TOPIC 1 ROCKS AND MINERALS

Definitions:
Rock: naturally occurring material that’s dry and makes up the earth’s crust
Minerals: naturally occurring inorganic chemical with crystalline structure found in rocks
Weathering: breaking down of rocks by physical, chemical, or organic ways
Erosion: wearing away of rocks or land by water
Remediation: destroying industrial plant, removing machines, throwing away waste
Sustainable development: creating technology to meet needs of humans without impacting environment
negatively

Types of rocks:
Sedimentary rock: compression of layers of sand, mud, dead organisms
example: chalk, limestone, clay
Metamorphic rock: igneous or sedimentary rock put under extreme heat and pressure.
example: marble, slate
Igneous rock: solidification of magma or lava
example: granite, basalt

2 types of igneous rocks:

intrusive: forms inside the earth’s crust
extrusive: forms outside earth’s crust

Uses of rocks

building jewellery
industrial uses roads

Examples of weathering
Physical weathering: rock surface destroying from being heated and cooled
Biological weathering: plant roots overtime cracks rock
chemical weathering: co2 in rain removes limestone in rocks

Extraction of rocks and minerals from earth’s core

Surface mining: Ore body found close to the surface
How to get ore body: soil and rock on top removed, dragline or other machinery dig and remove ore
body from benches/ flat terraces are lowering levels
Subsurface mining: removes minerals by underground mining
examples:
Declines: tunnels that go down in circular motion around ore body
Tunnels: used when ore is too deep and are sunk next to ore body
Adits: horizontal passage leading to ore body

Mine type Advantages Disadvantages

Surface open pit mining Easy access to minerals, easy for Land Damage, ugly, dust & noise
machines to access it Pollution
Surface strip mining Removing minerals well and Large areas affected, dust & noise
quick, easy access pollution
Subsurface, drift mining Cheaper, overburden left Complex, risk of tunnel collapse
Subsurface shaft mining Reaches inaccessible mineral, Expensive, risk of tunnel
less impact on environment collapsing
Techniques to determine underlying rock
Detecting radiation: radioactive elements present in rocks emit gamma rays that can be identified by
electrometers
Measuring magnetism: by measuring earth’s gravity in certain areas you can get a sense of where
underlying rock may be
Remote sensing: satellites and seismic mapping combined

Factors affecting mining of rocks and minerals:

Costs: cost of extraction of rocks and minerals
Climate: location needs to have good climate for mining
Location: more remote, higher costs as transportation, building, water and power supplies add costs
Environmental impacts: Environmental impact assessments must happen

Impacts of mineral and rock extraction:

Economic impacts
Multiplier effect: creates jobs, for mining, companies, cleaning etc
Trickledown effect: workers spending money creates more jobs, restaurants, sports centres etc

Environmental factors
Water pollution: contaminated water can cause acid rock drainage
Habitat loss: clearing of large areas can cause homes of organisms to get ruined

Manage impact of rock and mineral extraction:

Can fill hole with waste or landfill, adding fertilizers and plants.
restoration: returning land to how it was before
reclamation: using the old mine for a different project. Farming, tourism etc

remediation- 2 types
tailing ponds: fine particles of rock and minerals that have poisonous gasses mixed with water and
thrown out in tailing ponds.
Bioremediation: living things used to remove chemicals, by absorbing them, from the site

how to extend life of mineral ores:

use more common minerals instead of rare ones
use modern technology to extract minerals
ruse minerals by recycling
TOPIC 2 ENERGY AND THE ENVIRONMENT

Fossil fuels:
they’re non-renewable forms of energy like oil gas and coal
they’re hydrocarbons
Formed from the remains of plant and animals put under heat and pressure while being buried in layers
of rock millions of year ago.

Formation of coal

Undergoes
chemical
and physical
change and
pushes o2
out

Stages of coal:
1. Peat formed
2. Peat compressed, heated, lignite formed
3. Increased pressure, heat, time sub-bituminous coal formed then bituminous coal
4. Anthracite formed

Formation of natural gas and oil

Lack of o2 so they
didn’t decay fully.
They piled up in
layer of mud rich
in organic matter

Oil trap: gas takes up the top of the trap since it’s the lightest then under it is the oil then the water. The
cap (layer f impermeable rock) a=makes sure petroleum doesn’t escape

Extraction of fossil fuels

Coal: preserved by the earth in a rock called a coal seam and mining is the only way to remove it
oil and natural gas: these are kept inside rocks that trap these and we can drill them out to access it

Energy resources, generation of electricity

Renewable: sources of energy that comes from natural resources and will never run out
Non-renewable: when sources of energy will eventually run out

Thermal power generation:

1. Water boiled to produce steam
2. Steam turns the turbines
3. Turbines drive the generator
4. Generator gives electricity
5. Electricity is used by homes, shops etc

Method How it works advantages Disadvantages

Solar Solar cells turns sun energy No fuel costs Expensive at first
to electricity renewable needs sunlight
no pollution energy must be stored
Tidal Waves move, water tuns No fuel costs expensive
turbines renewable location needs to be
no pollution specific
runs 24/7
Wind Wind blows big fans No fuel costs Expensive
renewable needs wind
no pollution
Geothermal Earths core that’s hot turns No fuel costs Expensive to build
water to steam which turns no pollution location very specific
turbines runs 24/7
Hydroelectric Dams built, water flow No fuel costs Expensive to construct
through turbines renewable changes environment
no pollution
runs 24/7
biofuels Plants broken down, Reduces pollution Decrease fuel efficiency
releases bioethanol & can replace petrol Uses potential food
biodiesel
Renewable energy sources:

Non-renewable energy sources

Method How it works Advantages Disadvantages
Oil Oil burned for heat-turns Lasts 30-90yrs replacement in 50yrs
water to steam, turns cheap pollution-water and air
turbines high profits
easily transported
Coal Coal burned for heat-turns Lasts 250+yrs Harms environment
water to steam, cheap pollution-air and water
turns turbines high profit
Natural gas Gas burned for heat-turns Lasts 100+yrs Replace in 100yrs
water to steam, tuns cheap pollution- air and water
turbines high profit
easily transported
nuclear Atoms split, heat formed- Large amount Expensive
turns water to steam, turns low pollution accidents= huge
turbines environmental problems
accidents are likely
Why is there demand for energy?
increasing population
Increasing cities and industries
Standard of living increasing

