The functional group in an alkene is a carbon-carbon double bond.

The functional group in an alkyne is a carbon-carbon

triple bond. Aromatics are cyclic strcutures that are planar, fully conjugated and that possess an odd number of electron
pairs in the π bonding system.

Molecules with more than one functional group

The following compounds are the active ingredients in over-the-counter drugs used as analgesics (to relieve
pain without decreasing sensibility or consciousness), antipyretics (to reduce the body temperature when it is
elevated), and/or anti-inflammatory agents (to counteract swelling or inflammation of the joints, skin, and eyes).
Identify the functional groups in each molecule.

All three compounds are aromatic. Aspirin is also a carboxylic acid ( CO2H) and an ester ( COOCH3).
Tylenol is also an alcohol ( OH) and an amide ( CONH ). Ibuprofen contains alkane substituents and a
carboxylic acid functional group.

Aspirin is an effective analgesic for acute pain, although it is generally considered inferior to ibuprofen
because aspirin. Aspirin is generally ineffective for those pains caused by muscle cramps.

Advil” is a brand name for the drug, “ibuprofen“.All of these are the same medication, just different names.
Advil is an ANTI-INFLAMMATORY.
Acetaminophen is often known as Tylenol or other brand names. It is classified as a pain reliever (analgesic)
and fever reducer (antipyretic).

The presence of amino group and carboxyl group on same carbon atom is called as amino acid
function group.

Each amino acid consist of two functional groups; amino group (-NH2) and carboxyl group (-COOH) on same
carbon atom.

Some Important points

 Some of the functional groups are mainly used in identification of organic compounds and their
properties , so called as organic functional groups.

 According the IUPAC system, each functional group has characteristic names that often carry over in
the naming of individual compounds incorporating specific groups.

 The carbon atoms in a molecule can be positioned according to the position of attached functional group. The
carbon just after the carbon that attaches to the functional group is known as alpha carbon while the second
carbon atom termed as beta carbon and third one as gamma carbon, etc.

The carbon which is covalently bonded with both functional groups is termed as alpha-carbon atom.

According the IUPAC system, each functional group has characteristic names that often carry over in the
naming of individual compounds incorporating specific groups.
What do you do? What suffix do you give the molecule?

 We need some kind of priority system for nomenclature. And so, IUPAC has developed
one. If you have a molecule with, say, a carboxylic acid and a ketone you consult the
table. The functional group with the highest priority will be the one which gives its
suffix to the name of the molecule.

Here it is: Table of Functional Group Priorities For Nomenclature

So in example #1 above, the suffix of the molecule will be “-oic acid” , not “-one”, because
carboxylic acids are given higher priority. However, if a ketone is present with an alcohol
(example 3) then we will use the suffix, “-one” because ketones have a higher priority for
nomenclature than alcohols.
Organic chemistry is dominated by the "functional group approach", where organic molecules are
deemed to be constructed from:

. An inert hydrocarbon skeleton onto which functional groups (FGs) are attached.

 The functional group approach "works" because the properties and reaction chemistry of
a particular functional group (FG) can be remarkably independent of environment.

 Therefore, it is only necessary to know about the chemistry of a few generic functions in
order to predict the chemical behaviour of thousands of real organic chemicals.

 Organic molecules are also named using the functional group approach:

Thus, the carbonyl, C=O, and hydroxy, OH, of a carboxylic acid, RCOOH, are part of a single function and are
NOT "alcohol-plus-ketone":
A multifunctional entity like the drug molecule morphine has several functional groups and chiral centres:

Morphine is used primarily to treat

both acute and chronic severe pain.

Its duration of analgesia is about

three to seven hours.

Morphine, one of the most classic

opioids

Opioids are a class of drugs naturally

found in the opium poppy plant.

Poppies can be used in the production of opium,

a plant latex that contains morphine from which
other opiates, such as heroin, can be
synthesized.

