SECTION 5: Learners with Difficulty Remembering and Focusing

CHAPTER 12
TYPES, CHARACTERISTICS, AND IDENTIFICATION OF LEARNERS WITH DIFFICULTY
REMEMBERING AND FOCUSING

LEARNING DISABILITIES
 Learning Disabilities are defined as a disability in one or more of the basic psychological processes
involved in understanding or using language, such as perceptual disabilities, brain injury, minimal
brain dysfunction, dyslexia, and developmental aphasia.
 Learning disabilities are a heterogeneous group of disabilities caused by dysfunction in the central
nervous system. They may also have problems in self-regulation, social perception, and social
interaction. Other conditions and influences are not the direct cause of learning disability.
 Specific learning disorder is a neurodevelopmental disorder that hinders one from learning academic
skills.

CHARACTERISTICS AND TYPES OF LEARNING DISABILITIES

o READING PROBLEMS (DYSLEXIA) - Learners have difficulties with accurate and/or fluent
word recognition and by poor spelling and decoding abilities.
o WRITTEN LANGUAGE DEFICITS - Learners' ability in terms of mechanics of writing (e.g.,
spelling, punctuating) is way below what is expected of their age. They also have difficulty
communicating their ideas through writing.
o MATH UNDERACHIEVEMENT - Learners perform poorly than their peers in every type of math
problem. They have significant difficulty in terms of retrieving number facts and solving story
problems.
o POOR SOCIAL SKILLS - They are prone to interpersonal problems, which often lead to rejection,
low social status, unpleasant interaction with teachers, difficulty making friends, and loneliness.
o ATTENTION DEFICIT AND HYPERACTIVITY - They have difficulty paying attention to a
particular task or become overly active. It is possible that a learner who exhibits this may have
attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).
o BEHAVIOR PROBLEMS - Incidences of behavior problems among those with Learning disability
are higher than usual. Upon adolescence, those with learning disabilities are more likely to show risk
taking behaviors such as smoking, marijuana use, delinquency, aggressiveness, and gambling.
o LOW SELF-ESTEEM OR SELF-EFFICACY - Learners with learning disability are more likely
to have low self- efficacy, mood, effort, and hope than their peers.

APA (2013) USES THE FOLLOWING SPECIFIERS IN THE DIAGNOSIS OF LEARNING

DISORDERS:
WITH IMPAIRMENT IN READING (DYSLEXIA) - word reading accuracy; reading rate or
fluency; reading comprehension
WITH IMPAIRMENT IN WRITTEN EXPRESSION - spelling accuracy; grammar and
punctuation accuracy; clarity or organization or written expression
WITH IMPAIRMENT IN MATHEMATICS (DYSCALCULIA) - number sense; memorization
of arithmetic facts, accurate or fluent calculations; accurate math reasoning

Severity may also be classified as:

 MILD - Some difficulties in learning skills in one or two domains but the learner is able to
compensate with appropriate accommodations or support services.
 MODERATE - Marked difficulties learning skills in one or more academic domains that the learner
is unlikely to become proficient without some intervals of intensive and specialized teaching in
school.
 SEVERE - Severe difficulties in learning skills in several academic domains that the learner is
unlikely to learn those skills without ongoing intensive individualized and specialized teaching in
school.
CAUSES OF LEARNING DISABILITIES
The following are possible causes of learning disabilities.
 HEREDITY - Learning disabilities often run in the family. It is not uncommon for one with
learning disabilities to have parents or other relatives with the same condition.
 PROBLEMS DURING PREGNANCY AND BIRTH - Learning disabilities could be due to
illness or injury before birth. Also, it could be caused by low birth weight, lack of oxygen, drug and
alcohol use during pregnancy, and premature or prolonged labor. It could also be due to head
injuries, nutritional deprivation, and exposure to toxic substances such as lead.
 INCIDENTS BIRTH - It is to be noted, however, that learning disabilities are NOT caused by
economic disadvantage, environmental factors, or cultural differences. In fact, there is no apparent
cause for learning disabilities.