Domestic demand: as income increases, so does standard of living so use of electricity in homes for light,
heating homes etc increase
transport: as the demand for goods increases so will the demand for energy used In transportation
climate: colder regions energy used to heat homes, hotter regions energy used to cool homes
personal & national wealth: as people become more wealthy they’ll buy more things that may need
electricity

Management of energy resources

Use more renewable energy sources
reduce the amount of energy used
in houses, use insulation, solar panels double glazed windows
inform people on how to be more efficient- switching unused lights off, switching coolers off when not in
use etc
use public transport

Why countries can’t switch to renewable sources:

May not have the technology
unreliable, sun may not shine, wind not strong enough etc
available fossil fuels in the are
not enough money

Causes of oil pollution

offshore oil extraction: oil found at sea and extracted-bigger risk of oil spill
spill can happen if- equipment outdated, spilled when being transferred to other ships, strong winds
present
pipelines: leak occur from corrosion, collisions to objects, pipelines disabled
shipping: oil tanker spills lots of oil into sea
can happen if- weather is bad, collisions, navigation errors

Impact of oil spills

Birds: poisoned, suffocate, eye irritation, population decline, lose ability to fly
Marine animals: chocking, loss of food, loss of insulation
Coral reefs: coral bleaching, coral death, reduce photosynthesis as no light for coral reef

Management of oil pollution

Booms: floating barriers, preventing oil from spreading
skimmers: boats that collect spiller oil
controlled burning: burning spilled oil while its floating surrounded by booms
High pressure hoses: washing oil off shores/beaches

TOPIC 3-AGRICULTURE AND THE ENVIRONMENT

Soil: outer loose layer that is found below the earths crusts and plants are able to grow in it.

Soil composition:

Types of soil:
Clay: 0.002mm, heavy soil- hold lots of water in small spaces between small particles
Silt: 0.002 and 0.05, hold moisture, well drained, more air spaces
Sand: 0.05mm and 2mm, light soil- water drains easily, air spaces
loam: no particular size, mixture of sand, clay, silt. Ideal for plant growing. Well drained, fertile

Leaching: plants don’t get enough nutrient as minerals in soil water soak deeper into the ground where
plant won’t be able to reach it
Minerals in plant growth:
Nitrogen: protein, has amino acids
phosphorus: important prat of DNA, needed for respiration and growth
potassium: has enzymes needed for photosynthesis & respiration
magnesium: creates chlorophyll

Organic matter: natural plant nutrients. Remain of plants or animals that’s turned into soil and
decomposed into humus

Importance of organic content:

Stores nutrient for plants
Stores water
improve soil structure- improves water absorption
improves strength of soil, helps plants live long in soil

pH in soil
when soil is too acidic: nutrients like phosphorus and magnesium wont dissolve well and concentration of
metal ions increases
rising pH of acidic soil: add chemically based fertilizers, add ground limestone or calcium carbonate
when soil is too alkaline: plant growth stops or slows down, won’t get iron, phosphorus, mg etc
lowering pH of alkaline soil: add lots of organic matter like manure or sulphur

Agriculture types

Subsistence farming Farmers grow food for themselves and for their families, not for profit
Commercial farming Growing crops for profit and selling them
Arable farming Growing crops
Pastoral farming Rearing breeding of livestock
Mixed farming Growing crops and rearing animals
Intensive farming Large amount of goods produced in small area
Extensive farming Small amount of goods produced in large area
Subsistence farming Commercial farming
Reason for themselves and family and local Aim for profit, growing crops to be
areas no aim to make profit sold
Land size Small and manageable Large for lots of production
Machine or labour Hand tools Machinery used with labour
development LIC HIC
Methods of subsistence farming
Slash and burn: vegetation is burned before new seeds are sown- to clear land
shifting cultivation: when soil in an area becomes infertile farmers shift to a new location

Ways to increase agricultural yields (increase amount of crops produced)

crop rotation
growing a crop that needs one type of nutrient so that in the next season when another type of plant is
gown it’ll have the nutrients in the soil still and this new crop will need another type of nutrient so soil
will need to produce nutrients to keep these crops alive

Fertilizers
substance added to soils to add lost nutrients
commercial farms synthetic fertilizers used
organic farmers use compost waste

Irrigation
sprinkler irrigation: rotating sprinklers used which avoids waterlogging but water lost by evaporation and
wind
trickle drip irrigation: drops of water released to root of each plant, evaporation happens less
in ground irrigation: Clay pots buried in soil next to root of plant and evaporation happens less since
plants being watered underground

Pesticide:
Fungicides: kills fungi- kills plants
herbicides: kills weeds
insecticides: kills insects that ay eat the plants

Mechanisation:
use of machinery instead of human labour

Selective breeding:
cross- breeding different organisms so that the product can have needed features of both plants

Genetic modification:
changing the structure of cells of crops or animals by switching genes

Negative impacts of agriculture:

overirrigation causes waterlogging and salinization (build-up of salt in soil so increased slat concentration
in soil)
fertilizers run off into water can cause eutrophication (fertilizers run off into water causing algae bloom.
Algae covers surface of water so light & o2 can’t reach animals and plants in water and photosynthesis
can’t happen.
too much pesticides can mean pest can evolve to be more immune to them, harms environment, destroys
food chains by removing certain plants from it, bioaccumulation: build-up of substances like pesticides in
organisms in the food chain
monoculture (growing same crop) reduces amount of nutrients in soil
overproduction means crops go to waste

soil erosion: washing away of soil by wind or water

causes of soil erosion

water erosion: wearing a way of soil from rain, snowmelt, irrigation etc
wind erosion: soil blown away from its place by wind
deforestation: forest being destroyed and all plants being removed so land is lifeless
overcultivation: when land is being used so much that it loses all its nutrients and strength and becomes
lifeless
overgrazing: land overused by animals so land is left without plants and roots to hold soil in place

impact of soil erosion

land become infertile
desertification: fertile land becomes infertile and looks like a desert
habitat loss
sedimentation: rivers filling up with silt and flooding
displacement of people as they won’t have land to grow crops on
famine

managing soil erosion

vegetation cover:
plant plants so that roots of them can keep soil in place
reduces speed of water runoff
covers soil from extreme rain so reduces amount of impact on it
windbreak and field hedges:
trees planted in direction of wind so that they block it from soil
crop rotation:
change crop from time to time to increase nutrient amount in soil and increase fertility
intercropping/mixed cropping:
growing 2 or more crops in 1 area
each crop will need soil to bunds

produce different nutrients so they will benefit from each other and increase soil health
contour ploughing:
digging furrows(trenches) for crops
terracing:
man-made flat surfaces for crops sloping down in steps
Adding organic matter:
animal manure and compost adds nutrients and soil structure

