• muscles: fibrous cells designed to contract & relax in pairs
general biology 2
natural hierarchy
• cells are the most basic & simple
• cells work together and form a tissue
• tissues work together to form an organ
• organs work together in organ systems
• organ system works together to support the life of an organ system
ANATOMY
study of form, shape, and appearance of an animal — its structures both
internal & external
gross anatomy: study of structures that we see in our naked eye
microscopic anatomy: study of structures that can only be seen under
magnification
PHYSIOLOGY
study of the functions of the cell, tissues, & organs of an animal
biochemistry: how cell, tissues, & organs work together to complete a task
ORGAN SYSTEMS
1. skeletal- gives structure & support; protects internal organs; makes
movement possible
• bones: 50% water, 20% minerals, 20% protein, 4% fat
marrow: core; makes new red blood cells
• cartilage: soft, tough tissue found between bones that cushions joints
• ligaments: long stretchy tissue that holds joint together
2. muscular- for movement; protects delicate organs; most meat of
the animals; composed of protein
voluntary: under the organism’s conscious control— triceps
involuntary: automatically move to regulate body functions— heart &
diaphragm
• tendons: long, thin, stretchy tissues that attach muscles to bones
3. nervous- uses electrical impulses to send messages form brain
throughout the body; activity, learning, memory; central nervous
system & peripheral nervous system
• brain: coordinates all aspects of animal function
• spinal cord: main “highway” for nerve impulses
• nerves: branch out & reach the rest of the body
4. circulatory- moves materials throughout the body
• heart: pumps w/ 4 chambers & 2 valves
• arteries: carry oxygen rich blood from lungs & heart to tissues
• veins: carry blood back from tissues to lungs & heart
• blood
a. plasma- liquid part of blood
b. RBC- carries O2 & carbohydrates
c. WBC- fights pathogens
d. platelets- makes blood clot
5. respiratory- bring oxygen to the body & expel carbon dioxide
alveoli- where exchange of gasses happens
• nose: external opening of the body
• pharynx: connects the esophagus & trachea
• larynx: “voice box”
• trachea: windpipe the connects nasal passages w/ lungs
• lungs: “bags” the expand & contract to bring in fresh air & expel old air
6. excretory- urinary system
• kidneys: remove waste from blood
• bladder: holds urine (liquid waste)
• ureters: connects bladder to urethra
• urethra: empties urine to the exterior of the animal
 7. digestive brain
: breaks down food into usable energy • 3 pounds (adults)
: removes unusable food from the body • 75% water, 20% oxygen
: mouth, esophagus, stomach, small & large intestine, cecum, • contains 1 billion neurons
rectum, anus
four parts
8. endocrine 1. cerebrum
: ductless glands of the body : located above cerebellum
: secrete hormones that chemically regulates certain functions of : has 2 hemisphere w/ one outer
the body portion called cerebral cortex
: reproduction, digestion, & growth : corpus callosum- bridge of
: hypothalamus, pituitary, pancreas, liver, thyroid, adrenal nerve fibers
: 4 lobes- parietal, frontal, temporal, occipital
9. integumentary 2. diencephalons
: keeps out pathogens, regulates temp, gives shape & color, : deep portion of the brain
protects internal organs : thalamus, hypothalamus, epithalamus, ventral thalamus
: made almost entirely out of protein 3. brain stem
hide- animal skin; made into leather : midbrain (visual reflexes)
: pons- controls certain respiratory function
10. reproductive : medulla oblongata- regulate heart & lung functioning, swallowing,
: most complex in animals coughing, vomiting & sneezing
: diff structures between male & female 4. cerebellum
: coordinates musculoskeletal movement to maintain posture,
balance, & muscle tone
: inferior to the occipital lobes of the cerebrum
• helps the homeostasis (balance) of the body
: posterior to the pons & medulla oblongata
• controls all bodily activities, voluntary and involuntary
spinal cord
TWO major COMPONENTS
• medulla oblongata to 1st lumbar vertebra
• protected by: vertebral column, cerebrospinal fluid, & meninges
(1) central nervous system (CNS)
- made up of brain & spinal cord
3 layers of membranes that covers brain & spinal cord
- integrate and coordinate sensory & motor information
layers
- responsible for memory, learning, & emotion
dura mater- outer tough fibrous membrane
arachnoid mater- middle weblike membrane containing CSF
pia mater- innermost layer containing several blood vessels
 (2) peripheral nervous system (PNS) impulse transmission
- collection of peripheral nerves and ganglia - terminal end fibers
- carries sensory & motor information between the central nervous are located at the
system & all other organs & tissues of the body ends of the axon &
- 2 major divisions: the sensory or affarent division & the motor they transmit
or efferent division impulses leaving
- has 12 pairs of cranial nerves and 31 pairs of spinal nerves the neuron across
a synapse to the
cranial nerves function next neuron
olfactory sense of smell
optic sense of vision 3 types of neurons
oculomotor eye movements 1. efferent (motor):
trochlear aid muscles the move the eye conveys information from
trigeminal eye, tear glands, scalp, forehead, teeth, gums, lips, the CNS to muscles &
& mouth muscles glands
abducens muscle conditioning 2. afferent
facial taste, facial expression, tear & salivary glands (sensory): carry
vestibulocochlear hearing & equilibrium information from sensory
glossopharyngeal pharynx, tonsils tounge & carotid arteries; stimulates receptors to the CNS
salivary glands 3. interneuron:
vagus speech, swallong, hard & smooth muscle, & certain
carry & processes
glands
sensory information
accessory muscle of soft palate, pharynx, larynx, & neck
hypoglossal toungue movement
neuroglia
support, protect, connect, & remove debris from the nervous system
NEURONS
basic element of nervous system
types of neuroglial cell
• cell body- main processing
center of the cell
• dendrites- thin branching
extensions of the cell of the
body the conduct nerve
impulses toward the cell body
• axon- single branch which
conduct nerve impulses away
from the cell body; myelin sheath & neurilemma are coverings
 (1) negative feedback mechanism
• coined by Walter Cannon • series of changes that return the regulated variable towards its
• stasis or standing mean value or within its normal range by a negative response
• maintenance of mainly constant condition in the internal • error reduction
environment
• capacity to maintain steady state in the body

