision machine shops allows
them to create pieces with minimum wastage. These shops utilize
computer-aided design (CAD) software to visualize structures and identify
optimal processes before turning.
Furthermore, these shops are equipped to handle parts of any shape and size
and can meet strict tolerances.
■ Ensures parts fit together
A high-quality machine shop aims to ensure that parts fit together perfectly.
They must understand the specifications and requirements of the features they
manufacture and be able to communicate changes to you at any time.
Implementing changes should be fast and precise so you won’t be dissatisfied
with the result.
Different industries require different levels of precision. The medical industry,
for example, needs very accurate and precise parts. These parts must fit
together correctly to prevent leakage or contamination. In many cases, claims
must work together to the nearest millimeter to ensure they don’t come loose or
stick.

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 3) Types of Machine Shop
➔ Depending on the type of work and production capacity, the machine shop can
be divided into three types:
◆ Job shop – A job shop is a type of machine shop equipped with all the
necessary machine tools (usually general-purpose machines) and staff.
Usually, a limited number (up to one hundred) of different machine parts
or job machining is done here. Job shops are needed to produce machine
parts designed by the design engineer or invented by the inventor. Job
shops are usually used to make a limited number of standard or
special-shaped machine parts. The various machine shops of vocational
educational institutions can be called a kind of job shop.
◆ Limited production shop – A machine shop with a production capacity
between a job shop and a mass production shop is called a limited
production shop. It is specified to make from one hundred to several
thousand similar parts. Machine tools in limited production shops can
be easily changed from one setup to another for a large number of
repetitive operations.
◆ Mass production shop – An infinite number of parts are made in the
mass production shop. Automatic and numerical control systems are
used at full power. Machine tools are set up with specific cutting tools for
specific operations. Workpieces are often placed and restored with the
help of mechanical arms. So, an operator can operate a few machines in
many cases. This type of shop has its own numerical control system,
computer for making programs and tape making department.

4) Machine Shop Safety

a) Drill Press and Boring Machine
➔ Drill Press
◆ DEFINITION OF DRILL PRESS:
■ A drill press is a machine that is used to drill holes of various sizes in
wood, metal, and other materials. Usually mounted or bolted to the
floor or work bench, it consists of a base, column, table, spindle, and
drill head, which is usually driven by an electric motor. The head has
a set of turning handles that move the spindle and chuck vertically.
The table can also be adjusted vertically and is usually moved by a

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 rack and pinion

◆ USAGE OF DRILL PRESS:

● Drill presses are primarily used to drill or enlarge a cylindrical hole in
a workpiece or part such as the ones shown in the image here. They
can also be used for reaming, countersinking, counterboring, and
tapping.
◆ HAZARDS OF DRILL PRESS:
● Serious lacerations and
entanglement can occur if
operators contact the rotating bit or
chuck, or when operators try to
hold the stock by hand when
drilling. If not adequately secured,
the stock can spin violently and
contact the operator and others
nearby. Also, injuries can occur
from a projected chuck key if it is
left in the chuck
◆ SOLUTION OF DRILL PRESS:
● Use jigs or fixtures to fasten the stock to the bed and stabilize the
work piece. This allows the stock to be secured for drilling and also
allows the operator’s free hand to be positioned away from the

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 rotating chuck and drill bit. The drill bit is more likely to grab and
twist an unstable work piece.
In many repetitive drilling applications, specially designed guards or
shields are installed to protect the operator from the potential
exposure to rotating drill chucks and drill bits. A fixed universal-type
shield can be used on larger gang drills
◆ SAFETY RULES OF DRILL PRESS:
1. Run drill at correct RPM for diameter of drill bit and material. Ask
shop personnel for the correct RPM.
2. Always hold work in a vise or clamp to the drill table.
3. Use a correctly ground drill bit for the material being drilled. Shop
personnel can help select the correct bit.
4. Use the proper cutting fluid for the material being drilled. Ask the
shop staff about the appropriate fluid for the material you are
machining.
5. Remove chips with a brush, never by hand.
6. Ease up on drilling pressure as the drill starts to break through the
bottom of the material.
7. Don't use a dull or cracked drill. Inspect the drill before using.
8. Don't drill with too much pressure.
9. Always try to support part on parallels or a backing board when
drilling thru material.
10. Never place taper shank tools such as large diameter drills or tapered
shank reamers in a drill chuck. Only straight shank tools such as
standard drills can be clamped in chucks.
11. Always clean drill shank and/or drill sleeve, and spindle hole before
mounting.
12. Remove taper shank tools from the spindle or sleeve with a drill drift
and hammer.
13. Never try to loosen the drill chuck while the power is on.
14. Lower the drill spindle close to the table when releasing the drill
chuck or taper shank drill to reduce the chance of damage should
they fall onto the table.
15. Never clean a machine while it is in motion!!
16. If the drill binds in a hole, stop the machine and turn the spindle
backwards by hand to release the bit.
17. When drilling a deep hole, withdraw the drill bit frequently to clear
chips and lubricate the bit.
18. Always remove the drill chuck key, or, the drill drift from the spindle
immediately after using it.
19. Wear safety eye protection while drilling.
20. Let the spindle stop of its own accord after turning the power off.
Never try to stop the spindle with your hand.

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 21. Plexiglas and other brittle plastics can be difficult to drill. Ask a shop
technician for advice on drill and coolant selection when drilling these
materials.

➔ Boring Machine
◆ INTRODUCTION OF BORING MACHINE:
■ The boring machine is one of the most
versatile machine tools basically used to bore
holes in large and heavy parts practically
impossible to hold and rotate in an engine
lathe or a drilling machine.
■ For example engine frames, steam engines,
cylinders, machine housings, etc.
■ The boring machines come in a large variety of
styles and sizes.
■ The usage of a machine can be extended still
further to include screw cutting, turning, planetary grinding, or gear
cutting.
■ The cutting tool is normally single point which are made of M2 and
M3 high-speed steel or P10 and P01 carbide.
■ John Wilkinson was the person who invented the first boring
machine tool in 1775.
◆ DEFINITION OF BORING MACHINE:
● A boring machine is a reciprocating type of machine tools basically
used to bore holes in large and heavy parts.
◆ TYPES OF BORING MACHINE:
1. Table type boring machine
● The table type is the most common of all horizontal boring
machines.
● This is so named because the work is mounted on the table which
is adjustable and feed is given by hand power, lengthwise or
crosswise with respect to the bed of the machine.
● The machine basically comprises a bed, headstock supporting
column, end supporting column, headstock, saddle and table,
and boring bar.
● This type of machine may be suitable for general purpose work
where other operations, in addition to boring, are required to be
performed.

2. Floor type boring machine

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 ● The floor type horizontal boring machine having no table uses a
fixed floor plate on which T- spaces are given to hold the work.
● The headstock supporting column and the end supporting
column and the end supporting column are mounted on the
runways which are set at right angles to the spindle axis.
● This is designed for holding very large and heavy workpieces
which are difficult to mount and adjusted on a table.
3. Precision boring machine
● The precision boring machine uses single point tools to machine
surfaces quickly and precisely.
● Cemented carbide and diamond tipped single point tools are
worked at a very high cutting speed to produce accurately sized
holes with a fine surface finish.
● The feeding movement might be given by the tool or by the work.
● The machine may be horizontal or vertical.

4. Planer type boring machine

● It resembles the table type but the table slides directly on the bed
rather than on a saddle and reciprocates at right angles to the
spindle similar to a planer.
● The end supporting column and headstock supporting column
might be changed towards or away from the table for
accommodating different widths of work.
● This type of machine is appropriate for supporting long work.

5. Multiple head type boring machine

● This machine resembles a double housing planer or a Plano –
miller.
● The table is supported on a long bed on which it responds.
● There are two vertical columns at different sides of the bed,
almost at the center of the bed.
● The two columns are spanned by a cross rail.
● The machine may have two, three or four headstocks.
● This type of machine might be utilized both as a horizontal and
vertical machine.
● The machining operations can be performed at the same time at
various work surfaces.
6. Vertical turret lathe boring machine
● This kind of boring machine combines the advantages of the
vertical boring mill and the turret lathe.
● A vertical boring machine of smaller size is known as vertical
turret lathe.
● It has an index-able turret mounted upon the cross rail over the
table for different tooling.
● The machine is suitable for boring and turning rail road wheels,
piston rings, gear blanks etc.

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 7. Standard vertical boring machine
● These kinds of machines are larger in size than vertical turret
lathe and there is no turret head.
● The machine is provided with two vertical heads and a couple of
side heads.
● The machine is especially expected for boring large, cylindrical
and symmetrical workpieces.
8. Vertical milling machine type boring machine
● This may generate a horizontal flat surface, produce cylindrical
turned surface, bore internal holes, perform cutting off, necking
or forming operations, and generate internal or external taper
surfaces.
● For machining a flat horizontal surface, the ram and the cross
rail is locked at the desired position and the saddle is fed
crosswise while the work revolves on the table.
◆ PARTS OF BORING MACHINE:
1. Bed
● The bed of a boring machine consists of a hollow circular casting
grouted on the floor.
● The top of the bed is finished to provide a bearing surface for the
table.
● It houses the spindle and a pinion for rotating the table.

2. Table
● The table which may be rotated is a circular casting mounted on
the top of the bed.
● The horizontal surface of the table is finished and is provided
with T -slots or chuck jaws for holding and clamping the work.
● Underside of the table may be provided with bevel gear teeth
which meshes with a driving pinion.
● In large machines, a helical pinion meshes with a gear attached
to the underside of the table.
3. Housing
● The housings are two vertical members which rise from the two
sides of the bed.
● They are made of ribbed construction to ensure rigidity of the
machine.
● The housings are joined at the top by a cross member.
● The vertical front face of the housings are accurately machined to
form guide ways on which the cross rail slides.

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 4. Cross rail
● The cross rail is the horizontal member of the rectangular casting
mounted on the two front faces of the housings.
● The cross rail may be moved up and down by rotating screws for
accommodating different heights of work.
● The vertical front face of the housings are accurately finished for
holding and sliding the saddle of the tool head.
5. Boring bars
● The boring bar supports the cutter for boring operations on jobs
having huge bore distances across.
● For short holes the bar might be supported on the headstock
spindle end only, whereas for long work the bar is supported on
the spindle end and on the column bearing block.
6. Tool head assembly
● It comprises a saddle, ram and tool post.
● The saddle is mounted on the cross rail and may be made to slide
on it to generate a flat horizontal surface by the tool.
● The ram holding the tool post may be made to slide up and down
in the saddle perpendicular to the table to generate cylindrical
surface or at an angle to the table surface to generate taper.
● The rams are also counterbalanced for ease of operation.