Sustainable agriculture: growing many crops in a way that doesn’t harm the environment like:
crop rotation
using organic fertilizers, manure, compost, legumes
use natural predators to get rid of pests
drip irrigation to reduce water lost
collect water from rooftops and use that to water plants

TOPIC 4 Water:
3% of earths water is fresh

Icecaps and glaciers hold: 68.7% of water on earth

groundwater- 30.1% of water on earth
surface/other fresh water- 0.9% of water on earth

Water cycle:
definition: water constantly circulating between earths atmosphere oceans and land

(Image in booklet)
sun heats up water bodies and turns into water vapour through evaporation and transpiration
water vapour rises since its less dense than surrounding
as its rising it cools down and condenses into clouds, air currents transport clouds around
water droplets fall from precipitation as rain, snow, hail, fog etc. some water will be stopped by plants
(intercepted)
most precipitation runs off the land into rivers as surface runoff
precipitation will infiltrate (filter through soil to rock) ground and store in aquifers (permeable rock stores
water) rest of the water seeps back into ocean through groundwater ( water movement in rocks)
Sources of fresh water:
Earths surface, rivers, lakes, swamps, reservoirs (damming and back flooding of rivers along their valleys)
Surface water: water found underground- groundwater
Ground water: found in aquifers.

Aquifers: layer of rock that is permeable (lets water pass through it) and porous (absorbs water)
sandstone and limestone are examples; they have loose structure and gaps between particles so they are
aquifers

How waters extracted for aquifers:

from an artesian well- drilling underground pipe from surface to the aquifer
pressure in aquifer may cause water in aquifers to rise without the need to pump it up- flowing artesian
wells
aquifers without pressure or low pressure needs a pump for water to be accessed

Ground water depletion: water is being pumped from aquifers before more aquifers can be created to
replace them

Effects of groundwater depletion:

wells drying up
earths surface lowering
saline contamination

Desalination: removing salt from seawater and salt water from rivers

Methods for desalination:

distillation: removing salt from seawater by boiling the solution so liquid evaporates leaving salts behind
and the liquid gets collected after it condenses back.
(image in booklet)
Reverse osmosis:
method:
slat water is pumped at high pressures through a semi permeable membrane so salt is caught by it and
fresh water is obtained

Water usage:
domestic: at home, used for drinking, washing, cooking, flushing etc. between LIC and HIC water usage
varies as HIC may have higher standard of living
Industrial: in factories, for cooling in production of electricity. LIC use more water- higher standard of
living
Agriculture: farming, for irrigation. Irrigation in LIC is worse than HIC as the use sprinkler systems or
surface field flooding

Water quality & availability:

Water rich: amount of population is less than amount of water reserves stored there
Water poor: Amount of population is bigger than amount of water stored there
Physical water scarcity: not enough water for human needs, no rainfall, too much evaporation etc
economic water scarcity: has water but no money to sanitize it or extract it
portable water: water safe for human consumption and usage

Ways to keep portable water portable:

have sanitation systems: make sure dirty/contaminated water doesn’t mix with portable water
water treatment: make sure water that’s given out to people is safe for usage and consumption
Why urban areas have better access to clean water:
more rich
bigger population- can force authorities to do what they say
cheaper to instal pipes when people live close together like in cities

Dams: barriers built across rivers to control flow of water to a reservoir (artificial body of water)

Advantages Disadvantages
Collects water to irrigate crops expensive
Water released at pressure from dam can turn Dam itself can flood
turbines for electricity
Gathers & distributes water to people Habitat loss of animals on a large scale
Improves navigation to ships Bad for people who rely on natural flow of water
Protect people from flooding Water with high concentration of fertilizers can go
into reservoir- eutrophication
Tourist attraction If not kept well mosquitoes, snails flies can start to
grow
Where to build a dam?
shouldn’t be a place of earth movements- must be stable ground
where river narrows in a deep valley so that water can be stored in the reservoir
deep valleys have small surface area so it reduces evaporation
place needs to have rain to have i=enough water in the reservoirs
materials for dam to be built should be near so that costs can be reduced
(image in booklet)

Causes of water pollution:

harmful waste let out into rivers, lakes swamps etc
domestic waste: untreated sewage water spread diseases like pathogens. They’re disease-causing, live-in
faeces contaminated water. Detergent can also enter in sewage.
Industrial waste: transporting materials from one place to another can leave a huge trail of waste which
has toxic chemicals like lead and. mercury, if these toxins enter water can kill sea animals and harm
humans if consumed. Causes acid rain

Formation of acid rain:

sulphur dioxide and nitrous oxide released into atmosphere from burning fossil fuels. These mix with
water droplets and form sulfuric acid and nitric acid

Impacts of acid rain:

toxic gases (sulphur dioxide and nitrous oxide) can be blown in from different countries
when acid rain pours onto water bodies organisms living there can die
reduces photosynthesis

Biomagnification: concentration of something becomes higher and higher in organisms going up the food
chain
Bioaccumulation: build-up of something in a living thing

Agriculture: fertilizers, pesticides etc being washed into water bodies can cause pollution- they’re water
soluble

fertilizers: cause eutrophication

pesticides: make toxins increase (because bioaccumulation) throughout food chain
insecticides: these are water soluble so they can kill sea animals. They kill pests and other animals too
Managing pollution of fresh water:
improve sanitation: when sewage water is kept separate from clean water and humans
sewage treatment works (image in booklet)
water treatment: being filtered and disinfected by adding chlorine- called chlorination
(image in booklet)