Addictive Alkaloids

Since ancient times, plants have been used for medicinal purposes. One class of substances, called alkaloids,
found in many of these plants has been isolated and found to contain cyclic molecules with an amine functional
group.

An alkaloid is a class of naturally occurring organic nitrogen-containing compounds that are frequently found in
the plant kingdom.
Morphine, a strong narcotic used to relieve pain, contains two hydroxyl functional groups, located at the bottom
of the molecule in this structural formula.

Changing one of these hydroxyl groups to a methyl ether group forms codeine, a less potent drug used as a
local anesthetic.

If both hydroxyl groups are converted to esters of acetic acid, the powerfully addictive drug heroin results

Organic compounds

Alkane Alkyl, and occasionally aryl (aromatic) functions

are represented by the R-
Methyl: CH3–
Ethyl: CH3CH2–
Propyl: CH3CH2CH2–
Isopropyl: (CH3)2CH–
Phenyl: C6H5–
etc.

Alkyl halide Alkyl halides [haloalkanes] consist of an alkyl

group attached to a halogen:
F, Cl, Br, I.
Chloro, bromo and iodo alkyl halides are often
susceptible to elimination and/or nucleophilic
substitution reactions.
(CH3)3C-Br + CN(–) ——> (CH3)2C=CH2 + Br(–) + HCN

Some important organic compounds containing halogens

CCl4 : CARBON TETRACHLORIDE is a commonly used liquid in fire extinguishers to combat small fires.
It has no flash point, it is not flammable.

Pyrene is the commercial name of a fire extinguisher CCl4. It is the only organic compound which is non-
inflammable and which is used to extinguish the fire.

CCl4 is used as fire extinguishers under the trade name of pyrene.

The dense vapours of carbon tetrachloride forms a protective layer on the burning objects and avoids the
oxygen or air to come in contact with the fire from the burning objects and provides incombustible vapours.

CHCl3: Chloroform is a colorless liquid that quickly evaporates into gas. It can harm the eyes, skin, liver,
kidneys, and nervous system.

CH4 + Cl2 → CH3Cl + HCl

CH3Cl + Cl2 → CH2Cl2 + HCl
CH2Cl2 + Cl2 → CHCl3 + HCl
Chloroform undergoes further chlorination to yield carbon tetrachloride (CCl4):

CHCl3 + Cl2 → CCl4 + HCl

Chloroform is used as a solvent, a substance that helps other substances dissolve. It is used as a solvent for
lacquers, floor polishes, resins, adhesives, alkaloids, fats, oils.

It is a colorless, strong-smelling, Chloroform was first used for clinical anaesthesia in November 1847.

Why is chloroform not used as anaesthetic these days?

Chloroform is not used as anaesthetic because of its slow oxidation to poisonous gas phosgene.

Primary alcohol Primary alcohols have an -OH function attached to an R-CH2- group.

Primary alcohols can be shown in text as: RCH2OH

 Primary alcohols can be oxidised to aldehydes and on to
carboxylic acids. (It can be difficult to stop the oxidation at the
aldehyde stage.)

Secondary alcohol Secondary alcohols have an -OH function attached to a R2CH- group.
Secondary alcohols can be shown in text as: R2CHOH

Secondary alcohols can be oxidised to ketones.

Tertiary alcohol Tertiary alcohols have an -OH function attached to a R3C- group.
Tertiary alcohols are resistant to oxidation with acidified potassium
dichromate(VI),

Tertiary alcohols can be shown in text as: R3C-OH

Tertiary alcohols are resistant to oxidation with acidified potassium

dichromate(VI),

Aldehyde Aldehydes have a hydrogen and an alkyl (or aromatic) group

attached to a carbonyl function.
 Aldehydes can be shown in text as: RCHO
Aldehydes are reduced to primary alcohols.
Sodium amalgam in water behaves as a reducing agent. ... an
aldehyde is reduced to a primary alcohol

Aldehydes are easily oxidised to carboxylic acids

Aldehydes can be distinguished from ketones by giving positive test

results with Fehlings solution (brick red precipitate) or Tollens
reagent (silver mirror).
Aldehydes give red-orange precipitates with 2,4-dinitrophenyl
hydrazine.