◆ OPERATIONS OF BORING MACHINE:

1. Boring operation
● In this operation holes are bored by using boring bars.
● Multiple holes may be bored one after another by changing the
position of the workpiece and aligning it each time with the boring
bar.
● To bore a hole, the boring bar is fitted to the spindle and the
cutter is adjusted in the boring bar to the required dimension and
a light cut is then taken.
● The bore is measured, required speed and feed adjusted and the
cut is then completed.
2. Forming operation
● This operation is performed by cross feed movement of the
saddle.
3. Machining flat surface
● For performing this operation, the cross rail and the ram is
locked at the desired position.

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 ● Then, the saddle is fed cross wise while the work revolves on the
table.
● The depth of cut is given by the ram.
4. Taper boring operation
● The taper and conical surfaces are turned by swiveling the tool
head to the required angle.
● When a conical surface having a large included angle which is
beyond the range of the swiveling arrangement of the tool head is
turned, a combined cross and down feed is applied
simultaneously on the tool to cut the required taper.
5. Turning cylindrical surface
● In this activity, the saddle is clamped to prevent any horizontal
movement of the ram, and the ram is fed downwards.
● The larger diameter holes are bored by feeding the tool head
directly within the work and the smaller diameter holes are bored
by using a boring bar attached to the tool head.
6. Cutting off and necking operation
● This operation is similar to the forming operation and it is also
performed by cross feed movement of the saddle.
◆ SIZES OF BORING MACHINE
The sizes of boring machines vary according to their construction
which may be vertical or horizontal.
For vertical
● The size is indicated by the diameter of its table or chuck
expressed in mm.
● It can also be specified by the swing diameter of the largest work
which can be accommodated in the machine.
● The size of a vertical turret lathe shifts from 600 to 2000 mm.
● The size of a standard vertical boring machine is pretty much as
high as 6000 mm.
For horizontal
● The size is indicated by the diameter of its spindle in mm.
● The breadth of the spindle varies from 75 to 355 mm.
● To specify a boring machine, other important dimensions for
example spindle motor horsepower, column heights, size of the
table or size of the floor plate, spindle speeds, feeds and length of
feeds, floor space required, weight of the machine, and so on
likewise be expressed.

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 ◆ MECHANISM OF BORING MACHINE:
The mechanism of boring machine is based on a table type machine
movements which are as follows:-
1. The end supporting block and the headstock might be moved
down and up.
2. The spindle may be rotated with different speeds.
3. The spindle may be moved in or out by power or hand for feeding.
4. The saddle and the table may be moved by hand or power.
5. The columns might be moved by hand or force.
■ All these movements which may be given independently or in
combination.
■ All the controls are housed in a particular position of the machine
and the operator may give a closer attention to the work while
controlling the machine.

b) Lathe Machine – Tool Bit

➔ Lathe Machine
◆ INTRODUCTION OF LATHE MACHINE:
In the Mechanical Engineering field Lathe machine plays an
important role in Manufacturing. In this article, I am going to discuss
the Lathe machine in detail.
■ A lathe is a machine tool
which is used to remove
unwanted metals from the
work piece to give desired
shape and size. which is used
in the metalworking
industry.
■ It operates on the principle of
a rotating workpiece an
■ Lathe machine is one of the
most important machine tools
with a fixed cutting tool.
■ The cutting tool is fed into the workpiece which rotates about its
own axis causing the workpiece to form the desired shape.
■ It is also known as ” the mother/father of the entire tool
family”.
■ It was invented by DAVID WILKINSON ( 05 Jan. 1771 – 03 Feb.
1852).aA

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 ◆ DEFINITION OF LATHE MACHINE:
● The machine tool that ‘s used to remove unwanted metals from the
workpiece to give the desired shape and size is called ” Lathe
machine “.
● The Lathe machine is also known as “ Center Lathe ” because of two
centers between which the job can be held and rotated.
◆ FUNCTIONS OF LATHE MACHINE:
● The main function of the Lathe machine is to remove excess material
in the form of chips by rotating the workpiece against a stationary
cutting tool.
● This is accomplished by holding the work securely and rigidly on the
machine and then turning it against a cutting tool which will remove
metal from the work.
● To cut the material properly the tool should be harder than the
material of the workpiece, should be rigidly held on the machine and
should be fed or progressed in a definite way relative to the work.
◆ MAIN PARTS OF LATHE MACHINE:
● In a lathe machine every individual part performs an important task.
● Some important parts of a lathe machine are as follows:

1. Bed
● The Bed forms the base of a machine.
● It is mounted on the legs of the lathe machine, which are bolted
to the floor.
● It is made up of cast iron and its top surface is machined
accurately and precisely.
2. Head Stock
● Head stock is an important part of a lathe machine, which is
mounted permanently on the inner guide – ways at the left hand
side of the bed.

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 ● It consists of a main spindle, a chuck fitted at the spindle nose,
back gear drive and all gear drive.
3. Main Spindle
● A main spindle is a hollow cylindrical shaft.
● Its face has a standard moarse taper.
● It is used for holding the live Centre or collet.
● The spindle rotates on two large bearings housed on the
headstock casting.
● The front end of the spindle is threaded, those are used for
holding the chuck, face plate, driving plate and catch plate.
● It is known as a spindle nose.

4. Tail Stock
● A tail stock is located on the inner guide – ways at the right side
of the bed opposite to the head stock.
● The body of the tail stock is bored and house the tailstock
spindle.
● The spindle moves front and back inside the hole.
● It has a taper hole to receive the dead Centre or shunk of tools
such as drill or reamer.
● Its body is made up of cast iron.

5. Lead Screw
● It is used to transmit power to the carriage through gear and
clutch arrangement in the carriage apron.
6. Live Center
● A Live Center is mounting on bearings and rotates with the work.
● Live centers are used to hold or support a work-piece.

7. Dead Center
● A dead center may be used to support the work piece at either
the fixed or rotating end of the machine.
● Dead centers are typically fully hardened to prevent damage to
the important mating surfaces of the taper and to preserve the
60° angle of the nose.
8. Carriage
● A carriage is located between the
headstock and tailstock on the lathe
bed guide – ways.
● It can be moved along the bed
either towards or away from the
head stock.
● It has several parts to support,
move and control the cutting tool.

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 i. Saddle
○ It is H – shaped casting.
○ The saddle connects the pair of bed guides – ways as a
bridge.
○ It fits over the bed and slides along the bed between
headstock and tailstock.
○ The saddle can be moved by providing hand feed or
automatic feed.
ii. Apron
○ The front portion of a carriage call as apron. It consists
of all control keys.
○ The handle operates the carriage. It has a housing,
which has a set of gears and split nut.
○ Automatic feed and threading control are on the
apron.
iii. Tool Post
○ It is located on the top of the compound slide. It is
used to hold the tools rigidly.
○ Tools are selected according to the type of operation
and mounted on the tool post and adjusted to a
convenient working position.
■ There are different types of tool post, which are as
follows.
a. Single Way / Screw Tool Post
b. Four Way Tool Post
c. Quick Change Tool Post
d. British Type Tool Post
iv. Cross slide
○ It is situated on the saddle and slides on the dovetail
guide – ways at right angles to the bed guide – ways.
○ It carries compound rest, compound slide and tool post.
○ Cross slide handwheel is rotated to move it at right
angle to the lathe machine axis.
○ The cross slide handwheel is graduated on its rim to
give a known amount of feed as accurate as 0.05 mm.
v. Compound Rest
○ It is a part which connects to the cross slide and
compound slide.
○ It is mounted on the cross slide by tongue and groove
joint.
○ The compound rest can be swiveled to the required
angle while turning tapers.

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 ○ A top slide known as compound slide is attached to
the compound rest by a dovetail joint.
vi. Compound Slide
○ Compound slide is a T -shaped rounded slot, which is
fixed with cross slide upper surface by two bolts, which
is related to a micrometer sleeve and screw handle
with the outer edge of screw.
○ Taper turning can be possible by setting the compound
slide at half of a required angle.
○ This slide is only used for less long job taper turning.
○ The automatic feed is not possible in compound slide.

9. Feed Mechanism
● There are several mechanisms to make the carriage and cross
slide move automatically to change the direction of their
movement.
● Some important feed mechanisms are as follows:

i. Belt Feed Mechanism

○ Belt feed mechanism is widely used in the oldest lathe
machines.
○ In this, a cone stepped pulley is used for providing the
different types of speed.
○ To change the speed, a lever is used for sliding the belt
at one pulley to another.
○ Belt feed mechanism has a disadvantage of the belt
slipping in the pulley changing process.
ii. Gear Feed Mechanism
○ In the gear feed mechanism, the power is transmitted
from spindle to feed rod or lead screw by power gear
train.
○ Gear 1 is situated at the back side of the spindle and
the tumbler bracket consists of the gears 2, 3, 4 and 5.
○ A lever operates the bracket. This bracket is pivoted
about the axis of the stud gear.
●
○ This position of the bracket can be arrange in three
different stages namely:
a. Neutral Position
b. Forward Position
c. Reverse Position

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 ◆ WORKING PRINCIPLE OF LATHE MACHINE:
PRINCIPLE

■ A lathe is a machine tool which is used to remove unwanted

materials from a workpiece in the form of chips with the help of a tool
that travels across the workpiece and can be fed deep in work.

■ When the tool is moved parallel to the work-piece then the cylindrical
surface is formed.

■ If the tool is moved inclined to the axis then it produces a tapered

surface and so calls it taper turning.

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 WORKING
■ It holds the work between two supports called centers.
■ Face plates or Chuck are used for holding the work.
■ Face plates or Chuck are mounted on the machine spindle.
■ The cutting tool is held with the help of a Tool post.
■ The movement of the job is rotating about the spindle axis.
■ Against the revolving work, the tool is feed.
■ The tool moves either parallel or inclination to the work axis.
◆ OPERATIONS OF LATHE MACHINE:

1. Turning
● Turning is the operation of reducing the
diameter of a workpiece to produce a cone
-shaped or a cylindrical surface as shown in
fig. above.
● A simple single point cutting tool is used for
turning operations.
● Turning can be different types like

i. Tapers and Taper Turning

○ A taper may be defined as a uniform increase or
decrease in diameter of a piece of work measured along
its length.
○ In a lathe, taper turning means to produce a conical
surface by gradual reduction in diameter from a
cylindrical workpiece.