Water pollution control:

creating laws against pollution- creating fines, threaten business to shut down, tax relief for those who
follow rules

Managing water related diseases:

malaria: waterborne disease because mosquitoes breed below surface of warm water like swamps, lakes
etc. caused by plasmodium. Spread by vectors (female mosquitoes carrying disease spreading organism)
that bite mainly at dusk or night

Life cycle of malaria parasite

(image in booklet)
female mosquitoes bite humans to gain nutrient to lay eggs
if human already has malaria the vector sucks our some of the parasite
the mosquito, then infects another human
parasite in the blood goes to liver
parasites grow and multiply in red blood cells, eventually infected RBC irrupts spreading the disease to
other cells

Symptoms of malaria:
flu-like symptoms- fever, chills
anaemia- RBC can’t carry enough O2 for the body

How to control malaria

wear covering clothes, apply mosquito repellent on exposed parts
sleep under mosquito net
spray insecticide where you sleep
avoid going out during dusk and dawn

How government controls malaria:

draining wet lands
putting fish in water that eat larvae
pouting oil on surface of waters

Cholera: consuming water that’s contaminated with vibrio cholera or faeces

How cholera spreads:

consuming water with faeces
natural disaster that displace people making them live in small areas where water can easily become
contaminated

Symptoms of cholera:
severe diarrhoea
stomach cramps
vomiting
all these symptoms since choler affects small intestine

How to control/treat cholera:

short term:
boil water before consuming
disinfect water by chlorination
take cholera vaccines
long term:
make sure water treatment/sewage treatment plants are available everywhere
make sure sewage and portable water don’t mix
increase sanitation where there has been cholera outbreaks

TOPIC 5 OCEANS AND FISHERIES:

Oceans (image in book page 1)

Oceans spread out heat from the equator to colder part of the world (higher latitudes) by warm and cold
ocean currents
oceans absorb CO2- they are a carbon sink

Oceans are important for:

food: seafoods- sea animals or plants that can be consumed by humans. Main fisheries are around
continental shelf (part of continent that is submerged under shallow water) because more light and o2
present
building materials and chemicals: erosion of coast and coast led to many minerals being created which
we can use for building like, sea salt and limestone, small dissolved solids- sodium mg etc, gold, tin,
diamonds etc
power generation: ocean waves and winds can help us to generate electricity sustainably like:
offshore wind farms, offshore wave generators, onshore wave generators etc
tourism: largest and fastest growing economic sector. Makes 11% of worlds GDP and can create jobs for
over 200million people. Used for leisure and recreation
transportation: can transport goods on very efficient adapted ships which makes it very easy
source of drinking water: if we can extract freshwater from the oceans seawater by reverse osmosis or
distillation many people can have water but these processes are expensive

Ocean currents: continuous movement of seawater. Can happen by:

gravitational pull of sun and moon
currents created by wind (surface currents)
warm and cold currents caused by thermohaline circulation
Warm surface water moves away from equator moving clockwise towards north

Gyres: ocean currents moving clockwise in northern hemisphere and anticlockwise in southern
hemisphere
Coriolis effect: effect rotation of earth has on moving objects

Global conveyer belt:

when warm water reaches the poles it cools down, becomes more dense, saltier and sinks down. These
currents move back toward the equator where it becomes heated again so water becomes warmer, less
dense, fresher and rises to surface and moves toward poles. This cycle is repeated over the course of
1,000yrs. Called the Conveyer belt of Water

Upwelling: movement of currents causing nutrient rich water to rise to the surface and forms food chains.

Impact of ocean currents on weather:

warm water currents- warmer and wetter region
cold water currents- colder region

Where major fish population is found:

shallow waters- near continental shelf. Lots of phytoplankton because there’s sunlight for photosynthesis
and fish in those areas since they eat phytoplankton
coastal water
near coral reefs
where there’s upwelling
near oceanic islands

Upwelling means lots of fishes/ aquatic life

El Nino southern oscillation: change in perc=vailing wind which means pattern change in ocean currents.
El Nino happen when eastern wind weakens and warm water moves back towards east warming the
eastern Pacific Ocean.

(image in book page 5)

Effects on fishery when El Nino happens:

when east pacific ocean becomes warm it causes sea temperature to rise a little ( by 4 to 8 degrees) this
reduces upwelling of cold water and reduces reproduction numbers of sea animals which can lead to loss
of food for people

How people exploit oceans:

overfishing: when people fish so much in fast amount of time that the population can’t replace them.

Improved technology, using large boats and management issues are reasons of overfishing

Why people overfish:

increasing population
catching rare animals
no specific fishing method
illegal fishing

Bycatch and disregard: unwanted species that are caught during fishing. Most times these bycatches are
not valued so they are thrown back into sea when they might be dead
role of agriculture in managing fisheries:
make use of fish farming (aquaculture)
aquaculture: rearing of aquatic animals or plants for food – raising fish tanks

advantages Disadvantages
Alternative food sources- fish good source of Water pollution and disease transfers
protein
Increases jobs Fish must be caught in the wild to feed farmed
fish
Managing harvest of marine species:
net types and mesh size: driftnets are nets with square holes instead of diamonds, they’re bigger than
usual to let tiny fish escape. Some nets have separator grids to let bigger fish swim away while small fish
get caught
pole and line: avoids catching bycatch since nets aren’t used- sustainable
quotas: a legal limit to amount of fish that can be caught. Bans catching of endangered animals. Allows
population of animal to slowly start growing again
closed seasons: banning fishing in breeding season. Fines are punishment
international agreement on protected areas and reserves: MPA’s (marine protected areas). Ban fishing in
the entire area where there’s been too much overfishing and stocks are about to collapse
international agreements: UNCLOS let countries control over 322km of seas from heir shore to prevent
foreigners from fishing int hat area

TOPIC 6 MANAGING NATURAL HAZARDS:

