Human Anatomy

Anatomy

Anatomy is the study of the structure and relationship between body parts.

– what they are made of

– where they are located
– associated structures

The Specialties of Anatomy

1) Gross (macroscopic) Anatomy

The study of the structures of the body that can be seen with the naked eye. Gross Anatomy
includes four major subdivisions-

• Surface anatomy: study of external features

• Regional anatomy: study of specific area (e.g. head, trunk)

• Systemic anatomy: study of system (11 specific organ systems)

• Developmental anatomy: study of changes from conception to physical maturity

2) Microscopic Anatomy

Involves studying anatomical structures that cannot be seen with the unaided eye.
Microscopic anatomy includes two major subdivisions-

• Cytology: study of cells at the microscopic level

• Histology: study of tissues at the microscopic level

Physiology

Physiology is the study of the function of body parts and the body as a whole.

The Specialties of Physiology

1) Cell physiology (Biology): study of cell

2) Special (Organ) physiology: study of specific organ

3) Systemic physiology: study of system

4) Pathological physiology: study of the effect of disease on cell, tissue, organ and
system
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Abdullah-Al-Faysal, Lecturer, DOP, EWU
Levels of Structural Organization in the human body

Level of Explanation Example

organization
Atomic level Atoms are defined as the smallest unit of an C, H2, O2, N2
element that still maintains the property of
that element

Molecular level Atoms combine to form molecules which can H2O, DNA,
have entirely different properties than the Carbohydrate
atoms they contain

Cellular level Smallest unit of life and varies widely in size Muscle cells, skin cell,
and shape Neuron
Tissue level Tissues are groups of cells with similar Muscle, epithelial,
functions connective

Organ level Organs are two or more types of tissues that Heart, liver, Stomach
work together to complete a specific task

System level System is group of organs that carries out Digestive system,
more generalized set of functions circulatory system

Organism level An organism has several organ systems that Human

function together

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Human Body Organ Systems
• The human body is made up of 11 organ systems that work with one another.

• Many organs work in more than 1 organ system

The Integumentary system Major organs:

• skin
• hair
• nails
• sweat glands

Functions:

 Forms the external body covering and

protects deeper tissues from injury.

 Houses cutaneous receptors, sweat

glands, oil glands, and synthesizes
vitamin D.

 Helps regulate body temperature

The Skeletal system Major organs:

• Bones
• Cartilages
• Associated ligaments
• Bone marrow

Functions:

 Supports and protects the body’s organs

 Provides a framework for muscles

 Store calcium and other minerals

 Forms blood cells

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Abdullah-Al-Faysal, Lecturer, DOP, EWU
The Muscular system Major organs:

• skeletal muscles
• associated tendons and aponeuroses

Functions:

 Maintains posture and produces

movement (locomotion)

 Provides protection and support for

other tissue

 Produces heat

The Lymphatic system Major organs:

• spleen
• thymus
• lymphatic vessels

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Abdullah-Al-Faysal, Lecturer, DOP, EWU
 • lymph nodes
• tonsils

Functions:

 Defends against infection and disease

 Returns tissue fluids to the bloodstream

The Respiratory system Major organs:

• nasal cavity
• sinuses
• larynx
• trachea
• bronchi
• alveoli
• lungs

Functions:

 Deliver air to alveoli (sites in lungs where

gas exchange occurs)

 Provides oxygen to blood stream

 Removes carbon dioxide from

bloodstream

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The Digestive system Major organs:

• teeth
• tongue
• pharynx
• esophagus
• stomach
• small intestine
• large intestine
• liver
• gall bladder
• pancreas

Functions:

 Breaks down food to be absorbed and

eliminates indigestible waste

 Stores energy reserves (glycogen)

The Nervous system Major organs:

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Abdullah-Al-Faysal, Lecturer, DOP, EWU
 • brain
• spinal cord
• peripheral nerves

Functions:

 Interprets sensory information about

external conditions

 Directs immediate responses to stimuli

 Coordinates activities of other organ

systems

The Endocrine system Major organs:

• pituitary gland
• thyroid gland
• pancreas
• adrenal gland
• gonads (ovary and testis)
• endocrine tissues in other systems

Functions:

Glands from the endocrine system secrete

hormones that regulate many processes like-

 growth

 metabolism and

 reproduction

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The Cardiovascular system Major organs:

• heart
• blood
• blood vessels

Functions:

 The heart pumps blood and blood

vessels transport it. Blood carries oxygen,
carbon dioxide, nutrients, waste
throughout the body

 Distributes heat and assists in control of

body temperature

The Urinary system Major organs:

• kidney
• ureter
• urinary bladder
• urethra

Functions:

 Eliminates nitrogenous wastes from the

body

 Regulates acid-base, electrolyte and

water balance of blood

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The Male Reproductive system Major organs:

• testis
• epididymis
• vas deferens
• seminal vesicles
• prostate gland
• penis
• scrotum

Functions:

 Produce male sex cells and hormones

The Female Reproductive system Major organs:

• ovary
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Abdullah-Al-Faysal, Lecturer, DOP, EWU
 • fallopian tube
• uterus
• vagina
• labia
• clitoris
• mammary glands

Functions:

 Produce female sex cells and hormones

 Supports developing embryo from

conception to delivery

Homeostasis
Homeostasis is the ability to maintain a constant internal environment in response to
environmental changes.