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 ii. Straight turning
○ The Straight turning produces a cylindrical surface by
removing excess metal from the work piece.
iii. Profiling
○ In profiling, the cut can vary with regard to cutting
depth, feed and speed.
iv. External grooving
○ In external turning operations machines the outer
diameter of the workpiece.
2. Facing
● Facing is an operation of reducing the length of
a workpiece to produce a flat surface square
with the axis.
● A regular turning tool may also be used for
facing a large workpiece.
3. Drilling
● Drilling is an operation of producing a
cylindrical hole in a workpiece by the rotating cutting edge of a
cutter known as the drill.
4. Boring
● Boring is the operation of enlarging a hole or
cylindrical cavity to produce circular internal
grooves.
● Holes may be bored straight and tapered.

i. Counter Boring
○ Counter Boring is the operation of enlarging a hole
through a certain distance from one end instead of
enlarging the hole drilled surface.
ii. Taper Boring
○ Taper Boring is similar to the external taper turning
operation and is accomplished by rotating the work on
a chuck or a face plate, and feeding the tool at an angle
to the axis of rotation of the workpiece.
5. Reaming
● Reaming is the operation of finishing and
sizing a hole which has been previously
drilled or bored.
● The tool is called the reamer, which has
multiple cutting edges.

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 6. Knurling
● Knurling is the process of embossing a diamond shaped pattern
on the surface of a workpiece.
● The purpose of knurling is to provide an
effective gripping surface on a work piece to
prevent it from slipping when operated by hand.
7. Chamfering
● Chamfering is the operation of beveling the
extreme end of a workpiece.
● This is done to remove the burrs, to protect the
end of the workpiece from being damaged and
to have a better look.
8. Filling
● Filling is the finishing operation performed after turning.
● This is done in a lathe to remove burrs, sharp corners, and feed
marks on a work piece and also to bring it to the size by removing
a very small amount of metal.
● The operation consists of passing a flat single cut file over the
workpiece which revolves at high speed.
9. Parting
● Parting is the operation of cutting a
workpiece after it has been
machined to the desired size and
shape.
● This process involves rotating the
work piece on a chuck or face plate
at half the speed that of turning and
feeding by a narrow parting – off
tool perpendicular to the axis by rotating the cross -slide screw by
hand.
10. Threading
● Threading is an operation to produce a helical groove on a
cylindrical or conical surface by feeding the tool longitudinally
when the job is revolved between center’s or by a chuck.
● Threads can be produced either on the internal or external
surface of a cylindrical bar.
11. Grooving
● Grooving is the process of reducing
the diameter of a workpiece over a
very narrow surface.
● It is often done at the end of a thread
or adjacent to a shoulder to leave a
small margin.

19
 ○ Grooving Operations are:
a. Square Groove
b. Round Groove
c. Bevelled Groove
12. Forming
● Forming is the process of turning a convex, concave or of any
irregular shape.
13. Polishing
● It is basically a surface finishing operation to improve the
surface quality of the workpiece.
● Polishing with successively finer grades of emery cloth after
filling results in a very smooth, bright surface.
◆ TYPES OF LATHE MACHINE:
■ Lathe machines are classified according to their construction and
design. Some of them are:
1. Bench lathe machine
● Bench lathe is a small lathe usually mounted on a bench.
● This is used for small and precision work.

2. Speed lathe machine

● Speed lathe is the simplest of all types of lathe in
construction and operation.
● It consists of a bed , a head stock, a tail stock and a tool –
post mounted on an adjustable slide.
● The spindle speed is about 4000 rpm.
● They were named because of the very High Speed of the
headstock spindle.
3. Engine lathe or center lathe machine
● The term ” engine ” is associated with the lathe which was
earlier driven by steam engines.
● An engine lathe is also known as a reproductive machine
because of its production capabilities.
● Engine lathes are an excellent tool, which aids in the
creation of many modern tools.
Advantages
○ It is used for mass production of products.
○ It is used for manufacturing cylindrical shapes like steels
and plastics.

20
 Disadvantages
○ It is very difficult to program in machine language.
○ corruption, poor service, and racial issues.
4. Tool room lathe machine
● Tool room lathe is similar to an engine lathe.
● This lathe is mainly used for precision work on tools, Dies,
Gauges and in making work where accuracy is necessary.
● It is used for making precision components in the tool room.

5. Capstan and turret lathe machine

a. Capstan Lathe
● They have features of the basic lathe and have short slide
tailstock.
● A Capstan machine is a processing machine used for
making the same parts again and again.
Advantages
○ The production rate is high.

Disadvantages
○ The heavier work-piece cannot be machined by
capstan lathe.
b. Turret Lathe
● The turret lathe is a form of metalworking lathe.
● It is used for repetitive production of duplicate parts.
● In a turret lathe, a longitudinally feed able, hexagon turret
replaces the tail stock.
Advantages
○ Turret lathe is used to machine the long and heavy
workpieces.
○ They have hexagonal tool posts or heads.
○ There is no need to change the tool.

Disadvantages
○ They have manual indexes.

6. Special purpose lathe machine

● Special Purpose lathe are used for special purposes and for
jobs which cannot be accommodated or conveniently
machined on a standard lathe.
7. Automatic lathe machine
● In the automatic lathe, the various operations are automating
like the change of the workpiece.

21
 ● The working cycle is fully automatic and is repeated to
produce duplicate parts without participation of the operator.
Advantages
○ During machine operation the operator is free to operate
another machine.
○ More economy in floor space.

Disadvantages
○ Lots of consideration is being taken on fixing the setup.

◆ LATHE MACHINE ACCESSORIES:

● Lathe machine accessories are generally dividing into two categories :-
1. Work Holding device
● The work holding devices are the device that is used to hold
and rotate the work pieces along with the spindle.
● The different work holding devices are used, according to the
shape, length, diameter and weight of the workpiece and the
location of turning on the work. They are as follows :-
A. Chucks
■ A chuck is a specialized types of clamp used to hold the
workpiece.
■ Chuck is mounted on the spindle which rotates within
the head stock.
Types of chucks:
a. Three Jaw Chuck
b. Four Jaw chuck
c. Collect Chuck
d. Spindle Chuck
e. Magnetic Chuck
f. Combination Chuck
g. Air Operated Chuck
B. Face Plate
■ Face plate is a circular disc and thread
to fit to the nose of the lathe machine
spindle.
■ They have radial planes and ‘T’ – slots
for holding the work by bolts and
clamps.

22
 C. Mandrels
■ Mandrel is a device which is used for holding a hollow
workpiece.
■ Mandrel is mounting between centers and work
revolves with it .
D. Centers
■ A lathe center is a tool that has ground to a point to
accurately position a work piece.
■ There are two centers :-
a. Live center
○ A live center is a center which fits into the
headstock spindle and revolves with the work.
○ A live center is constructed so that the 60
degree center runs in its own bearing.
b. Dead center
○ Dead center is the center which uses a tailstock
spindle and doesn’t revolve.
c. Half center
○ Half center is the center which is often used in
the tail stock for facing up to or for Turning
close to the end of the work .
○ It cuts away almost to its point .
E. Driving Plate or Catch Plate
■ Catch plate is a plane disc which is made up of cast
iron or steel.
■ They having a central

F. Carriage
■ Carriage is a device that Clamps around the workpiece.
■ They allow the rotary motion of the machine's spindle
to transmit the work piece.
■ There are two types of carriage :-
a. Straight Tail Carriage
● This is used for driving the work by means of
the pin provided in the driving plate .
b. Bent Tail Carriage
● It fits into the slot of the catch
plate to drive the work.
c. Angle Vise
● Angle vise is an angular
adjustment on base to allow the

23
 operator to drill holes at an angle without tilting
the table .
2. Cutting Tool Holding device
● The cutting tool holding device is a device which is used to
hold the cutting tools .
● The different cutting tool holding devices are as follows:-

A. Tool Post
■ Tool Post is a device which holds the cutting tool on a
lathe and some other machine.
B. Collect
■ Collect is a device which is used to hold a
cutting tool in the spindle of a milling machine.
C. Drill Chucks
■ It is the most common devices which are using
for holding straight-shank cutting tools
■ There are two common types:-
a. Key Type
○ It has loosened or tightened by key.

b. Keyless Type
○ It has loosened or tightened by hand without
the key.
D. Drill Sleeves
■ Drill sleeves are used to adapt smaller Morse taper
shank tools to larger machine spindles.
E. Drill Socket
■ Drill socket is used to hold twist drills with shanks.
■ They have often used an extension socket.

F. Straight Tool Holders

■ Straight is used for taking cuts in either direction and
for general machining operations.
■ Specifications of Lathe Machine:

◆ SPECIFICATIONS OF LATHE MACHINE:

● A lathe machine is basically specified by:-
1. Swing is the largest work diameter which can be swung for the
lathe bed.
2. The distance between tailstock and headstock center.
3. Bed length of the machine in a meter ( m ).

24
 4. The lead screw of the pitch.
5. The horsepower of the machine.
6. Number of speed of HS spindle and speed range.
7. The machine weighs in a tone.
◆ SOME KEY POINTS:
1. Feed
○ The rate at which the cutting tool crosses the work piece in the
direction perpendicular to the workpiece axis is called feed.
2. Depth of cut
○ It is the perpendicular distance measured from the machined
surface to the UN – cut surface of the workpiece.
3. Cutting Speed
○ The speed at which the metal is removed from the workpiece with
the help of a tool is called cutting speed.
Formula
Cutting Speed = πdn / 1000
4. Grinding
○ Grinding is the operation of removing metal in the form of minute
chips by feeding the work against a rotating abrasive wheel, called
a Grinding wheel.
◆ HAZARD OF LATHE MACHINE:
● Severe injuries and death can occur
primarily from being caught in or
struck by rotating parts. An operator
can be pulled into the lathe from
working perilously close (e.g.,
polishing a slotted shaft with emery
cloth) and/or wearing gloves, loose
clothing, hair, jewelry, etc. Trapping
spaces are also created between the
cutting tool, its mounting, and the
workpiece or chuck.
Projected parts or material such as chuck keys or unsecured work
pieces can also strike nearby operators.
Flying chips and coolant also present hazards to the operator.
◆ SOLUTION OF LATHE MACHINE:
● Avoid wearing gloves, loose clothing, long hair, jewelry, or other
dangling objects near lathe operations. Pay close attention to work

25
 pieces that have keyway slots or other surface profiles that may
increase the risk of entanglement. Assess the need to manually polish
(e.g., emery cloth) rotating material. If necessary, consider milling
keyways or other profiles after polishing or use emery cloth with the
aid of a tool or backing boards. Always use a brush or tool to remove
chips.
Cover work-holding devices (chucks) and tool trapping space hazards
(especially in automatic or semiautomatic modes) with secured fixed
or movable guards or shields. Vertical lathes and controlled turning
centers are normally provided with fixed or interlocked guarding that
prevents access during the automatic cycle.
Make sure all work pieces and work-holding
devices are secure and free from defects.
Remove the chuck key from the chuck after
securing the material. A good rule is to never
take your hand off the chuck key until you
set it back onto a table. Consider using a
spring-loaded wrench.
Provide a chip/coolant shield unless another
guard or shield already provides protection.
This does not replace the need for eye and
face protection, however.
NOTE: Guards or shields used to protect lathe operators from projected
parts must either be from the manufacturer or, if fabricated in-house,
meet or exceed the same impact-resistance specifications as the
original manufactured part. Various materials (such as polycarbonates)
may possess different and less effective impact-resistance
characteristics than the original materials used by the manufacturer.
In one case, an operator was killed when the bell casting on a lathe
came loose while the lathe was turning and was propelled through
two, ½-inch-thick Plexiglas windows. The Plexiglas was installed as a
replacement for the manufacturer’s original composite window on the
machine’s door frame. The operator was fatally struck in the head
and neck as he was looking through the window.
The manufacturer’s original observation window was made of a
¼-inch-thick laminated glass plate with a ½-inch-thick
polycarbonate window, separated by an approximately ¼-inch air
space. The original window was replaced with Plexiglas material that
had a lower impact resistance than the polycarbonate shield
originally supplied by the machine manufacturer.

