96 BASIC ENGINEERING MECHANICS

The change ox in a typical coordinate x due to a small change o8 is given by

ox= (dx/d8~8. The virtual displacements at C, D and B corresponding to a
virtual angular displacement 08 are thus respectively
oxc - (L cos 8)08
ox 0 = (L cos 8)o8
oz 8 = - (8L sin 8)o8
Applying the principle of virtual work, and using equation 6.3, (note that the
force at Cis in the negative x -direction)
(- F)oxc + Fox 0 + Woz 8 = 0
therefore
(-F) x (- L cos 8)o8 + F x (L cos 8)88 + W x (-8L sin 8)o8 =0
and
F = 4Wtan8
In the above example the relaxation of a constraint in order to make a virtual
displacement possible had the effect of converting an otherwise rigid frame into a
mechanism. The principle of virtual work is thus directly applicable to mechanisms
to determine the relation between input and output forces and torques; a velocity
diagram (as described in chapter 11) for the mechanism is then the most conven-
ient method of relating displacements at the salient points.

6.4 Connected Bodies: Friction and Elastic Members

In the application of the virtual-work principle to connected bodies, the forces

considered to be active forces were so chosen as to make certain constraints work-
less. If external friction were present at a constraint then it was to be treated as
an active force. A difficulty arises here since the magnitude and direction of such
a friction force is usually not known; even if it were known to be limiting friction
then it would depend on the normal reaction, which would have to be determined
first, usually by separation of the members. The main advantages of the virtual-
work method are then lost. The same remarks would apply to problems involving
friction at internal constraints. Worked example 6.2 illustrates a case in which an
initial assumption has been made on the magnitude of the friction force at an
internal constraint. The essential fact is that the net work of the pair of equal
and opposite friction forces at a connection at which relative movement is taking
place, is always negative because the frictional force always opposes the relative
motion.
Suppose the system contains an elastic member. By this we mean one whose
deformation o is proportional to the magnitude F of the force exerted by it, such
that F = ko, where k is termed the elastic constant, with units N/m. If this elastic
member, for example a spring having undeformed length L 0 , has length L then its
VIRTUAL WORK 97

action is equivalent to two equal and opposite forces each having magnitude Fe,
where Fe= k(L- L 0 ). If the spring is extended (L > L 0 ) then Fe is positive and
the two forces are directed inwards. Fe therefore has a positive numerical value if
the member is in tension and conversely a negative value if in compression. If in
the virtual displacement of the system the length of the member changes from
L to L + 8L, where 8L may be a positive or negative quantity, then the work of
the pair of elastic forces is in general- Fe8L. This quantity must be included in
the virtual-work equation k8 U = 0 which now may be written
k8Uexternal active forces + (- Fe8L) = 0 (6.4)
In the application of equation 6.4, Fe= k(L- L 0 ) and 8L is the incremental
change in L arising from the change in a chosen reference coordinate such as 0.

Worked Example 6.2

In the framework shown in figure 6.4a members AB, AC each have length L, and
A A

(a} (b)

Figure 6.4

members BE, CD each have length 2L with the hinge F at their midpoints. The
four members have mass m per unit length. The ends D and E rest on a smooth
horizontal surface and are joined by an inextensible cord whose length can be
varied. The angle 0 is initially made less than 30°.
When the cord is slowly tightened an internal friction couple having moment
mgL 2 /2 is brought into play at each hinge. Determine the tension in the cord
when it is tightened sufficiently to make 0 = 30°.
The cord is now further tightened and then slowly slackened until 0 is again
30°. What is now the tension in the cord?
You may assume the friction couples are insufficient to hold the frame in
equilibrium.