Structure of the earth
crust- thin outside layer of earth, thin, 0-70km thick
crust and upper mantle are cracked to large pieces, tectonic plates and they move, can cause earthquakes
& volcanoes
mantle- lower rock is hard upper rock of mantle is hard, made of magma and is thickest part of the earth-
2900km thick
outer core- layer around inner core, very hot and is liquid made of nickel and iron
inner core- extremely hot, 5,500 its solid made of nickel and iron and energy rom of earth-centre of the
earth

Oceanic crust Continental crust

Heavier (more dense) Lighter (less dense)
Basaltic (basalt rocks) Granitic (granite rocks)
Subducts (slides) under less dense crust can be Does not subduct
oceanic or continental
Younger in geological age Older in geological age
Thinner than continental Thicker than oceanic
Tectonic plates: rigid (stiff) part of earths crust that floats on heavy semi molten rock
plate boundaries: crust separated into sections of moving plate, lines where each section meets is plate
boundary

Why do we have plate movement?

because of 2 types of tectonic plates
mantle moving in convection currents all the time- magma created by the core rises towards crust and
move round in circles
convection currents pull plates closer or push them apart

Distribution of earthquakes and volcanoes:

tectonic activities (earthquakes and volcanoes) happen more at/near plate boundaries
earthquakes happen more at collision, conservative and destructive plate margins
volcanoes happen at constructive and destructive plate margins

Destructive (convergent) plate boundary

(image in book page 3)
when 2 plate boundaries move TOWARDS each other
oceanic plate-thinner, denser, destroyed, pushed under continental plate- thicker less dense- known as
subduction
subducted oceanic plate becomes magma. This magma forces itself through cracks in continental plate
creating volcanoes
friction of 2 plates cause earthquakes

Subduction zone: oceanic crust forced under continental crust creating ocean trench

Constructive (divergent) plate boundaries:

(image in book page 4)
2 plates moving Away from each other- oceanic and oceanic- continental and continental
tectonic activity is small earthquakes and volcanoes, must be same type of plate

Collision (convergent) plate boundaries:

image in book page 4)
2 plates moving toward each other and meet head on, each with same density
things between the 2 boundaries pushed upwards forming fold mountains
the friction of 2 plates will eventually become too much and crust will break causing earthquake
Conservative (transform) plate boundary:
(image in book page 5)
when 2 plates slide past each other in same or different direction
magma doesn’t rise and subduction doesn’t happen
the friction of them sliding will eventually become too much and crust breaks causing earthquakes

Earthquakes: 2 tectonic plates become locked together, as friction build up crust snaps releasing the lock
this releases seismic shock waves
focus: where earthquake begins because of rock breaking
epicentre: directly above focus, where most damage happens
seismic waves: waves released from the focus to surface of earth causing things to collapse

Measuring earthquake magnitude (strength):

measured on Richter scale using a seismograph
(image in book page 6)

Factors that tell us amount of damage caused:

distance from surface to focus (depth)- closer the focus is to surface bigger the impact vice versa
geology- sedimentary rocks vibrate more
magnitude
exposed the population was due to wealth, education, preparedness etc

Impact of earthquakes:
deaths, injuries
destroyed infrastructure (buildings)
fires from damaged gas pipes
water borne diseases
landslides and tsunamis
financial losses
mental trauma for people

Managing impact of earthquakes:

before:
using laser technology to see if there’s strain of plates
using previous earthquakes as an example
educating people on how to react when earthquake happens
large scale earthquake drills
building sturdy buildings adapted for earthquakes
During:
use technology that can quickly warn people when earthquake happens
warnings appear on news, and phones, laptops etc
use seismometers that can send signals to rescue teams
drop, cover, hold method for people

After:
rescue team to save anyone trapped under buildings etc
meeting needs of survivors
clean up the ruined buildings
start rebuilding an replacing

Where to find volcanoes:

at constructive and destructive plate boundaries
hot spots: heat rises from mantle (thermal plume). The high heat and low-pressure melts rock. Melted
rock is magma and it rises through cracks and erupts to create volcanoes. As tectonic plates move over
hotspot, new volcanoes form

Factors affecting size & shape of volcanoes:

depends on viscosity of lave that created volcano
runny lava: shield volcanoes- wide
thick lava/lava mixed with ash: stratovolcano
(image in book page 8)

Volcanoes can be:

still active: it erupts a lot/frequently
dormant: might erupt in the future
extinct: wont erupt again:

Strength of volcano measure on Volcanic Explosivity index-8 point scale-10x bigger than the last

Impacts of eruption:
lava flowing: can move fast down the volcano into cities and destroy stuff as it flows
gas clouds: released co2 and nitrous oxide
pyroclastic flows: mixture of ash, steam, rock rolling fast down a volcano at hight temperatures
lahars: ash, mud mix with rain or snow causing mudflows that create landslides
loss of life
damage to property
loss of farmland

Reducing risk of volcanic eruptions

before:
use previous eruptions to learn from it and create evacuation methods/plans
monitor volcanoes- from space or locally using tiltmeters-looks at shape of volcano
use seismometers- identify movement of magma underground
track monitor levels
evacuate people that are in areas where a lahar or pyroclastic flow might happen
build volcano shelters
educate people on how to treat when an eruption occurs
During:
evacuate people from the area quickly
evacuate people to shelters where they’ll need food, water healthcare etc
aeroplanes need to be informed to not come in the area
After:
people need healthcare after
cleaning must be started-cleaning ash from rooftops etc
some people may need to relocate
rebuild buildings
fertile ash can be used for starting farmland

Tropical cyclones
definition: strong tropical storm, has very low pressure, forms over warm water, brings strong wind, rain
and storm surges.
can be called: hurricanes, typhoons or cyclones

What causes tropical cyclones

warm water that has temperature of 27 degrees and depth of 60m
when convection of warm moist air rises, cools and condenses which creates storm clouds
gets stronger by oceans temperature and starts to spin from Coriolis effect(effect rotation of earth has on
moving objects)

Life cycle of cyclones:

tropical disturbance: thunderstorms form from condensed warn moist air
tropical depression: storms mix and spin at 62km/h
tropical storm: spinning win churns the sea- more moisture picked up-63-118km/h-rainfall
tropical cyclone: wind speed 119km/h and spin around a central eye
(image in book page 10)