26
 Polycarbonates are a family of various polymers that includes
Macrolux, Lexan, Relex, Replex, Dynaglass, Exolite, Verolite, Cyrolon,
and Makrolon. These materials have different impact-resistance
characteristics for different thicknesses and surface areas. It is
important to note that increasing the thickness beyond a certain level
does not always improve or increase the impact resistance.
Furthermore, some studies have shown polycarbonate degrades due
to age and prolonged contact with metalworking fluids and lubricants
◆ SAFETY RULES OF LATHE MACHINE:
1. Make sure that the chuck, driveplate, or, faceplate is securely
tightened onto the lathe spindle.
2. When removing the chuck, driveplate, or faceplate do not use
machine power.
3. When installing the chuck, driveplate, or faceplate do not use
machine power.
4. Move the tool a bit a safe distance from the collet or chuck when
inserting or removing work.
5. Don't run the machine faster than the proper cutting speed – consult
a speed and feed table to determine the best speed.
6. In setting up the tool holder, place it to the left side of the compound
slide to prevent the compound slide from running into the chuck or
spindle attachments.
7. Always clamp the tool bit as short as possible in the tool holder to
prevent it from breaking or chattering.
8. Always make sure that the tool bit is sharp and has the proper
clearance. Ask for assistance making adjustments.
9. If any filing is done on work revolving in the lathe, file left handed to
prevent slipping into the chuck. Never use a file without a handle.
10. If work is turned between centers, make sure that proper adjustment
is made between centers and that the tailstock is locked in place.
11. If work is being turned between centers and expands due to heat
generated from cutting, readjust centers to avoid excessive friction.
12. Do not grasp or touch chips or turnings with your fingers, but get rid
of them using a blunt instrument. It is safer to turn off the lathe
before clearing chips then to leave it running.
13. Set the tool bit on the centerline of your work to prevent work from
climbing over the tool or cutting above center and dragging.
14. Don't cut work completely through when turning between centers.
15. Remove the chuck key from the chuck immediately after using.
16. Turn chuck or faceplate through by hand before turning on the
power to be sure there is no binding or clearance problem.
17. Stop the machine before taking measurements.
18. Before cleaning the lathe remove tools from the tool post and
tailstock.

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 c) Milling Machine – Milling Cutter
➔ Milling Machine

◆ INTRODUCTION OF MILLING MACHINE:

■ Milling ( machine ) is the backbone of the manufacturing industry.
■ Milling machine cutter rotates at a high speed and because of the
multiple cutting edges it removes metal at a very fast rate.
■ This machine can also hold one or more cutters at a time.
■ It is superior to other machines as regards accuracy and better
surface finish, and is designed for machining a variety of tool room
work.
■ The 1st milling ( machine ) came into existence in about 1770 and
was of French origin.
■ The milling cutter was 1st developed by Jacques de Vaucanson in
1782.
◆ DEFINITION OF MILLING MACHINE:
○ A milling ( machine ) is a machine tool that is used to remove metal
as the work is fed against a rotating multipoint cutter.
○ This may be done in varying direction at an angle with the axis,
cutter head speed, and pressure.
○ Milling can be done with a wide range of machine tools.
◆ PRINCIPAL & WORKING OF MILLING (MACHINE)
PRINCIPAL
■ A milling ( machine ) removes metal by rotating a
multi -point cutting tool against a work piece.
■ The workpiece or jobs are fixed on the work table and
feed is given against the tool.
The table can be given three type of movements:
1. Longitudinal cross wise
2. Vertical movements
3. Rotational movements
WORKING
■ The work is rigidly clamped on the table of the machine and the
multi teeth cutter will revolve either on a spindle.
■ The cutter has many cutting edges and is rotated at high speeds.
■ The work can be fed in a longitudinal, vertical, or cross direction.
■ For further process, the cutter teeth remove the metal from the work
surface to produce desired shape like flat, circular, or curved.

28
 ◆ MAIN PARTS OF MILLING (MACHINE)
■ These are the following main parts of the Milling machine:-
1. Base
○ Base is the lowermost part to support the machine.
○ It is a dim iron cast precisely machined on its top and base
surface and fills in as an establishment for the various parts
which rest upon it.
2. Column
○ It is the vertical part that is fixed on the base.
○ The segment is box formed, vigorously ribbed inside and
houses all the driving instruments for the shaft and table
feed.
○ Front vertical face of the column is provided with a vertical
slide which can be square or of dovetail type.
○ The knee is made of cast iron which slides up and down on
the vertical slide ( guideways ) on the face of the column.
3. Knee
○ The knee is an unbending dark iron throwing that slides all
over on the vertical methods for the section face.
○ The knee houses the feed system of the table, and various
controls to work it.
○ The top essence of the knee shapes a slide route for the seat
to give cross travel of the table.
4. Power Feed Mechanism
○ It is the knee which contains the force feed component.
○ It’s use to control the longitudinal ( left & right ), transverse (
in & out ) and vertical ( up & down ) feeds.
5. Saddle
○ Saddle is present on the knee which supports the table.
○ It is proving motion in the X and Y axes by means of lead
screw.
6. Table
○ The table is present on the top of the saddle and can be
moved along the X axes.
○ It contains several T – slots for the mounting of work pieces or
clamping jigs & fixtures.
7. Spindle
○ Spindle is the hollow shaft that is used to hold and drive the
cutting tools.

29
 ○ The face of the spindle that lies near to the table has an
internal taper machined on it.
8. Over Arm
○ It is a horizontal beam which is present at the top face of the
column.
○ This may be a single casting which slides on the top face of
the column.
○ It might comprise a couple of tube shaped bars that slide
through the openings in the segment.
9. Arbor
○ The arbor has an oil reservoir that lubricates the bearing
surfaces.
○ It prevents the spring of the outer end of the arbor during
cutting operations.
○ Arbor also helps in aligning the outer end of the arbor with
the spindle.
10. Ram
○ The smash on which the processing head is connected can be
situated ahead and in reverse along the slide route on the
highest point of the section.
◆ OPERATION OF MILLING (MACHINE)
■ These are the following different operations that can be performed in
the milling ( machine ):
1. Face milling operation
● This is an operation for producing a flat surface, which is
perpendicular to the axis of the rotating cutter.
● The operation is performed by the face milling cutter.

2. Plain milling operation

● It is the operation of production of a plain, flat,
horizontal surface parallel to the axis of
rotation.
● It is also called slab or surface milling.
● A plain milling cutter is used.

3. End milling operation

● It is the operation of production of a flat surface which may be
vertical, horizontal or at an angle in reference to the table
surface.
● End mill cutter is used.
● Their cutters are used for production of slots, grooves or key
ways.

30
 4. Side milling operation
● It is the machining process which produces a flat vertical
surface at the sides of a workpiece.
5. Slot milling operation
● This is an operation of producing slots like T– slots, Plain-
slots etc.
6. Angular milling operation
● It is the operation of producing all types of angular cuts like
V- notches, grooves, serrations and angular surfaces.
● E.g. Production of V- Blocks, etc.

7. Form milling operation

● This is the process of machining special
contour ( outline ) composed of curves,
straight lines, or entirely of curves at a
single cut
● This operation is accomplished by using
convex, concave and corner rounding
milling cutters.
● In the wake of machining, the shaped
surface is checked by a layout measure.
8. Straddle milling operation
● It is a process in which two side cutters are use to machining
two opposite sides of a workpiece simultaneously.
● The Straddle milling is very common to produce square or
hexagonal surfaces.
9. Gang milling operation
● It is the machining process in which two or
more milling cutters are used together to
perform different operations
simultaneously.
10. Profile milling operation
● It is the operation of reproduction of an
outline of a template or complex shape of a master die on a
work piece.
11. Saw milling operation
● Saw milling is the operation of production of
narrow slots or grooves on a workpiece by
using a saw milling cutter.

31
 12. Gear milling operation
● The gear cutting operation is performed in a milling machine
by using a form relieved cutter.
● The cutter may be cylindrical type or end mill type. The cutter
profile corresponds exactly with the tooth space of the gear.
● Similarly separated rigging teeth are cut on an apparatus
clear by holding the work on an all inclusive isolating head
and afterward ordering it.
13. Helical milling operation
● The helical milling is the operation of
production of helical flutes or grooves
around the periphery of a cylindrical or
conical work piece.
● The usual examples of work performed by
helical milling operations are : Production
of helical milling cutters, helical gears,
cutting helical grooves or flutes on a drill
blank or a reamer.
14. Cam milling operation
● Cam milling is the operation of production of cams in a
milling machine by the use of a universal dividing head and a
vertical milling attachment.
● The axis of the cam can be set from zero to ninety degrees in
reference to the surface of the table for obtaining a different
rise of the cam.
● The cams are used to open and close valves in the internal
combustion engines.
15. Thread milling operation
● Thread milling is the operation of production of threads by
using a single or multiple threads milling cutter.
● The operation is performed in special thread milling
machines to produce accurate threads in small or large
quantities.
◆ TYPES OF MILLING (MACHINE)
According to their general design these are the following classification
or types of milling ( machine ):-
1. Column and knee type
● It is most commonly used in general shop-work.
● The column and knee type milling machine are classified
according to the various methods of supplying power to the
table, different movements of the table and different axis of
rotation of the main spindle.