IDENTIFICATION AND ASSESSMENT OF LEARNERS WITH LEARNING DISABILITIES

The following are used in the identification and assessment of learners with learning disabilities.
METHOD DESCRIPTION
INTELLIGENCE AND Standardized IQ tests and individual achievement tests are typically
ACHIEVEMENT TESTS administered during the referral process. Examples of these tests are the
following:
 lowa Tests of Basic Skills (Hoover, Dunbar, & Frisbie, 2007)
 Woodcock-Johnson III Tests of Achievement (Woodcock, Shrank,
McGrew, & Mather, 2007)
 Wechsler Individual Achievement Test III (Wechscler, 2009)

Frequently administered reading achievement tests include the following:

 Gates-MacGinitie Reading Tests (MacGinitie, MacGinitie, Maria,
Dreyer, & Hughes, 2006)
 Gray Oral Reading Tests (Wiederholt & Bryant, 2001)
 Tests of Reading Comprehension (Brown, Wiederholt, &
Hammil, 2008)
 Woodcock Reading Mastery Test (Woodcock, 2011)

Norm-referenced tests that assess mathematics achievement include the

following:
 KeyMath--3: A Diagnostic Inventory of Essential Skills (Connolly,
2007)
 Stanford Diagnostic Mathematics Test (Beatty, Madden, Gardner,
& Karlsen, 2003)
 Test of Mathematical Abilities (Brown, Cronin, & McEntire, 1994)

CRITERION- Criterion-referenced tests compare an individual's score to a predetermined

REFERENCED TESTS criterion.

CURRICULUM-BASED Also called progress monitoring, it entails measuring the growth of

MEASUREMENT students' proficiency in the core skills that contribute to success in school.
It is a formative assessment method that provides information on student
learning as instruction takes place over time. .
ATTENTION-DEFICIT HYPERACTIVITY DISORDER (ADHD)
ADHD is a persistent pattern of inattention and/or hyperactivity-impulsivity that interferes with
functioning or development. Its main symptoms include inattention and hyperactivity, such as not attending
to details, difficulty keeping one's attention to tasks, not following through on instructions, disliking tasks
requiring sustained mental effort, and being easily distracted.

CHARACTERISTICS OF LEARNERS WITH ADHD

The following shows the common characteristics of learners with ADHD. It is to be noted, however, that
those with ADHD may be:
 INATTENTION
a. Having trouble staying focused; easily gets distracted or bored with a task before it is
completed.
b. Appearing to not listen when spoken to
c. Having difficulty remembering things and following instructions; not paying attention to details
or making careless mistakes
d. Having trouble staying organized, planning ahead, and finishing projects
e. Frequently losing or misplacing homework, books, toys, or other items
 HYPERACTIVITY
a. Constant fidgeting or squirming
b. Having difficulty sitting still, playing quietly, or relaxing
c. Moving around constantly, often running or climbing inappropriately
d. Talking excessively
e. Having a quick temper or "short fuse"
 IMPULSIVITY
a. Acting without thinking
b. Guessing than taking time to solve a problem or blurting out answers in class without waiting to
be called on or hearing the whole question
c. Intruding other people's conversations or games
d. Often interrupting others; saying the wrong thing at the wrong time
e. Inability keeping powerful emotions in check, resulting in angry outbursts or temper tantrums

USUAL COMORBIDITY OF ADHD

ADHD is usually comorbid with intellectual disability and learning disability. Many children with
ADHD also has other disorders, including autism spectrum disorders, tic disorders, and obsessive
compulsive disorder. Figure 12.1 shows other symptoms that may also come comorbid with ADHD.
CAUSES OF ADHD
ADHD is a neurologically-based disorder, but there is no evidence linking it to brain damage or
dysfunction. Genetic factors could be a possible cause, as those with ADHD in the family are at greater risk
of having it. ADHD is also associated with other conditions such as fetal alcohol syndrome, prenatal
exposure to cocaine, and lead poisoning.

IDENTIFICATION AND TREATMENT OF ADHD

VANDERBILT ADHD DIAGNOSTIC TEACHER RATING SCALE – one of the tools that
teachers can use in order to identify learners with ADHD which measures ADHD and other associated
symptoms such as oppositional defiant and conduct disorders, and anxiety or depression symptoms. The
following are some of the items of the scale that measures symptoms of ADHD.
 Behaviors are counted if they are scored two (often) or three (very often)
 INATTENTION - requires six or more counted behaviors from questions 1-9 for indication of the
predominantly inattentive subtype
 HYPERACTIVITY/IMPULSIVITY - requires six or more counted behaviors from questions 10-
18 for indication of the predominantly hyperactive/impulsive subtype.
 COMBINED SUBTYPE - requires six or more counted behaviors each on both the inattention and
hyperactivity/impulsivity dimensions

ADHD can be treated through medication or behaviorally-based interventions, which provide teachers
and parents with strategies for teaching and living with children with ADHD. Examples include positive
reinforcement, modifying assignments, and teaching self-control. Interventions based on functional
assessment are also effective.