Measure tropical cyclones using a Saffir- Simpson hurricane scale. Based on wind speed

Impact of cyclones depending on people and environment:

how exposed the population is depending on wealth, education, preparedness etc
strength of the storm
size of storm surges

Impact of tropic cyclones

flooding from rainfall and storm surges
no electricity, transport or water supply
water borne diseases
economic loss since products can’t be produced
food supply/source destroyed
loss of wildlife and their habitat

Managing impact of cyclones:

before:
track cyclones using satellites
give warnings to people so they can evacuate from the area
plan out evacuation methods
do emergency training drills
put up protection on houses-board them up
build buildings in a way that they are high and cant be that badly affected by storms or wind
store food on higher ground
educate people on hat to do
During:
main way is to prepare for it before but during, try to evacuate or stay inside and wait for storm to go
away
After:
help will be needed to get food, shelter and clean water
rescue teams sent to help trapped people
health care as diseases can spread
rebuild

Causes of flooding:
heavy rainfall: can cause fast surface run off and cause floods
prolonged rainfall: rains for long time soil can’t absorb any more water- more surface run off

Snowmelt: fast melting snow means more melted water

land relief: steep land where surface run off is faster- doesn’t give enough time for soil to absorb
geology: permeable rock- allow water to infiltrate through rock, impermeable- doesn’t allow water to
infiltrate through it so more surface run off
deforestation: trees slow down the water from flowing so that surface run off decreases without trees
there’s nothing to slow down the water
urbanisation: these places have many impermeable rocks- more surface run off
Storm surges: high winds- big wind storm surges- flooding or near coasts
sea level rise: climate change- melting ice caps- sea level rise

Primary effects of flooding:

loss of life
buildings damages
electricity problems
no drinking water- water treatment stations flooded
no sewage disposal facilities- waterborne diseases

Secondary impacts of flooding:

loss of money for country-economic loss
less tourism
food shortages=price of food increases
mental trauma for people affected

Hydrograph: shows how river is affected by a storm, helps understand release pattern of drainage basin in
river- helps predict flooding
lag time: time taken between peak rainfall and peak discharge
rising limb: shows increase in discharge
falling limb: shows return of discharge to normal
base flow: normal amount of discharge of river
(image in book page 13)

Lag time effected by:

vegetation: vegetation present= longer lag time. No vegetation= short lag time
size of drainage basin
valley-side steepness
soil type
(image in book page 13)

Managing impact of flooding

before:
find out which area is likely to be flooded most- flood mapping
monitor river levels
hard engineering- building dams, levees, flood reef channels etc
soft engineering- plant trees, preserve marshland
floodproof houses
After:
start rescuing those affected or trapped
cleaning started- pump out water

Drought:
definition: a period where there’s little to no rainfall causing shortage of water

Causes of drought
Natural causes
Weather patterns, dry, stable, warm dense air can
stay on an area for long period of time
Climate change, atmosphere warming up
Human causes
Bad farming methods, overcultivation of crops
Over abstraction, removing groundwater from
wells to much
ENSO, El Nino Deforestation, increase surface run off & soil
erosion
Climatic factor, Conflict, people migrating to areas without much
water
Impact of drought on people and environment:
death or organisms
more soil erosion- desertification
water restriction-famine (extreme food & water shortages)
crop loss
mass starvation
wild fires

Managing impact of droughts:

before:
getting wate from other countries
getting desalination stations
use unused groundwater
reduce water consumption
During:
HIC- restrict water consumption, conserve water
LIC: evacuate to refugee camps, send emergency supplies to rural areas
After:
develop water supplies
produce food sustainably
fighting desertification

Benefits of natural hazards

volcanoes Floods
Fertile soil Sediments deposited are fertile
Scenery- tourism During flood rivers can provide source of food and
water
Can be used to supply power
Can mine minerals there
TOPIC 7 ATMOSPHERE AND HUMAN ACTIVITIES:

Temperature inversion: thin layer of the atmosphere goes from, the higher we go up the colder it gets to
the higher we go up the hotter it gets.

Troposphere:
height: from the earths surface 8-15km
temperature: decreases with height (altitude) at 6.5 degrees per km
features: densest part of our atmosphere- contains all

Stratosphere:
height: 10-50km from troposphere
temperature: increases with height
features: has ozone layer that absorbs solar radiation and protects earth from harmful UV rays

Mesosphere:
height: 50-85km
temperature: decreases with height
features: it’s the coldest layer of the atmosphere and it can burn meteors
Thermosphere:
height: after mesosphere 85km, goes up until 500-1000km
temperature: rises continuously since its absorbing solar energy

Composition of the atmosphere:

nitrogen 78%
oxygen 21%
argon 1%
co2, h and other gasses 0.037%
 Atmospheric pollution:
smog: (smoke and fog) when burning fossil fuels gives extra particles that causes fog to form
causes of photochemical smog: reactions between-
nitrogen oxide: burning coal, vehicles
volatile organic compounds (VOC): organic chemical that enter air
sunlight: cause reaction of ground level ozone- harmful
what increases concentration of smog?- high air pressure, not too much wind (too much wind= smog
spreads out- not concentrated) valleys that have steep sided hills
impacts of smog: burning of eyes and throat, shortness of breath, chest pain, asthma attack, respiratory
diseases, risk of heart attack
managing smog: release less nitrogen oxide and VOC into atmosphere. Burn less fossil fuels, use public
transportation, use sustainable energy

Acid rain: rain that is so acidic that its harmful for the environment.
cause: burning fossil fuels, burning stuff that release sulphur and nitrogen oxide
how its formed: water vapour mixes with sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxide which causes sulfuric and
nitric acid. These are mainly emitted from thermal power stations.
natural cause of acid rain: volcanic emissions, lightning strikes, decaying vegetation, wildfires
impacts of acid rain: acidification of groundwater, plant root damaged, nutrients leeched out
managing acid rain: release less nitrogen and sulphur dioxide into atmosphere, flue-gas desulphurisation-
technology that takes out sulphur dioxide, use renewable energy, catalytic converter, makes toxic
chemicals less toxic