32
 a. Hand milling machine
○ In Hand milling, the feeding movement of the table is
supplied by hand power.
○ The machine is relatively smaller in size than that of
other types and is particularly suitable for light and
simple milling operations such as machining slots,
grooves, and key ways.
b. Plain ( Horizontal ) milling machine
○ It is the simplest form of milling ( machine ).
○ In this milling, the workpiece can be fed in all three
axes and this process is suitable for short production.
○ In this milling heavy work piece cannot be machined
and the operation is slow because of the large number
of controls.
c. Universal milling machine
○ It is similar to the horizontal milling but the table is
placed on the swivel and the swivel is placed on the
saddle.
○ The machine can produce spur, spiral, bevel gears,
twist drills, reamers, milling cutters, etc. besides doing
all conventional milling operations.
d. Omniversal milling machine
○ In this machine, all the movements of a universal
milling machine can be tilted in a vertical plane by
providing a swivel arrangement at the knee besides the
table.
e. Vertical milling machine
○ In this machine, the cutter spindle has a vertical
position and the table movements are horizontal,
vertical and transverse.
○ In vertical milling, the over arm is small and provides
a strong support for the spindle and the spindle can be
moved up and down to perform the operations like
grooving, facing etc.
2. Manufacturing of fixed bed type
● The fixed bed type millings are comparatively large, heavy,
and rigid and differ radically from column and knee type by
the construction of its table mounting.
● The table movement is restricted to reciprocation at right
angles to the spindle axis with no provision for cross or
vertical adjustment.

33
 ● The shaper mounted on the axle head might be moved
vertically on the section, and the axle might be balanced on a
level plane.
a. Simplex milling ( machine )
○ In the simplex machine, the spindle head or the
spindle can travel only in one direction.
○ Mostly, it travels in a vertical direction.

b. Duplex milling ( machine )

○ In this machine, the shaft can travel both
vertical and flat.
c. Triplex milling ( machine )
○ In a triplex machine, the spindle can move in
all three directions along the X, Y and Z axis.
3. Planer type
● It’s mostly used for facing operations in mass production.
● This machine is similar to the bed type milling except it can
be mounted with various cutters and spindle heads to the
machine.
● These cutters can perform the facing operations
simultaneously.
4. Special type
● These machines are the modern milling machines which are
developed to ease the milling operations according to the job.
● Following are the special type of milling machines are:

a. Rotary table milling ( machine )

○ This is the modification of a vertical machine for the
machining of flat surfaces at production rate.
○ The cutter may be set at different heights relative to
the work so that when one of the cutters is roughing
the pieces, the other is finishing them.
b. Drum milling ( machine )
○ It’s used for production work only.
○ This type of machine has a vertical central drum which
rotates on a horizontal axis much like a Ferry’s
wheel.
○ In activity, the drum – apparatus turns gradually,
conveying the neutralization of the pivoting cutters.
c. Planetary milling ( machine )
○ In this machine, the work is held stationary while the
cutters move in a planetary path to finish a cylindrical

34
 surface on the work either internally or externally or
simultaneously.
d. Pantograph, Profiling & Tracer controlled milling (
machine )
■ Pantograph
○ A pantograph is a mechanism that is generally
constructed of four bars or links which are joined
in the form of a parallelogram.
○ It twists so as to enable a client to draw a picture
while at the same time drawing at least two
duplicates of it..
■ Pantograph
○ A profiling machine duplicates the full size of the
template attached to the machine.
○ This is practically a vertical milling ( machine ) of
bed type in which the spindle can be adjusted
vertically and the cutter head horizontally across
the table.
○ The movement of the cutter is regulated by a
hardened guide pin.
■ Tracer controlled
○ The tracer controlled milling machine reproduces
irregular or complex shapes of dies, moulds, etc,
by synchronized movements of the cutter and
tracing element.
◆ METHODS OF MILLING (MACHINE)
There are two basic methods of milling ( machine ) that can be
performed:-
1. Up milling or conventional milling
■ The Up milling is also called conventional milling.
■ In an Up milling process, the direction of cutter rotation is
opposite to that of feed motion.
■ If the cutter rotates clockwise, the feed motion will take place in
the rightward direction.
■ The chip thickness is least toward the beginning of the cut and
most extreme toward the end.
■ Slicing power shifts from zero to the most extreme worth.

Advantages
○ The cutter is not affected by the sandy surfaces of the work piece.
○ It doesn’t require a backlash eliminator.

35
 ○ Built up edge ( BUE ) fragments are not available on the
machining surface.
○ The loads on the teeth are acting gradually.
Disadvantages
○ The propensity of slicing power to lift the work from the
installations and poor surface completion.
2. Down milling or climb milling
■ It is also known as climb milling.
■ In down milling, the workpiece cuts from right to left cutter
rotation in clockwise direction.
■ The chip thickness is maximum at the start of the cut and
minimum in the end.
■ There is less friction involved and consequently less heat is
generated on the contact surface of the cutter and work piece.
Advantages
○ Tool blunting is less.
○ It produces better surface finish.
○ The flat workpiece can be machined easily.
○ It is characterized by less tendencies of chattering and vibration.
○ The fixtures are simple and less costly.
Disadvantages
○ The chip thickness is maximum at the point of tooth contact
with the workpiece.
◆ DIFFERENCE BETWEEN UP MILLING & DOWN MILLING
S.NO. Up Milling Down Milling
1. It is also known as It is also known as climb
conventional milling. milling.
In this milling, the cutter In this milling, the cutter
2. rotates against the direction rotates with the direction of
of feed. feed.
The width of the chip is zero The size of the chip is
at initial cut and increases maximum at the start of the
3. with feed. This will maximum cut and decreases with the
at the end of feed. feed. This will zero at the end
of feed.
The tool wear rate is more The tool wear rate is more
4. because the tool runs against because the tool runs against
the feed. the feed.

36
 5. The cutting chips fall down The cutting chips fall down
in front of the cutting tool. behind the tool.
6. It gives less surface finish. It gives better surface finish.
The cutting chips are carried The cutting chips are carried
7. upward with the help of downward with the help of
tools. the tool.
The heat is diffuse to the The heat is diffused so the
8. workpiece which causes the chip does not change the
change in metal properties. workpiece properties.
9. Tool life is less. Tool life is more.
This is also famous as a
10. traditional way of cutting the This
of
is a non – traditional way
cutting the workpiece.
surface.
11. The high quality cutting fluid The simple cutting fluid is
is used. used.
Because of upward force by Because of downward force
12. tool, high strength jig and by tool, normal jig and
fixture are use fixtures are used.
13. It requires a high cutting It requires low cutting force.
force.
14. The cutting forces act The cutting forces act
upward. downward.
It is mostly applicable for It is mostly applicable for
15. cutting of brass, bronze and aluminium and aluminium
ferrous materials. alloys.

◆ TYPES OF MILLING (MACHINE)

■ A milling cutter is a cutting tool of milling ( machine ), which are
available in many shapes and standards.
■ The teeth may be straight or at a helix angle and helix angle helps the
milling cutter for a slow engagement of the tool to distribute the
forces.
There are following wide ranges of milling cutters:-

1. Plain cutters
● These mills are used to cut with the sides only.
● They have straight or helical teeth.

37
 2. End mills
● End mills are generally HSS cutting tools with three or more
flutes.
● They are intended for bulk metal removal with their flutes and
unless they are only suitable for side cutting.
● Early end mills and most large end mills have a recessed
center at each end of the cutter to facilitate resharpening.
3. Face mill
● A face mill consists of a cutter body that is
designed to hold multiple disposable carbide or
ceramic tips.
● These tips may be rotated within the holder to
present a fresh face to the work piece, this
increases the life of the tip and thus their
economical cutting life.
4. Slab mill
● Slab mills are used in horizontal or universal milling
machines to machine large broad surfaces quickly.
● They have been superseded by the use of carbide tipped face
mills that are then used in vertical mills for machining
centers.
5. Hollow mills
● These cutters are used in the screw machines.
● In the hollow mills, the cutting teeths are
available inside of the surfaces.
6. Metal slitting saws
● A metal slitting saw is similar to a circular saw blade.
● It is mostly used for deep slotting and sinking in cuts.

7. Side and face cutter

● The side and face cutter have cutting teeth on its side as well
as its circumference.
● The teeth on the side allow the cutter to make unbalanced
cuts without deflecting the cutter as would happen with a
slitting saw or slot cutter.
8. Cylindrical side and face slotting, screw slotting
● Slot drills are generally two fluted cutters that are designed to
cut on their end as well as the flutes.
● For this kind of cutters, slot drills, one of their frontal cutting
edges should be across the center for drilling function.

38
 9. Single, double and equal angle cutters
● Single angle cutters ( Double and equal angle
cutters ) are those which have teeth on the conical
or angular face of the cutter and have large flat
sides.
● Double or equal angle cutters have V -shaped
teeth with both conical surfaces at an angle to
their end faces.
● They are commonly used for cutting various kinds of metals.

10. T -slot, dovetail, convex, single and double corner rounding

cutters
● A dovetail cutter form leaves behind a dovetail slot.

◆ HAZARD OF MILLING (MACHINE)

● Serious injuries and entanglement can occur if the operator contacts
the rotating cutter. Metal shavings and lubricating/cooling fluids
might also present a risk from the point of operation area.
Material might spin and strike an operator if the material is not
secured to the table.
Injuries can also occur from a projected wrench if it is left in the
spindle.
◆ SOLUTION OF MILLING (MACHINE)
● Secure the work piece either by clamping it
onto the work table or by clamping it
securely in a vise that is clamped tightly to
the table.
Note: Computer numerical controlled (CNC)
mills are rapidly replacing manually fed
machines, mainly for versatility and
production reasons. The increased
automation does not normally require the
operator to move the hand wheels (like the
traditional machines) so operators must
always keep their hands away from the point of operation. A guard or
shield that encloses the cutter head or milling bed may be considered to
protect the operator from the cutting area, flying metal shavings, and
lubricating or cooling fluids.
Make sure the tightening wrench is removed from the mill.