Homeostatic control

1. Stimulus: produces a change to a variable.

10 PHRM 102: Cell Biology & Anatomy
Abdullah-Al-Faysal, Lecturer, DOP, EWU
 2. Receptor: detects the change. The receptor monitors the environment and responds
to change.

3. Input: information travels along the afferent pathway (carry nerve impulses into the
central nervous system) to the control center. The control center determines the
appropriate response and course of action.

4. Output: information sent from the control center travels down the efferent pathway
(carry nerve impulses away from the central nervous system) to the effector.

5. Response: a response from the effector balances out the original stimulus to
maintain homeostasis.

Feedback mechanisms

The nervous and endocrine systems control homeostasis in the body through feedback
mechanisms involving various organs and organ systems. Examples of homeostatic
processes in the body include temperature control, pH balance, water and electrolyte
balance, blood pressure, and respiration.

Failure to function within a normal range results in disease.

A) Negative Feedback Mechanisms

Almost all homeostatic control mechanisms are negative feedback mechanisms. Any
homeostatic process that changes the direction of the stimulus is a negative feedback loop.
It changes the variable back to its original state.

The control of temperature in the body is a good example of a negative feedback

mechanism. The hypothalamus of a human responds to temperature fluctuations and
responds accordingly. If the temperature drops, the body shivers to bring up the
temperature and if it is too warm, the body will sweat to cool down due to evaporation.

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Abdullah-Al-Faysal, Lecturer, DOP, EWU
 B) Positive feedback mechanisms

In a positive feedback system, an action intensifies a condition so that it is driven farther

beyond normal limits. Such positive feedback is uncommon but does occur during blood
clotting, childbirth and lactation.

A good example of a positive feedback system is blood clotting. Once a vessel is damaged,
platelets start to adhere to the injured site and release chemicals that attract more
platelets. The platelets continue to pile up and release chemicals until a clot is formed.

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 Anatomical Terms
Certain terms are used to describe the location of body parts, regions of
the body and imaginary planes by which the body can be sectioned is called
anatomical term.

The Anatomical Position

The anatomical position describes a person that is standing erect with the
feet facing forwards, arms hanging to the sides, and the palms of the hands
facing forward. Directional terms are always from the patient’s perspective.
When we refer to the right side we are referring to the patient’s right side.

Anatomical Body Planes and Sections

Planes are imaginary flat surface passing through the

body. The basic planes we deal with are given below:

Sagittal (Median) Plane: Divides the body into right and

left halves. If the right and left parts are equal, the plane is
a midsagittal plane; if they're unequal, the plane is a
parasagittal plane.

Frontal (Coronal) Plane: Divides the body into front

(anterior) and rear (posterior) halves.

Transverse (Horizontal) Plane: Divides the body into top

(superior) and bottom (inferior) halves. This is also known
as a cross‐section.

 Section: a slice parallel to a plane.

 Longitudinal section: lengthwise cut

 Cross section: straight across cut

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Directional Terms

Directional terms are used to explain exactly where one body part is in relation to another.

Term Definition Example Diagram

Superior Above; upper part of a The heart is superior to the

(cranial) structure stomach

Inferior Below; lower part of a The stomach is inferior to

(caudal) structure the heart

Anterior In front of; toward the The naval is anterior to the

(ventral) front of the body spine

Posterior Behind; toward the back of The spine is posterior to the

(dorsal) the body naval

Medial On the inner side of; The nose is medial to the

toward the midline of the eyes
body

Lateral On the outer side of; away The ears are lateral to the
from the midline of the nose
body

Intermediate Between two structures The knee is intermediate

between the upper and
lower leg

Proximal Closer to the point of The elbow is proximal to the

attachment origin wrist

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Distal Farther from the point of The foot is distal to the knee
attachment origin

Superficial Toward the body surface The skin is superficial to the

(external) muscle

Deep (internal) Away from the body The bones are deep to the
surface muscle

Body Cavities
Body cavities are internal chambers holding vital organs

– Cavities protect vital organs

– Cavities allow organs to change in shape and size

Dorsal body cavity: space that houses the central nervous system. Membranes that cover
the central nervous system are called meninges, which consist of 3 layers (dura mater,
arachnoid and pia mater). It is divided into-

1. Cranial cavity: houses the brain

2. Vertebral cavity: houses the spinal cord

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Ventral body cavity: hollow space at the front part of the human body. Its lining has various
serous membranes. It is subdivided into-

1. Thoracic cavity: is basically the chest, including everything between the neck and the
diaphragm.

a) pleural cavity: houses the lungs

b) mediastinum: houses the heart, the great vessels, the trachea, and some other
structures.

2. Abdominopelvic cavity: two partially separated sub-compartments.

a) Abdominal cavity: houses the stomach, liver, intestines and spleen

b) Pelvic cavity: houses the uterus, urinary bladder and colon

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