Ketone Ketones have a pair of alkyl or aromatic groups attached to a

carbonyl function.
Ketones can be shown in text as: RCOR

Reduction of a ketone leads to a secondary alcohol

For example, with propanone you get propan-2-ol:

Sodium amalgam in water behaves as a reducing agent

a ketone is reduced to a secondary alcohol

Oxidation of Ketones
Because ketones do not have hydrogen atom attached to their
carbonyl, they are resistant to oxidation. Only very strong
oxidizing agents such as potassium manganate(VII) (potassium
permanganate) solution oxidize ketones. However, this type of
powerful oxidation occurs with cleavage, breaking carbon-carbon
bonds and forming two carboxylic acids. Because of this
destructive nature this reaction is rarely used.

Ketones can be distinguished from aldehydes by giving negative test

results with Fehlings solution (brick red precipitate) or Tollens
reagent (silver mirror).
 Ketones give red-orange precipitates with 2,4-dinitrophenyl
hydrazine.

Carboxylic acid Carboxylic acids have an alkyl or aromatic groups attached to a hydroxy-
carbonyl function.
Carboxylic acids can be shown in text as: RCOOH

Carboxylic acids are weak Bronsted acids and they liberate CO2 from
carbonates and hydrogen carbonates.

Bronsted acid

Ester Esters have a pair of alkyl or aromatic groups attached to a carbonyl +

linking oxygen function.
Esters can be shown in text as: RCOOR or (occasionally) ROCOR.

carboxylic acid + alcohol -> ester + water

Amide Primary amides (shown) have an alkyl or aromatic group attached to an

amino-carbonyl function.

Primary amides can be shown in text as: RCONH2

Secondary amides have an alkyl or aryl group attached to the nitrogen:

RCONHR

Tertiary amides have two alkyl or aryl group attached to the nitrogen:
RCONR2
Primary amine Primary amines have an alkyl or aromatic group and two hydrogens
attached to a nitrogen atom.
Primary amines can be shown in text as: RNH2
Primary aromatic amines are used as a starting material for the
manufacture of azo dyes.

It reacts with nitrous acid to form diazonium salt, which can

undergo coupling reaction to form an azo compound. As azo-
compounds are highly coloured, they are widely used in dyeing
industries.

Azo compounds are compounds bearing the functional group diazenyl

R−N=N−R′,

Secondary amine Secondary amines have a pair of alkyl or aromatic groups, and a
hydrogen, attached to a nitrogen atom.
Secondary amines can be shown in text as: R2NH
Secondary amines are basic functions that can be protonated to the
corresponding ammonium ion. Secondary amines are also nucleophilic.

Tertiary amine Tertiary amines have three alkyl or aromatic groups attached to a nitrogen
atom.
Tertiary amines can be shown in text as: R3N

Tertiary amines are basic functions that can be

protonated to the corresponding ammonium ion.
Tertiary amines are also nucleophilic.

Acid chloride Acid chlorides, or acyl chlorides, have an alkyl (or aromatic) group
attached to a carbonyl function plus a labile (easily displaced) chlorine.

Acid chlorides highly reactive entities are highly susceptible to

attack by nucleophiles.

Acid chlorides can be shown in text as: ROCl

Acid anhydrides are formed when water is removed from a carboxylic acid,
Acid anhydride hence the name.
Acid anhydrides can be shown in text as: (RO)2O
 The food industry uses maleic anhydride in artificial sweeteners
and flavour enhancements.

Nitrile Nitriles (or organo cyanides) have an alkyl (or aromatic) group attached to
a carbon-triple-bond-nitrogen function.
Nitriles can be shown in text as: RCN

Note that there is a nomenclature issue with nitriles/cyanides.