39
 ◆ SAFETY RULES OF MILLING MACHINE:
1. Work must be clamped securely in a vise and vice clamped tightly to
the table, or, work must be clamped securely to the table.
2. Do not take climb milling cuts on the shop’s mills unless instructed to
do so.
3. Make sure the cutter is rotating in the proper direction before cutting
material.
4. Before running the machine the spindle should be rotated by hand to
make sure it is clear for cutting.
5. Make sure the power is off before changing cutters.
6. Always use the proper cutting fluid for the material being cut.
7. Never run the machine faster than the correct cutting speed.
8. Make sure that the machine is fully stopped before taking any
measurements.
9. Always use cutters which are sharp and in good condition.
10. Don't place anything on the milling machine table such as wrenches,
hammers, or tools.
11. Always stay at the machine while it is running.
12. Don't take too heavy a cut or use too rapid a feed.
13. Remove the collet tightening wrench immediately after using it.
14. If at all feasible, rig a guard or shield to prevent chips from hitting
other people.
15. Use the milling machine spindle brake to stop the spindle after the
power has been turned off.
16. Before cleaning the mill remove cutting tools from the spindle to avoid
cutting yourself.

d) Shaper Machine – Tool Bit

➔ Shaper Machine
◆ INTRODUCTION OF SHAPER MACHINE
■ A shaper machine is a versatile machine tool which is used for
producing horizontal, vertical or flat surfaces with the help of single
point cutting tool.
■ This can create any surface composed of straight line elements.
■ It carries a single point cutting tool in the ram and workpiece is fixed
in the table.
■ The shaper machine is mostly used in the field of metal working
industry.
■ This machine was developed in the year 1836 by James Nasmyth
and Englishman.
◆ DEFINITION OF SHAPER MACHINE
● A shaper machine is a reciprocating type of machine tool which is
used for producing horizontal, vertical or flat surfaces with the help of
a single point cutting tool.

40
 ◆ MECHANISM OF SHAPER MACHINE
● In a standard shaper, the metal is removed in the forward cutting
stroke as well as the return stroke goes idle and no metal is removed
during this period.
● To reduce the total machining time this is necessary to reduce the
time taken by the return stroke.
● Thus, it should be so designed that it can allow the ram holding the
tool to move at a comparatively slower speed during the forward
cutting stroke.
● The cutting speed depends upon the types of material and machining
condition, whereas during the return stroke it can allow the ram to
move at a faster rate to reduce the idle return time.
● This mechanism is known as the quick return mechanism.
● In the quick return mechanism we use a crank slotter mechanism.
◆ WORKING & PRINCIPAL OF SHAPER MACHINE
WORKING
■ In a shaper machine, the workpiece is stationary while the cutting
tool has reciprocating motion.
■ The cutting tool is clamped in the tool post and the workpiece is held
tightly in the table.
■ Shaper is primarily used to produce flat smooth surfaces with
special attachments.
■ They can also produce internal and external keyways, gear racks,
spiral grooves, T- slots, etc.
PRINCIPAL
■ It states that the cutting tool travels back and forth over the work for
machining.
◆ TYPES OF SHAPER MACHINE
1. Crank type shaper machine
● Crank shaper is the most common type of shaper in which a
single point cutting tool is used to provide a reciprocating
motion i.e. equal to the length of the stroke desired.
● The crank shaper employs a crank mechanism to change
circular motion of a large gear that is called ” bull gear “.
● The bull gear gets power either from an individual motor or
from an overhead line shaft in the event that it is a belt
driven shaper.
2. Push type shaper machine
● Push shaper is the most general type of shaper that is
utilized in common practice.
● The metal is taken out when the ram moves away from the
column, i.e. pushes the work.

41
 3. Draw type shaper machine
● In a draw shaper, the metal is taken out when the ram moves
towards the common of the machine, i.e. draws the work
towards the machine.
● The tool is fixed in a reversed direction to that of a standard
shaper.
● The ram is generally supported by an overhead arm which
guarantees inflexibility and eliminates deflection of the tool.
● The cutting pressing factor acts towards the column which
relieves the cross rail and different bearings from excessive
loading and allows deep cuts.
● Vibration in these machines is practically eliminated.

4. Geared types shaper machine

● The reciprocating motion of the ram in some kind of shaper
is affected through a rack and pinion.
● The teeth of the rack are cut directly below the ram mesh
with a spur gear.
● The pinion fitting with the rack is driven by a gear train.
● The speed and the direction in which the machine will
traverse depends on the number of gears in the gear train.
● This kind of shaper isn’t broadly utilized.

5. Horizontal type shaper machine

● In this kind of shaper, the ram holds the tool which
reciprocates in a horizontal axis.
● Horizontal shapers are mainly used to produce flat surfaces.

6. Vertical type shaper machine

● In this type of shaper, the ram holding the tool reciprocates
in a vertical axis.
● In some of the vertical machines arrangement is made to
permit change of the ram to an angle of about 10 degrees
from the vertical position.
● This kind of a shaper may be crank driven, rack driven,
screw driven or hydraulic power driven.
● The work table of a vertical kind of a shaper can be given
cross, longitudinal, and rotary movement.
● The tool is entirely different from that utilized on a horizontal
shaper.
● They are extremely advantageous for machining internal
surfaces, keyways, slots or grooves.
● The large internal and external gears may also be machined
by the rotary table arrangement of indexing.

42
 7. Standard type shaper machine
● The shaper is named as standard or plain when there table
has only two movements, vertical and horizontal, to give the
feed.
● The table may or may not be supported at the outside end.

8. Universal type shaper machine

● In this kind of a shaper, there are in addition to the two
movements provided on the table of a standard shaper.
● The table can be turned about an axis that is parallel to the
ram ways.
● Also, the upper portion of the table can be shifted about a
second horizontal axis perpendicular to the first axis.
● The machine is most suitable for various kinds of work and
is given the name ” Universal “.
● A universal shaper is mostly utilized in tool room work.

9. Travelling head type shaper machine

● In this kind of a shaper, the ram carrying the tool while it
reciprocates moves crosswise to give the required feed.
● Heavy and unwieldy jobs which are very difficult to hang on
the table of a standard shaper and fed.
● The tools are basically held static on the cellar of the
machine while the ram reciprocates and supplies the feeding
movements.
◆ PARTS OF SHAPER MACHINE
■ The different parts of a standard shaper are:-
1. Base
● The base is the necessary bed or support
required for all machine tools.
● The base may be rigidly bolted to the floor
of the shop or on the bench according to
the size of the machine.
● It is so designed that it can take up the
whole load of the machine and the forces
set up by the cutting tool over the work.
● It is made of cast iron to oppose vibration
and take up high compressive load.
2. Ram
● The ram is the reciprocating member of a shaper.
● This is semi- cylindrical in structure and heavily ribbed
inside to make it more inflexible.

43
 ● It houses a screwed shaft for altering the position of the ram
with regard to the work and holds the tool head at the
extreme forward end.
3. Table
● The table which is bolted to the saddle gets crosswise and
vertical movements from the saddle and cross rail.
● It is a box like casting having T- openings both on the top
and sides for clamping the work.
4. Saddle
● The saddle is mounted on the cross rail which holds the
table immovably on its top.
● Crosswise movement of the saddle by rotating the cross feed
screw by hand or force causes the table to move sideways.
5. Column
● The column is a box-like casting which is mounted upon the
base.
● The front vertical face of the column which serves as the
guideways for the cross rail is also accurately machined.
● The other side of the column contains levers, handles, etc.
for operating the machine.
● It encloses the ram driving mechanism.

6. Cross rail
● The cross rail is mounted on the front vertical guide methods
of the section.
● It has two equal guideways on its top in the vertical plane
that are perpendicular to the ram axis.
● The table may be raised or lowered to accommodate different
sizes of the jobs by rotating an elevating screw which causes
the cross rail to slide up and down on the vertical face of the
column.
7. Tool head
● The tool head of a shaper holds the tool rigidly, gives vertical
and angular feed movement of the tool and permits the tool
to have an automatic relief during its return stroke.
● The vertical slide of the tool head has a swivel base which is
hung on a circular seat on the ram.
◆ OPERATION OF SHAPER MACHINE
■ These are the operations that can be performed on shaper:-

44
 1. Machining Vertical Surface
● A vertical cut is made while machining the finish of a work
piece, squaring up a block or cutting shoulder.
● The work is mounted in the tight clamp or directly on the
table and the surface to be machined is carefully aligned
with the axis of the ram.
● A side cutting tool is set on the tool post and the position and
length of stroke is changed.
● The vertical slide is set exactly at zero position and the apron
is swivelled in a direction away from the surface being cut.
● This is important to enable the tool to move upwards and
away from the work during the return stroke.
● This holds the side of the tool from dragging on the planed
vertical surface during the return stroke.
● The down feed is given by turning the down feed screw by
hand.
● The feed is about 0.25 mm given at the finish of each return
stroke.
● Both roughing and finishing cuts are performed to finish the
job.
2. Machining Angular Surface
● An angular cut is made at any angle other than a right angle
to the flat or to the vertical plane.
● The work is set on the table and the vertical slide of the tool
head is turned to the necessary angle either towards left or
towards right from the vertical position.
● The apron is then further turned away from the work so that
the tool will clear the work during the return stroke.
● The down feed is given by turning the down feed screw.
● Angular surface can also be machined in a universal shaper
or by utilizing a universal vise without turning the tool head.
3. Machining Irregular Surface
● Machining an irregular surface means that a shaper can also
produce a contoured surface, i.e. a convex or concave
surface or a mix of any of the above surfaces.
● To produce a small contoured surface a forming tool is
utilized.
● A round nose tool is selected for machining irregular
surfaces.
4. Machining Horizontal Surface
● In horizontal operation, a shaper is mostly used to machine a
flat, true surface on a workpiece held in a vise or other
holding devices.
● The table is raised till there is a clearance of 25 to 30 mm
between the workpiece and tool.

45
 ● The length of stroke should be almost 20 mm longer than
the work and the position of stroke is changed so that the
tool begins to move from a distance of 12 to 15 mm before
the beginning of the cut and continues to move 5 to 8 mm
after the end of the cut.
● The depth of cut for roughing work usually ranges from 1.5
to 3 mm, while for finishing work it ranges from 0.075 to
0.2 mm.
5. Machining Splines or Cutting Gears
● By using an index centre, a gear or equally spaced spline
may be cut.
● The work is mounted between two centres and a spline is cut
similar to the cutting of a keyway.
● The work is rotated after the first spline is cut through a
predetermined amount by using the index plate and index
pin.
● The periphery of a gear blank is divided, and equally spaced
grooves are cut by using an index plate having a proper hole
circle.
● And formed tools are used for cutting gear.

