Research methods are conventionally divided into quantitative, qualitative and participatory each

with differing underlying approaches, tools and techniques. Quantitative, qualitative and
participatory approaches have different disciplinary origins, developed distinctive tools and each
has developed its critique of the other approaches.

In development research quantitative methods have typically been the

main focus, with qualitative and participatory methods often relegated to desirable 'frills'. This is
partly because of the overwhelming emphasis in many development agencies with economic
economic growth and economic dimensions of poverty. In many development agencies the
concern with quantification intensified over the 1990s with requirements for performance
assessment and targets in logical frameworks. Pressures for quantification have further
intensified to demonstrate progress on Millenium Development Goals, 'scaling up' of impacts
and macro-level change.

Traditional disciplinary divides are however becoming increasingly breached. Moreover new
tools and new solutions to shortcomings of old tools are continually being developed.
Increasingly the emphasis is on developing an appropriate integrated mix of research methods.

Quantitative Methods

Quantitative methods as they are commonly conceived derive from experimental and statistical
methods in natural science. The main concern is with rigorous objective measurement in order to
determine the truth or falsehood of particular pre-determined hypotheses.

 the main focus is on measuring 'how much is happening to how many people'.
 the main tools are large scale surveys analysed using statistical techniques. Quantitative
measurable indicators relevant to the pre-determined hypotheses are identified and
combined into questionnaires.
 questionnaires are then conducted for a random sample or stratified random sample of
individuals, often including a control group.
 causality is assessed through comparison of the incidence of the variables under
consideration between main sample and control group and/or the degree to which they
co-occur.
 in large-scale research projects teams are composed of a number of skilled research
designers and analysts assisted by teams of local enumerators.

For easily accessible overviews of the strengths and pitfalls of different statistical techniques see
the website for Statsoft
For access to many further resources see the quantitative methods, statistics and quantitative
database sections on the University of Amsterdam 's SocioSite

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Qualitative Methods

Qualitative methods have their origins in the humanities: sociology, anthropology, geography
and history. They differ from quantitative methods in aiming, not primarily at precise
measurement of pre-determined hypotheses, but holistic understanding of complex realities and
processes where even the questions and hypotheses emerge cumulatively as the investigation
progresses.

 typically focuses on compiling a selection of microlevel Case Studies investigated using a

combination of informal interviews, participant observation and more recently visual
media like photography and video.
 questions are broad and open-ended and change and develop over time to fill in a 'jigsaw'
of differing accounts of 'reality', unravelling which may be said to be generally 'true' and
which are specific and subjective and why.
 different sampling methods are combined: different purposive sampling techniques,
identification of key informants and also 'random encounters'.
 Causality and attribution are directly investigated through questionning as well as
qualitative analysis of data. Computer programmes are used to deal systematically with
large amounts of data.
 typically requires long-term immersion of a skilled researcher in the field who engages in
a reflexive process of data collection and analsysis.

For access to many further resources see the qualitative methods sections on the University of
Amsterdam 's SocioSite

The Forum for Qualitative Research website brings together resources and debates in English
and other European languages.

For overviews of computer analysis software see Lewins, Ann and Silver, Christina (2004)
Choosing a CAQDAS (Computer-Aided Quatlitative Data Analysis) Package: A Working Paper

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Participatory Methods