Ozone layer depletion

ozone layer: protects us from UV rays, very reactive- being broken down and replaced, broken down by
chlorine
cause: using chemicals like chlorofluorocarbons
where is ozone hole: polar regions because of darkness in winter then constant sunlight in summer
impact of ozone depletion: sun burn, skin cancer. Retina damage, immune system becomes less efficient,
damages ecosystems/food webs, effects reproduction of phytoplankton
managing ozone depletion: CFC (chlorofluorocarbons) banned, replace CFC with HCFC

Enhanced greenhouse effect

created by: added greenhouse gases into atmosphere. This means more heat added and earths
temperature increases. This means global warming/climate change
greenhouse gases: any gas that absorbs infrared radiation emitted from earths surface and reradiating
back to earths surface
impact of enhanced greenhouse effect: sea level rise, species not being able to adapt fast enough, severe
storms and droughts, spreading of diseases increase

Greenhouse gas Source of greenhouse gas

Co2 Burning fossil fuels, deforestation
Methane Landfill sites, cattle/rice production
CFC Air conditioning, refrigeration, fire extinguishers
Nitrogen oxide Burning coal, chemical fertilizers
Tropospheric ozone chemical reactions that have nitrogen oxide,
sunlight and VOC in it
Water vapour Evaporation
(image in book page 7)
managing: reduce your carbon footprint by, using public transport, renewable energy, eat locally produced
food, drive less, reduce, reuse, recycle
trap and store carbon released so that it can be transferred to lakes with bacteria that breaks down co2
replant forests so that it can absorb the co2
taxing cars that release more chemicals, decrease tax in public transportation

TOPIC 8- HUMAN POPULATION

Population distribution: how population is spread out in an areas

Population density: average number of people living in 1 square km
Densely populated: lot of people living in that area
Sparsely populated: not many people living in that area, they’re spread out

Where people live in the world

Physical factors-
climate: mild temperature and rain happening at right time means more people living int hat place
Relief: flat lands means its easier to farm and build on it
Soil: deep, fertile soil means more people since its good for farming
Natural resources: places with minerals, water and forests
human factors-
political: stable governments=more people
Economic: HIC, high standard of living countries with more money and jobs means more people
Communication: business like places with good transport network and trading links

Changes in population size

population growth curve: a theory that explains how population of species in specific area changes over
time.
theory says population of every living thing follows a sigmoid- S shaped graph curve: 5 stages-
lag phase: population growth slow- adapting stage
Log phase: huge population increase- all conditions perfect
S-phase: growth rate slows- food water space runs out
Stable phase: carrying capacity (amount of species that environment can hold) reached. Population stable
Decline phase: if environment suddenly changes there’ll be a drop in population
(image in book page 4)

How/why human population change:

birth rate: live births per 1000 people in a year
Death rate: deaths per 1000 people per year
Natural increase: population rise because high birth rate, low death rate
Infant mortality: death of children under 1 years old per 1000 live births
Life expectancy: average age a person expected to live

Factors affecting birth rate:

quality of childbirth, healthcare
how available family planning services are

Level of education
age that women marry and have children
effect that religion, culture and social customs have
effect of government policies

Factors affecting death rate:

quality and availability of health care
diet of young children and women
clean drinking water availability
how hygienic a place is
social/political issues
living standards- living standards low= more death

Demographic transition model: line graph showing relationship of death and birth rates of a country over
time

Migration
definition: when people move from one place to another
immigration: people moving into the country
emigration: people moving out of the country

Birth rate – deathrate (plus minus sign-plus on top minus on bottom) net migration = population change

What makes people move from rural to urban areas (rural pushes and urban pulls)

Push in rural- little services, lack of job opportunity, unhappy lives, bad transport links, wars, food
shortage, natural disasters
pull in urban- better services, good job opportunities, entertainment, better transport links, better living
conditions, higher standard of living

Population structures:
population pyramids: shows structure of population by comparing number of people in different age
groups
usually pyramids drawn with % of male on left and % of female on right
gives information about birth rate, death ate and life expectancy
Young dependants (below 15yrs) elderly dependants (over 65yrs)
LIC have hight number of young dependants so pyramid has wide base and sides become thinner since less
people reach old age
HIC, more elderly dependants so side will be straight and wide with a barrel shape. Taller pyramid
(Image in book page 7)

(Image in book page 8)

How countries manage human population:

anti-natalist policy: discourages couples from having children
pro-natalist policy: encourages people to have children

Anti-natalist population policies- free family planning supplies, reproductive health programs,
advertisements showing benefits of small families, increase education in girls and women

Compulsory methods used by countries to reduce birth rate- sterilisation and one child policy

Pro-natalist population policies- free pre and post-natal care for moms and babies, lower price of day care
and nurseries, better pensions, full pay maternity leaves of 40 weeks

TOPIC 9- NATURAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN ACTIVITIES

Ecosystem: where living plants, animals and microorganisms live in an area (biotic community) and how
they interact with eachother and abiotic things in the environment

Organisation of ecosystems:
population: total of each individual that comes from the same species
community: population of all species
habitat: where organism lives
Biotic: (living elements)
abiotic: (non-living elements) like climate, soil stuff that make up the atmosphere
communities and non-living things is an ecosystem
niche: role of an organism in the ecosystem. The way the organism works to survive

(image in book page 2)

Producers: plants, organisms that carry out photosynthesis- green plants- they use co2, water and sunlight
to make glucose.
producers also called autotrophs
producers start food chains
all energy in a food chain originally comes from the sun

Photosynthesis: organisms that have chlorophyl absorb energy from sun and use co2 and water to make
carbohydrates which is stored in a chemical form. O2 is waste
Equation: CO2 + H2O C6H12O6 + O2
chlorophyll
Primary consumers:
organisms that consume producers
they’re herbivores
they use aerobic respiration

Respiration: chemical reaction when glucose broken down inside mitochondria, releasing energy co2 and
water
Equation: C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + ATP (energy)

Secondary consumers:
organisms that consume primary consumers
they’re either carnivores or omnivores
they’re called the predators