6. Cutting Slots, Grooves, and Keyways

● With suitable tools a shaper can very conveniently machine
slots or grooves on a work or cut outside keyways on shafts
and interior keyways on pulleys or gears.
● For cutting slots or keyways a square nose tool similar to a
parting tool is chosen.
● The diameter of the holes should be 0.5 to 0.8 mm larger
than the width of the keyway and the depth should be about
1.5 mm larger than the depth of the keyway.
● Lubrication is important on the work to prevent the cutting
edge of the tool from wear due to hauling.
◆ SIZE OF OF SHAPER MACHINE
■ The size of a shaper is decided by the maximum length of stroke or
cut it can make.
■ The standard size goes from 175 to 900 mm.
■ The length of stroke shows, in addition to the general size of the
machine, the size of a 3D square that can be held and planed in the
shaper.
■ Consequently in a 250 mm shaper the length of stroke might be
changed from 0 to 250 mm.
■ The cross feed adjustment of the table will be 250 mm and the
extreme bottom position of the cross rail will permit the table to
accommodate a workpiece 250 mm high.

46
 ■ The length of stroke of a shaper simply shows the general size of the
shaper.
■ Different points of interest, such as the type of drive, belt drive, or
individual motor drive, power input, floor space required, weight of
the machine, cutting to return stroke ratio, number and amount of
feed, etc. are also sometimes necessary.
◆ ADVANTAGEOUS OF SHAPER MACHINE
■ Less time and skill is required for setting the work.
■ The cost of the machine is less.
■ These are light in construction.
■ These require less floor space area.
■ The speed of the shaper varies throughout the work.
■ The simple tool is used i.e. single cutting point tool.
◆ DISADVANTAGEOUS OF SHAPER MACHINE
■ Only one tool is used.
■ Perfect accuracy is not obtained.
■ Their production rate is less.
■ Only the external surface will be machined.
◆ APPLICATION OF SHAPER MACHINE
■ A shaper is used for machining small workpieces.
■ It is mostly used for batch or job production.
■ It is used to produce smooth, straight and flat surfaces.
■ It is used for making internal splines, gear teeth, etc.
■ They are also used for machining of die, punches, straight and
curved slots.
◆ HAZARD OF SHAPER MACHINE
● Amputations or severe lacerations can occur
if the operator contacts the cutter head. Also,
loose clothing or gloves can become
entangled in the rotating cutter or spindle
simply due to the operator’s proximity to the
cutting head.
Routers and shapers rotate at tremendous speeds — many operating
in excess of 10,000 rpm. Any imbalance or vibration of the spindle
and cutter presents a significant lying object hazard.
Hazardous kickbacks of the stock also can occur
◆ SOLUTION OF SHAPER MACHINE
● Ensure that the spindle is enclosed by the machine/work table or a
guard. The table opening for shapers must provide support for the

47
 stock to within .25 inches of the largest diameter cutter (inserts must
be provided for smaller diameter cutters).
All sections of the cutter must be
safeguarded, except for the opening to
allow stock. For straight-line shaping, a
fence must be provided to limit the depth
of the cut and enclose the non-working
side of the cutter. The fence should
contain as small an opening as possible
for the cutter and extend on either side of
the spindle. The fence or an additional
guarding provision must also protect the
operator from above the cutter by
extending beyond the largest diameter cutting head
For contour (free-hand) shaping, a “ring” guard or other type of
adjustable guarding must be provided to protect the operator from the
exposed cutter (see accompanying illustration). If properly set up, this
guard may also hold down the work, minimizing kickback.
Use templates, jigs/fixtures, featherboards, or push blocks to distance
the operator’s hands from the point of operation and to aid when
shaping smaller dimensioned stock. Avoid wearing loose-fitting
clothing or gloves.
To minimize hazardous kickback, use extra care when shaping stock
that contains cross grains or knots. Use a secure stop block where an
interrupted cut is made. Do not back up the stock (check to see that
the direction of rotation is as expected).
Ensure the cutting head is stable and does not vibrate excessively
when operated at maximum recommended speeds.
◆ SAFETY RULES OF MILLING MACHINE:
1. Abrasive wheel machinery shall not be operated without the
appropriate guards in place.
2. Tool Rests on bench or pedestal grinders shall be set no more than
1/16 inch from the wheel.
3. Never use a wheel that has been dropped or received a heavy blow,
even though there may be no apparent damage. Such wheels may be
weakened or unbalanced enough to fly apart on startup.
4. Stand to one side when starting a grinding machine. Damaged wheels
will sometimes fly apart, and this is most likely to happen when the
machine is being started. Stand to the side so that you will not be
in-line with the debris.

48
 5. Do not grind on the side of the wheel unless the wheel is specifically
designed for such use.
6. Do not use excessive pressure while grinding.
7. Report to a shop technician immediately any cracked, broken or
otherwise defective wheels.
8. Have a shop technician mount and balance new wheels.
9. Keep the grinding wheel dressed. Dressing a small amount frequently
is better than having to dress a lot later and will allow the wheel to cut
faster, cooler and with a better surface finish. Dressing is cleaning and
smoothing the surface of the grinding wheel.
10. Hold work securely while grinding, use the tool rest to support the
work when off-hand grinding on bench or pedestal grinders.
11. Do not grind aluminum. Aluminum dust is explosive. Check with shop
staff for safety instructions if aluminum must be ground.
12. Wear goggles or face shield over safety glasses when grinding on bench
or pedestal grinders.

e) Grinding Machine – Abrasive Stone

➔ Grinding Machine
◆ INTRODUCTION OF GRINDING MACHINE
■ A grinding is a metal cutting operation which is performed by means
of a rotating abrasive wheel that acts as a tool.
■ These are mostly used to finish workpieces which must show a high
surface quality, accuracy of shape and dimension.
■ Mostly, it is a finishing operation because it removes material in very
small size of chips 0.25 – 0.5 mm.
■ Their accuracy in dimensions is in the order of 0.000025 mm.
■ Grinding is also done to machine materials which are too hard for
other machining strategies that use cutting tools.
◆ DEFINITION OF GRINDING MACHINE
■ A grinding machine is a machine tool which is used for removing the
rough surface of a workpiece with the help of a rotating abrasive
wheel that acts as a tool.
or
■ An operation in which, removing of rough surface and making
smooth surface are done, is known as Grinding or Grinding
Machine.
◆ WORKING OF GRINDING MACHINE
■ It works to the action of rubbing or friction between the abrasive
particles and workpiece material.
■ Due to this, the workpiece is fed against the rotating abrasive wheel to
remove material in the form of very small chips.

49
 ◆ PARTS OF GRINDING MACHINE
1. Wheel
● This type of wheel is composed of an abrasive
compound and used for abrasive machining
operations.
● They are generally made from a composite
material consisting of coarse – particle
aggregate.
● It may also be made from a solid steel or
aluminum disc with particles bonded to the
surface.
2. Wheel Head
● This is mounted on the column on the back of the machine.
● It has ways for the vertical slide which can raise or lower with the
grinding wheel only rotating a hand wheel to accommodate
workpieces of different heights and set the wheel for depth of cut.
3. Base
● They have a column at the back for supporting the wheel -head.
● It also contains the drive mechanisms.

4. Saddle
● It mounts directly on the top of the base.
● They move on anti-friction ball bearings in hardened ways.
● It also provides the means for moving the work forward and
backward.
5. Table
● It moves on a top base which mounts over the saddle.
● They can be swiveled which enables the operator to grind tapers.

6. Headstock
● Head stock supports the workpiece by means of a dead center and
as well as drives it by means of a dog, or it may hold and drive the
workpiece in a chuck.
7. Tail Stock
● It can adjust and clamp in various positions to accommodate
different lengths of work pieces.
8. Cross -feed
● It feeds to the work by the engagement of the cross feed control
lever through hand or power.

50
 ◆ OPERATION OF GRINDING MACHINE
■ It feeds to the work by the engagement of the cross feed control lever
through hand or power.
1. Rough or Non-precision grinding
● The common forms of rough grinding are snagging and
off-hand grinding where the work is held in the administrator’s
hand.
● The work is squeezed hard against the wheel, or vice- versa.
And also the accuracy and surface finish obtained are of
secondary importance.
● Snagging is done whereas a considerable amount of metal is
removed without regard to the accuracy of the finished surface.
● For examples of snag grinding are trimming the surface left by
sprues and risers on castings, grinding the parting line left on
castings, removing flash on forgings, the excess metal on
welds, cracks, as well as imperfections on alloy steel billets.
2. Precision grinding
● Precision is concerned with producing good surface finish and
high degree of accuracy.
● Thus the wheel or work both are guided in precise paths.
● There are following types of precision grinding:-

a. External cylindrical grinding

○ It delivers a straight or tapered surface on a workpiece.
○ The workpiece must be rotated about their own axis
between centres as it passes lengthwise across the face
of a revolving grinding wheel.
b. Internal cylindrical grinding
○ It produces internal cylindrical holes
and tapers.
○ The works are chucked and precisely
rotated about their own axis.
○ The grinding wheel or, in the case of
little bore holes, the cylinder wheel
rotates against the sense of rotation of
the workpiece.
c. Surface grinding
○ It produces a flat surface.
○ The work may be ground by either the fringe or by the
end face of the grinding wheel.
○ The workpiece is reciprocated at a constant speed
underneath or on the end face of the grinding wheel.

51
 d. Form grinding
○ It is done with specially shaped
grinding wheels that grind the formed
surfaces as in grinding gear teeth,
threads, splined shafts, holes and
spheres, etc.
◆ PRINCIPAL OF GRINDING MACHINE
■ Principal operation includes the grinding of external and internal
cylindrical grinding, tapered and formed surfaces, gear teeth, threads
and others using appropriate wheel and fixtures of each job which
may be done on grinding machines.
■ These are explained below:-
1. Tapered surfaces
For First Method
● The table to the taper angle of the workpiece.
● The wheel heads to the same angle.
● The head stock with the workpiece clamped in a chuck.

For Second Method

● The longitudinal feed is obtained by the axial motion of the
wheel.
● The external taper surfaces are to true the face of the sheet to
the required taper.
● The internal tapered surfaces are ground on centreless
machines by swivelling housing and the workpiece to the
taper angle.
2. Formed surface
● They are finished on cylindrical and surface grinding
machines.
● A typical formed surface grinding is the grinding of bed ways
of complex cross- section.
3. Gear Teeth
● The teeth of gears are ground on gear grinding machines
either by the generating process or by a forming process in
which formed wheels are used.
● The generating process makes use of two saucer – shaped
grinding wheels, whereas in the formed wheel grinding of gear
a special fixture is used.
4. Threaded Surface
● Thread grinding is done on thread grinding machines with
either single or multiple rib wheels.