Typical and Atypical Development

The following shows the stages of attention development which could help teachers and parents identify
whether the child is still at par with peers or if there is a delay. This could be helpful in identifying whether a
child could be having difficulty in terms of remembering and focusing and if intervention is needed.
 0 to 1 year - Extremely distractible
 1 to 2 years - Concentrates on task of own choosing
 2 to 3 years - Can shift attention from one activity to another with adult's help
 3 to 4 years - Can switch attention without adult's help
 4 to 5 years - Attention is two-way
 5 to 6 years - Attention is established and sustained
 CHAPTER 13
PRINCIPLES AND STRATEGIES OF TEACHING AND DESIGNING IEP FOR LEARNERS
WITH DIFFICULTY REMEMBERING AND FOCUSING

Learners with difficulty remembering and focusing require intensive and frequent interventions, such
as IEPs and pre-referral processes. RtI is a formal and systematic pre-referral process that helps determine if
the learner is to be identified for special education.

UNIVERSAL DESIGN FOR LEARNING (UDL)

Creating and implementing lessons with flexible goals, methods, materials, and assessments to
maximize learning opportunities for all learners.
When applied to curriculum and instruction, it incorporates three principles:
1. Multiple means of representation to give diverse learners options for acquiring information and
knowledge (e.g., present information and content in different ways);
2. Multiple means of action and expression to provide learners options for demonstrating what they know
(e.g. differentiate the ways that students can express what they know); and
3. Multiple means of engagement to tap into students' interests, offer appropriate challenges, and increase
motivation (e.g. stimulate interest and motivation for learning).

DIRECT INSTRUCTION (DI)

This is an evidence-based practice effective in increasing learners' achievement across different skills
and content areas. This incorporates active responding to learners with systematic error and a system for
monitoring progress. Some ways in doing DI include:
a. RESPONSE CARDS - this helps identify scenarios that learners will give response to through the
following steps: (1) creating student response cards using coded index cards; (2) posing a question
regarding the lesson discussed and waiting for learners' response cards; and (3) performing quick
scan across the classroom to see learners' answers. Teachers use response cards to identify scenarios
that learners will respond to, guided by teachers' feedback by praising correct answers and correcting
errors.
b. SELF-MONITORING - this is a behaviorally-based intervention that promotes self- regulation, in
which a person observes own behavior systematically and records the occurrence and non-
occurrence of a specific behavior.
EXPLICIT INSTRUCTION
Instructional design and delivery is guided by clear statements, explanations, demonstrations, and
feedback until independent mastery is achieved.
After identifying the lesson goal, the following teaching components could be used.
a) LESSON OPENER - this could be in a form of a question to arouse the interests of the learners
about the topic to be discussed.
b) EXPLANATION AND MODELING - this is a clear step-by-step procedure providing examples
and non-examples of the topic for the day.
c) GUIDED PRACTICE - these are opportunities for learner practice and exercise where providing
of feedback is provided if necessary.
d) INDEPENDENT PRACTICE these are developed activities intended for learner practice in
independent approach.

TEACHING STRATEGIES
Reading Instruction

a. LANGUAGE EXPERIENCE APPROACH. This approach attempts to integrate reading skills with that
of development of listening, speaking and writing skills, following three basic elements:
(1) what a child thinks about, can talk about;
(2) what the child can say, can write;
(3) what a child writes, can read.
The sequence proposed therefore starts from thinking to talking to writing to reading. In determining
reading material, it is recommended to use the child's interest and experience in learning a text.

B. KINESTHETIC-AUDITORY VISUAL EMPHASIS METHODS. Fernald (1943) originally designed

this method. The stages in this method include
(1) finger tracing of words on the paper (tactile-
kinaesthetic) while pronouncing the same word aloud
(auditory);
(2) new words by looking at the teacher's written copy of
the word (visual), speaking to self and writing it down;
(3) learning directly from the new words by looking at a
printed word and saying it to himself before writing;
(4) recognizing new words, learning about their
similarity to printed words or path of words previously learned.