what is internal environment?

• coined by Claude Bernard where it is the fluid that surrounds the
cell. it is the extracellular fluid (plasma + interstitial fluid)
why is ECF considered as the internal environment of the cell?
• it bathes the cell continuously and has 2 components which is the
plasma and interstitial fluid

activation of
disturbance
homeostatic
in the disturbance detected by
mechanism
external in ECF sensors
to reverse
environment
the change

HOMEOSTATIC MECHANISM

feedback mechanisms
: occurs in response to variation in a variable to bring the variable to its set
point

2 types
(2) positive feedback mechanism
• series of changes that increase the variation in regulated variable
by positive response in initiating stimulus
• error amplification
• vicious cycle which terminates when the initiating stimulus is
removed
examples: enzyme cascade hypothesis of blood coagulation, parturition
reflex, hodgkin’s cycle, activation of digestive enzymes, LH surge
blood coagulation

injury to blood vessel

activation of clotting factors

components of homoestatic mechanism

activated clooting factors act on other inactivated enzyme
disturbance in the external environment
• this will continue till the permanent clot is formed and hence the
stimulus is itself terminated
disturbance in the internal environment
parturition reflex

variation in regulated variable

matured fetus cause cervix distention

detected by sensors
affarent signals from uterus gioes to posterior pituiary

stimulate control center

posteririor pituitary secrete oxytocin

effector
oxytocin cause myometrium contraction

• this will continue till birth of child and hence the stimulus is terminated effector response
itself
1. regulated variable- kept between a certain range, sensed by sensor
feedforward mechanism 2. sensor- measures the value of regulated variable
: anticipatory control mechanis 3. control center- control the output of effector response
: permit the body to predict a change in the physiology of the organism and 4. effector- generates the effector response
initiate a response that can reduce the movement of a regulated variable 5. controlled variable- manipulated to achieve regulationof regulated
out of its normal range variable