52
 ● In the grinding of external thread with a multiple rib wheel
the work is mounted between centers and is rotated at a
definite speed.
◆ TYPES OF GRINDING MACHINE
■ These are the following types of grinding machines:-
1. Floor stand and Bench grinding machine
● A floor -stand grinder has a horizontal spindle with wheels
usually at both ends and is mounted on a base or pedestal.
● There is provision for driving the wheel spindle through the
belt from the motor at the rear, at floor level.
● Frequently the wheels are mounted directly on the motor
shaft extensions, in that case the motor is on the top of the
stand.
● A small machine mounted on a bench is known as a bench
grinder.
● These machines are utilized for snagging and off -hand
grinding of tools and miscellaneous parts.
● This one simplest type of grinder. On these grinders polishing
wheels may be run.
2. Portable and Flexible shaft grinding machine
● Its usual form of portable grinder resembles a portable or
electric hand drill with a grinding wheel mounted on the
spindle.
● A similar machine type is the flexible shaft grinder.
● They have a grinding wheel on the end of a long flexible shaft
driven by a motor on a relatively stationary stand.
● They can be easily moved about and may be used to the
advantage in removing comparatively small amounts of stock
from widely separated areas.
● These kinds of heavy tools are utilized for roughing and
snagging and small ones for burring and die work.
3. Swing frame grinding machine
● A swing frame grinder has a horizontal frame about 2 to 3 m
long suspended at its center of gravity so as to move freely
within the area of operation as shown in image.
● The operation applies the wheel on one end of the frame to the
work.
● It is used for snagging particularly for castings that are too
large for the operator to hold up to the wheel.
● These machines are moved around with a jib crane suspended
from columns, or by mobile units.

53
 4. Abrasive belt grinding machine
● Abrasive belt grinders are utilized for heavy stock removal or
for light polishing work.
● They are becoming more widespread in industry as the
technique of manufacturing the belts improves.
● Work may be applied, commonly by hand, against the open
belt, platen or shaped forms to reach various curves and flat
surfaces.
● Machines may be dry belt, well belt, or combination type.

5. Precision grinding machine

● Precision grinders are those grinder that finish parts to very
accurate dimensions.
● According to the type of surface generated or work done these
may be classified as follows:-
A. Cylindrical grinder
○ In a cylindrical grinding machine, the workpiece is
usually held between dead centers and rotated by a
dog and driver on the face plate.
○ It is used for grinding cylindrical surfaces which may
be parallel, tapered, filet grooves, shoulders and other
formed surfaces of revolution.
B. Internal grinder
○ The Internal grinders are utilized for finishing straight,
tapered, or formed holes to the correct size, shape, and
finish.
○ The depth of cut depends upon the diameter of the
hole being ground and may vary from 0.02 to
0.05mm in roughing and from 0.002 to 0.01mm in
finished operations.
○ Most internal grinders are horizontal, although there
are relatively few vertical ones in use.
○ There are three general types of internal grinders:-

a. Chucking Grinders
❖ In these grinders, the workpiece is chucked
and rotated about its own axis to bring all
parts of the bore or other surfaces to be ground
in contact with the grinding wheel.
❖ A chucking grinder is best applied whenever
the work itself can be conveniently chucked
and rotated.
b. Planetary Grinders
❖ In this grinder the workpiece is mounted on the
reciprocating table and is not revealed.

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 ❖ Also, the grinding wheel is given rotary and
planetary motions to grind cylindrical holes.
❖ Planetary grinding is usually limited to large
and awkward workpieces that can’t be
conveniently rotated by a chuck.
c. Centreless Grinders
❖ The external centerless grinding principle is
also applied for internal grinding.
❖ In a centerless grinding machine, the work is
supported by three rolls.
❖ One is the regulating roll, and the other is a
pressure roll, and the workpiece firmly against
the support and regulating rolls.
❖ The grinding wheel contacts with the inside
diameter of the workpiece directly opposite the
regulating roll, thus assuring a part of
absolutely uniform thickness and concentricity.
❖ The pressure roll is mounted to swing a side to
allow loading and unloading.
C. Surface grinder
○ Surface grinding machines are used to finish plane or
flat surfaces.
○ These are also capable of grinding irregular, curved,
convex, and concave surfaces.
○ Surface grinders may be four different types:-

a. Horizontal spindle reciprocating table

b. Horizontal spindle rotary table
c. Vertical spindle reciprocating table
d. Vertical spindle rotary table
D. Centreless grinder
○ Centreless grinding is a method of grinding exterior
cylindrical, tapered, and formed surfaces on
workpieces which are not held and rotated on centres.
○ The principal elements of an external centreless
grinder which are the grinding wheel, regulating or
back up wheel, and the work rest.
○ Both wheels are rotated in the same direction.
○ The work is put upon the work rest, and the latter,
together with the regulating wheel, is fed forward,
forcing the work against the wheel of the grinding.
○ The axial movement of the work past the grinding
wheel is obtained by tilting the regulating wheel at a
slight angle from horizontal.

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 ○ An angle adjustment of 0 to 8 or 10 degrees is
provided in the machine for this purpose.
○ Centreless grinding may be done in one of the three
ways which are as under:-
a. Through feed operation
❖ In through feed operation, the work is passed
completely through the space between the
grinding wheel and regulating wheel, usually
with guides at both ends.
❖ This method is utilized when there are no
shoulders or other forms to interfere with the
passage of the work.
❖ This is useful for grinding long, slender shafts
or bars.
❖ The layer of metal which is removed by the
grinding wheel in one pass reduces the
diameter of the workpiece by 0.02 to 0.3mm.
b. Infeed operation
❖ Infeed operation is an operation which is
similar to plunge grinding or form grinding, the
regulating wheel is drawn back so that
workpieces may be placed on the work – rest
blade.
❖ These methods are useful to grind shoulders,
and form surfaces.
c. End feed operation
❖ This operation is used to produce taper, either
the grinding wheel or regulating wheel or both
are formed to a taper.
❖ The work is fed lengthwise between the wheels
which is ground as it advances until it reaches
the stop end.
Advantages of Centreless Grinding
● Rate of production is high.
● No holding of a workpiece is required.
● No need of centering.
● Cost of production is high.
● The wear and tear in the machine is less.
● Stability is more.

Disadvantages of Centreless Grinding

● This process is only used in case of straight
cylinder parts.

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 ● Work having multiple diameters is not easily
handled.

E. Universal grinder
○ Universal grinders are mostly used in tool rooms for
grinding tools, etc.
○ The wheel head and slide can be swiveled and as well
as traversed at any angle.
○ The head of the wheel can also be arranged for
internal grinding by the addition of an auxiliary wheel
head to revolve small wheels at high velocities.
○ The headstock spindle may be used alive or dead, so
that the work can be held and revolved by chuck as
well as ground between centres.
F. Tool and Cutter grinder
○ Tool and cutter grinders are utilized mainly to sharpen
and recondition multiple tooth cutters like reamers,
milling cutters, drills, taps, hobs and other types of
tools used in the shop.
○ Through this, we can also do light surface, cylindrical,
and internal grinding to finish such items as jig,
fixture, die and gauge details and sharpen single point
tools.
G. Form grinder
○ They are a special type of cylindrical grinding where
the grinding wheel has the exact shape of the final
product.
○ In this type of grinder, the grinding wheel doesn’t
traverse the workpiece.
H. Special grinder
○ A special purpose grinder which is ideal for
production of precision components.
○ These special kinds of grinders are used for grinding
crankshafts of automobile engines, aircraft engines,
diesel engines, compressors, etc.

◆ ADVANTAGES OF GRINDING MACHINE

■ This can produce a high surface finish with good accuracy.
■ It can easily machine hard materials.
■ The operation can be performed with less pressure applied on the
work.
■ We can obtain highly accurate dimensions.

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 ■ This can also work at high temperatures.
■ Speed of cutting can be performed by this process.
■ It can also operate for complex things also.
■ Smooth surface and flat surface can be obtained.
◆ DISADVANTAGES OF GRINDING MACHINE
■ The cost of the required tool is high.
■ Their processes are also costly.
■ This can’t remove the high amount of material, they only remove a
little amount.
■ It consumes more time for removing the required amount from the
work.
■ We should work carefully, because imperfect contact may lead to
damage.
◆ HAZARD OF GRINDING
MACHINE
● Bench-style and pedestal
grinders create special safety
problems due to the potential
of the abrasive wheel
shattering; exposed rotating
wheel, flange, and spindle end;
and a naturally occurring nip
point that is created by the
tool/work rest. This is in
addition to such concerns as
flying fragments, sparks, air
contaminants, etc. Cutting, polishing, and wire buffing wheels can
create many of the same hazards.
Grinding machines are powerful and are designed to operate at very
high speeds. If a grinding wheel shatters while in use, the fragments
can travel at more than 300 miles per hour. In addition, the wheels
found on these machines (abrasive, polishing, wire, etc.) often rotate
at several thousand rpms. The potential for serious injury from
shooting fragments and the rotating wheel assemblies (including the
flange, spindle end, and nut) is great. To ensure that grinding wheels
are safely used in your workplace, know the hazards and how to
control them.
◆ SOLUTION OF GRINDING MACHINE
● Abrasive wheels used on bench and pedestal grinding machines must
be equipped with safety guards. The safety guard encloses most of
the wheel — covering the flange, spindle end, and nut projection —
while allowing maximum exposure of the wheel periphery. The

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 exposure of the wheel should not exceed 90 degrees or one-fourth of
the periphery (see diagram below).

Because the safety guard is designed to restrain the pieces of a

shattered grinding wheel, the distance between the safety guard and
the top periphery of the wheel must not be more than 1⁄4-inch. If this
distance is greater because of the decreased size of the abrasive
wheel, then a “tongue guard” must be installed to protect workers
from flying fragments in case of wheel breakage. This “tongue guard”
should be adjustable to maintain the maximum 1⁄4-inch distance
between it and the wheel.
An adjustable tool/work rest must also be installed and maintained
at a maximum clearance of 1⁄8-inch between it and the face of the
wheel. In addition to offering a stable working position, this small
clearance must be maintained to prevent the operator’s hands or the
work from being jammed between the wheel and the rest, which may
cause serious injury or wheel breakage.

All abrasive wheels must be closely inspected and ring-tested before

mounting to ensure that they are free from cracks or other defects.
Wheels should be tapped gently with a light, nonmetallic instrument.
A stable and undamaged wheel will give a clear metallic tone or

59
 “ring.” If a wheel sounds cracked (dead), do not use it. This is known
as the “ring test.
The spindle speed of the machine must also be checked before
mounting the wheel to be certain that it does not exceed the
maximum operating speed marked on the wheel
Always follow the manufacturer’s recommendations.

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