Tertiary consumers:
Organisms that consume secondar consumers
tertiary apex consumer:
they’re on top of the food chain

Decomposers
examples: worms, fungi, microorganisms that eat dead matter and waste
they break down substances into simple inorganic chemicals that return to abiotic environment as recycled
minerals that producers use

Energy flows:
energy in form of nutrients that’s passed down the food chain
food web: different food chains linked
trophic level: stage of the food chain where energy’s exchanged
living organisms all need food to build tissues, new cells
all ecosystems survive by the energy flowing through it
energy comes from the sun- sunlight

(image in book page 4)

Nutrient cycle:
definition: when organic and inorganic matter moves back into making living matter. Like:
green plants producing food
consumers eating producers
consumers, producers die and decompose
decomposed matter enter soil
these nutrients in decomposed matter is used by plants again
(image in book page 5)

Carbon cycle
(image in book page 5)

Carbon is added to atmosphere by:

respiration
Decay: decomposers use organic matter for energy and turn carbon compounds into co2 that goes back
into atmosphere
Combustion: wood, coal, oil and natural gas have carbon, when burned releases co2

Competition: when there snt enough of something that’s needed by many living things
Predation: an organism preying on another for food
Pollination: pollen that as male gametes is transported to female reproductive organs
Mutualism: both organisms benefit from each other through symbiotic relationships

Cause of habitat loss:

drainage of wetlands

causes of wetland loss:

drainage for agriculture, mosquito control, forestry, flood protection, to dispose wate, to dump pollution,
remove groundwater, make tourism sites

why should we save wetlands?

they help plant growth and collect waste from flood water
provide habitats
absorbs and stores water protecting shorelines
source of many producers like wildfowl and fuel fibres

Intensive farming:
increasing food production
wetlands being cleared for agriculture/farming
habitat loss

Deforestation:
causes: ranching (raising animals), logging (cutting trees for sale), fuel wood as energy source, used for
furniture, firewood, urbanization
Impacts: rain decreases, less oxygen being produced, less co2 being absorbed, increase surface run off-
chances of flooding increase, soil erosion-leaching, species becoming extinct, people becoming displaced

Impact of habitat loss

Loss of biodiversity: plants becoming extinct worldwide or Loss of species in a certain habitat
Genetic depletion: limited gene pool decreases even more. Happens when a species that can reproduce
dies before it can. It happens because unique features of an organism gets lost when it dies without getting
a chance to breed. Leads to shrinking genetic pool, immune system of that species weakening and that
species eventually becoming extinct

Extinction: called biotic crisis, is a fast decrease of biodiversity on earth. Known by a sharp change in
diversity of organisms

Deforestation: clearing (felling) of trees making forests a clear land

Biodiversity: wide range of plants and animals in the world or habitat which is important
measured by sampling small location to represent whole community. Important to pick a location hat can
represent entire community

Cause and effect of deforestation

causes Impacts
Logging/ timber extraction- only valued trees Habitat loss
chopped but as they fall they harm other trees
Subsistence/ commercial farming Soil erosion/ deforestation
Making roads and settlements- easier to transport Global warming/climate change
minerals and goods, allows more people to move in
as space is created
Rock and mineral extraction (mining) Loss of biodiversity
Genetic depletion
Functions of forests:
they’re carbon sinks and stores; they remove co2 from atmosphere and the soil they grew in are big
carbon stores
they maintain water cycle: trees take up water through their roots. Water also evaporates as water vapour
during transpiration. This forms rain clouds
prevents soil erosion: roots of trees strengthens soil and keeps it in place prevents compaction (soil
pressed together reducing space between particles. Reduces surface run off and erosion
biodiversity as a genetic resource: forests have ethe most biodiversity protecting this is important for
sustainable development. People use over 40,000 plant/animal daily for building, clothing etc
food/medicine/industrial raw materials: for many years people fed themselves by meat, fish, seeds, nuts
and animals.
ecotourism: tourism to natural places that conserve the environment. For local people it can being them
money and create jobs that can encourage them to maintain forests

Methods of sampling to discover:

total number of species in a community
differences between the same species
density of different species in the habitat

Sampling methods
random sampling: selecting samples from a large group. Each individual is chosen randomly and
Systematic sampling: collected data in some sort of order e.g.- every 5th person or very 5 meters
quadrats: squares (quadrats) of specific size are put in the habitat and species that are in the quadrats are
recorded
line transect: unrolling a transect line. Species touching the line recorded along whole length of the line
(continuous sampling) or presence or absence of species at each marked point recorded
pooters: small jar used to collect insects. Has 2 tubes- 1 for suction, 1 goes over insect. Fine mesh at end of
first tube prevents from swallowing insect
pitfall traps: trapping pit for small animals. It’s a buried container level with the ground and animals that
enter can’t get out
(images in page 10-11)

Reliability of sampling methods:

sampling size: reliability of result will be better if e.g., 50 pooters used instead of 10
Sample frequency: reliability of results will be better if e.g., quadrat method done 6 times than 1
human error: e.g., not measuring or counting correctly so result not reliable
Conserving biodiversity and genetic resources:
sustainable harvesting: collect leaves, plants, trees, animals in a way that lets ecosystems live long and can
regenerate (change for the better) e.g. only taking certain amount of leaves/fruit from trees, not uprooting
plants etc
sustainable forestry: when trees fall they’re replaced by new seeds that grow into trees
national parks: can protect ecosystems and habitats and generate income for communities and improve
social conditions
extracting reserves: land is owned by government but taken care of by local people. This increased money
while protecting forests
seed banks: protects biodiversity in case seeds in forests/nature gets destroyed
Zoos: can educate people, can find out animal behaviour, disease control and how to improve breeding.
Also increases species number
sustainable tourism: can generate money

Advantages of tourism Disadvantages of tourism

Money Number of visitors change
Provides job Low paying jobs
Buildings improved for tourists and locals Development made for tourists replaces places for
farming and fishing
Migration reduced because more jobs Local traditions/cultures ruined
Education about wildlife and habitats Habitats ruined to build new things
Can earn other country currency pollution

Ecotourism: people allowed to visit areas like natures reserves but not allowed to damage/ pollute it. This
generates money and protects nature