If a compound is named as the nitrile then the nitrile carbon is
counted and included, but when the compound is named as the
cyanide it is not.
For example: CH3CH2CN is called propane nitrile or ethyl cyanide
(cyanoethane).

Carboxylate ion or salt

Carboxylate ions are the conjugate bases of carboxylic acids, ie. the
deprotonated carboxylic acid.
Carboxylate ions can be shown in text as: RCOO–
When the counter ion is included, the salt is being shown.
Salts can be shown in text as: RCOONa

Ammonium ion Ammonium ions have a total of four alkyl and/or hydrogen functions
attached to a nitrogen atom.
[NH4]+
[RNH3]+
[R2NH2]+
[R3NH]+
[R4N]+
Quaternary ammonium ions are not proton donors, but the others are
weak Bronsted acids (pKa about 10).
Amino acid Amino acids, strictly alpha-amino acids, have carboxylic acid, amino
function and a hydrogen attached to the same carbon atom.

There are 20 naturally occurring amino acids.

All except glycine (R = H) are chiral and only the L enantiomer is found in
nature.
Amino acids can be shown in text as: R-CH(NH2)COOH

Glycine is the only amino acid with no asymmetric (chiral) carbon

because it has two hydrogens attached to alpha carbon.

Functional Groups of
Amino Acids
Amino acids are building block of proteins.
Amino acids form peptide linkage with each
other to form protein through
condensation polymerization with the
elimination of water molecule.

Each amino acid consist of two functional

groups; amino group (-NH2) and carboxyl
group (-COOH) on same carbon atom. Since
amino group is basic in nature and carboxyl
group is acidic in nature, hence they cancel
the effect of each other and make the
molecule of neutral.
Alkene Alkenes consist of a C=C double bond function.
Alkenes can be shown in text as:
Mono substituted: RCH=CH2
1,1-disubstituted: R2C=CH2
1,2-disubstituted: RCH=CHR
Alkenes are planar and there is no rotation about the C=C bond.
Alkenes are electron rich reactive centres and are susceptible to
electrophilic addition.

trans-Alkene trans-alkenes are 1,2-disubstituted functions with the two R, X or other

groups on opposite sides of the C=C function.

Due to the non-rotation of the C=C bond, cis and trans geometric isomers
are not [thermally] Interconverted.

cis-Alkene
cis-Alkenes are 1,2-disubstituted functions with the two R, X or other
groups on the same side of the C=C function.
Due to the non-rotation of the C=C bond, cis and trans geometric isomers
are not [thermally] Interconvertion.

Cis and trans isomers are possible only if an alkene has two different atoms or groups of atoms attached to each
double-bonded carbon atom.
For example, in 1,2-dichloroethene

Ether Ethers have a pair of alkyl or aromatic groups attached to a linking oxygen
atom.
Ethers can be shown in text as: ROR
Ethers are surprisingly unreactive and are very useful as solvents for many
(but not all) classes of reaction.

Alkoxide ion Alkoxide ions an alkyl group attached to an oxyanion.

 Alkoxide ions can be shown in text as: RO–
Sodium alkoxides, RONa, are slightly stronger bases than water and so
cannot be prepared in water. Instead they are prepared by adding sodium
to the dry alcohol.

Hydroxynitrile Hydroxynitriles (also called cyanohydrins) are formed when hydrogen

cyanide, H+ CN–, adds across the carbonyl function of an aldehyde or
ketone.