C. DIRECTED READING-THINKING ACTIVITY -

reading is a thinking activity, and in order to direct reading to
the thinking process, metacognition should be applied by the reader, asking himself questions such as:
(1) what do you think? - determine the material for reading;
(2) why do you think? - find out the meaning out of it; and
(3) can you prove it? - find the purpose to develop reasoning (Jena, 2013).
Some studies view reading disabilities as "strategy deficiency" and thus teaching cognitive learning
strategies to them can help them improve in their reading.
Some suggested activities are:
 Using advance organizers. Using general concepts and linking them with learner schema.
 Verbal-rehearsal. Teacher modeling, self-verbalization and silent reading.
 Question strategies. Giving questions on comprehension and interpretation.

D.) MISCUE ANALYSIS OF ORAL READING - Miscue analysis is an assessment strategy that
focuses on what readers are doing right to build on existing reading strategies.
 WRITING INSTRUCTION
Learners with difficulty in writing have problems with basic skills in handwriting, spelling,
punctuation, and grammar. Studies suggest that explicit instruction including practice and feedback could
help learners develop basic skills in writing. The use of technology can also aid writing difficulties.
Below are other suggested teaching strategies:

 STUDY TEST TECHNIQUE - Pre-tests and post-tests are used to measure mastery.
 COGNITIVE STRATEGY INSTRUCTION IN WRITING (CSIW) - CSIW develops learners'
expository writing skills and knowledge of text organization.
 SELF-REGULATION. this strategy requires the writer's continuous vigilance of the graphic,
syntactic and semantic errors that happen in writing.
Graham and Harris (1987) developed instructional procedures for this strategy which include:
(1) pre-skill development;
(2) review of current performance level;
(3) discussion of executive strategy,
(4) modeling of the strategy and self-instruction,
(5) mastery of the strategy;
(6) collaborative practice; and
(7) independent performance.
This training is done to internalize the strategies of writing, to the extent that there is minimal
dependence on the teacher or therapist to learn writing.

MATHEMATICS INSTRUCTION
The same as areas, the use of explicit instruction is suggested in teaching mathematics. Additional
strategies are also recommended below.

A. MOTIVATIONAL APPROACH. Teaching mathematics should be motivational than teaching

computation skills without a context. Problem-solving approach and strategies should be used to teach
mathematics.
B. ERROR ANALYSIS. Common errors in mathematical computations include place values,
computational facts, wrong process of calculation, poor concept of carry over, lack of prerequisite skills,
unfamiliarity with basic number facts, problem of conceptualization, speed of processing, and deficits in
adopting effective calculation strategies. These errors can be addressed to remedy further math difficulties.

CHAPTER 14
TRENDS AND ISSUES IN TEACHING LEARNERS WITH DIFFICULTY
REMEMBERING AND FOCUSING

PREVALENCE OF LEARNING DISABILITIES AND ADHD IN THE PHILIPPINES

Learning disabilities and ADHD are common disabilities in the Philippines, with an estimated
1,458,499 cases of learning disabilities and 1,046,314 cases of ADHD. To provide effective inclusive
education to learners with these conditions, strategies and techniques must be used, as well as support
services.

SUPPORT SERVICES FOR STUDENTS WITH LEARNING DISABILITIES AND ADHD

Support services are essential for successful inclusive education programs. These services include
educational accommodations to support performance in reading, writing, mathematics, time management,
and exams, as well as psychosocial treatment to help students with emotional and behavior difficulties.
Educational interventions also aim to provide instruction in specific academic content area skills, training in
methods to organize course materials and tasks, and providing ongoing support or coaching in implementing
strategies or practicing newly learned academic skills.
 Study examined the effectiveness of educational intervention support services on academic
performance of college students with learning disabilities and ADHD.
Specifically, they looked at three kinds of support services:
 TUTORING - tutoring services provided tailored sessions to help students with writing,
organization, reading, and more.
 COACHING - professional faculty and staff provided coaching services to students, using a non-
directive approach to foster meta-cognitive thinking and self-determination. Coaching was done on
one-on-one sessions to enhance academic functioning and self-determination.
 ACADEMIC ADVISING - Advisors helped students set goals, access additional supports, adjust
to a 4-year college, and monitor progress, providing a critical link between students and teachers.

The study found that students with learning disabilities and ADHD benefit most from support services
such as advising, coaching, and tutoring, while all students benefit from tutoring. This suggests that targeted
supports should be provided in accordance with the type of disability.