For successful cyanohydrin formation it is important to have free cyanide ions available to react with the ketone or
aldehyde. This can be achieved by using a salt (e.g. KCN or NaCN)

An important feature of cyanohydrin formation is that it requires a basic catalyst. Since hydrogen cyanide itself is an acid,
the best results occur when a small amount of a strong base activates hydrogen cyanide by converting it to cyanide ion

Primary carbocation
Primary carbocations have a single alkyl function attached to a carbon
centre with a formal positive charge.
Carbocations - also and more correctly called carbenium ions - are
important reactive intermediates implicated in electrophilic addition
reactions and electrophilic aromatic substitution reactions.
Stability: primary << secondary << tertiary

Secondary carbocation Secondary carbocations have a pair of alkyl functions attached to a carbon
centre with a formal positive charge.
Carbocations - also and more correctly called carbenium ions - are
important reactive intermediates implicated in electrophilic addition
reactions and electrophilic aromatic substitution reactions.
Stability: primary << secondary << tertiary

Tertiary carbocation Tertiary carbocations have three alkyl functions attached to a carbon
centre with a formal positive charge.
Carbocations - also and more correctly called carbenium ions - are
important reactive intermediates implicated in electrophilic addition
reactions and electrophilic aromatic substitution reactions.
Stability: primary << secondary << tertiary

Acyl cation Acyl cations have an alkyl (or aromatic) group attached to a carbonyl
function with a formal positive charge.
Acyl cations are important reactive intermediates and are implicated in
electrophilic addition reactions and electrophilic aromatic substitution
reactions.
Acyl cations are commonly formed from the corresponding acyl/acid
chloride plus aluminium chloride.
 Acyl cations are resonance stabilized. The more stable form has a
formal positive charge on the oxygen atom.

Polymer Polymers consist of small monomer molecules that have reacted together
so as to form a large covalently bonded structure.
There are two general types of polymerization: addition and condensation.

Linear chain polymers are generally thermoplastic,

while three dimensional network polymers are not.

linear polymer

network polymer

Diol or polyol Diols and polyols are alcohols with two or more -OH functions.
Diols and polyols are very soluble in water. They are used as high
temperature polar solvents

Polyols
A polyol is an organic compound containing multiple hydroxyl groups.

Molecule with more than two hydroxyl groups is a polyol, with three – a triol, and with four – a tetrol.

The term "polyol" can have slightly different meanings depending on whether it is being used
in the field of food science or that of polymer chemistry.

Polyol in polymer industry

The term "polyol" is also attributed to polymers comprising a multitude of hydroxyl groups, e.
g. polyvinyl alcohol has the formula (CH2CHOH)n

polyvinyl alcohol (PVA)

Polyols in food industry

Sugar alcohols, a class of polyols, are commonly obtained by hydrogenation of sugars. They
have the formula (CHOH)nH2, where n = 4–6.

Sugar alcohols are added to foods because of their lower caloric content than sugars

Maltitol, sorbitol, xylitol, erythritol, and isomalt are common sugar alcohols.
 r Questions Answered
Polyols are sugar-free sweeteners. Polyols are carbohydrates but they are not sugars. They are
used cup-for-cup (volume-for-volume) in the same amount as sugar is used, unlike saccharin,
and sucralose which are used in very small amounts.

Since “polyols” is not a consumer friendly term, many nutritionists and health educators refer to
polyols as “sugar replacers”

Application: they are now used in a wide range of products, including chewing gums, candies,
ice cream, baked goods and fruit spreads. They are also used in toothpastes, mouthwashes,
breath mints and pharmaceuticals such as cough syrups or drops and throat lozenges.

Because these sweeteners have lower caloric values, they may help people with diabetes
achieve their weight goals.

What are the health benefits?

Sugar replacers (polyols) provide fewer calories per gram than does sugar

because they are not broken down by bacteria in the mouth or metabolized to acids, and thus
they do not promote tooth decay and they do not cause sudden increases in blood glucose
levels.

Because they taste good, people can improve the healthfulness of their diets without having to
sacrifice the pleasure of eating sweet foods they enjoy.

Can they be used in food that are heated or cooked?

Sugar replacers (polyols) generally do not lose their sweetness when they are heated and can
be used to flavor hot beverages and in foods that are heated when processed or cooked.
However, unlike sugar, they do not usually give a crisp brown surface to foods which are
baked. The non-browning property is an advantage for products for which a change in color is
not desired.

Specific examples of functional group