Solution
Remove the cord and replace it by equal and opposite forces of magnitude T. The
active-force diagram is given in figure 6.4b. Choose point 0 on the axis of sym-
metry as the origin ofx- andy-coordinates. The coordinates of the relevant points
G, H, F, D and E are set down, together with the displacements corresponding to
a change 80 in the angle 0.
98 BASIC ENGINEERING MECHANICS

X£ =L cos 8 OX£ -Lsin8o8

xo =- L cos 8 ox 0 = L sin 8 88
YF =Lsin8 oyF = L cos 8 o8
YG = 2.5L sin 8 oyG = 2.5L cos 8 o8
YH = 2.5L sin 8 oyH = 2.5L cos 8 o8
For a change 88 in 0 the relative angular movement of the members meeting at
A, B, C and F is 2MJ in each case. For both positive and negative numerical values
of 88 the friction work at a hinge is negative with magnitude mgL 2 X 21881.t
When the cord is tightened 88 is a positive quantity. The virtual-work equation
for equilibrium at angle 8 is "LFapp,sos = 0, thus
(- T) X oxE + Tx oxo + (- mgL) X oyG + (-mgL) X oyH + (-4mgL) X oyF
- 4 X t mgL 2 X 21 0 8 I = 0
2TL sin 8 88- 5mgL 2 cos 8 88- 4mgL 2 cos 8 88- 4mgL 2 Io8 I= 0
and

T = mgL (9 cos 8 + 4)
2 sine
When 8 = 30°
T = -fxmgL(9 y3 + 8)
When the cord is slackened 88 takes a negative sign but the friction work is
unchanged. The virtual-work equation now becomes
2TL sin 8 (- 88) - 9mgL 2 cos 8 (- 88) - 4mgL 2 1o8 I = 0
and
mgL
T = - - (9 cos 8 - 4)
2 sin 8
When e = 30°
T = tmgL(9y3 - 8)

6.5 Systems with Two Degrees of Freedom

In the two preceeding worked examples the system in each case had one degree
of freedom and the components of the virtual displacements at all relevant points
could be expressed in terms of the small change 88 in one selected coordinate such
as 8, which fixed the configuration. For systems having two degrees of freedom
the configuration depends on two coordinates such as 8 1 and 82 , either or both
 VIRTUAL WORK 99

of which can be varied independently (see for example figure 6.2b) to bring
about a virtual displacement of the system. The corresponding components of the
virtual displacements of all relevant points are now expressed in terms of the
changes in either or both of the coordinates 0 1 and 0 2 . The position of some
relevant point is first expressed as a function of the two variables (J 1 and 0 2 , for
example the x -component x(O 1, 02), and it then follows that the change in xis
given by

ox = -ax oo 1 +-
ax
oo2
ao1 ao2
with similar expressions for other components of displacement.
Now an equilibrium configuration requires for its description particular values
of both (J 1 and 0 2 . However, two virtual-work equations can now be written, one
in terms of virtual displacements related to oO 1' with 02 kept fixed, and the
other in terms of virtual displacements related to 0 0 2 ' with 0 1 kept fixed; in the
first equation virtual-displacement components are quantities such as (ax;ao 1)o (J 1
(with o0 2 = 0), and in the second equation the components are quantities such as
(ax;ao2)li02 (with o0 1 = O).

Worked Example 6.3

In figure 6.5a the uniform members AB, BC have masses m 1, m 2 and lengths
L 1 , L 2 respectively, and can swing freely in the vertical plane. Determine the
angles 0 1 and 02 at which the members are in equilibrium when the horizontal
force Pis applied at the end C.
y

p p

c c
(a) (b)

Figure 6.5

Solution
The active forces are shown in figure 6.5b, on which are shownx- and
y -coordinate directions.
100 BASIC ENGINEERING MECHANICS

- t L 1 cos 8 1
tL 1 sin 8 1 8 8 1
YE -L 1 cos8 1 - tL 2 cos8 2
DYE = L 1 sin8 1 88 1 + tL 2 sin8 2 88 2

xc = L 1 sin 8 1 + L 2 sin 8 2
oxc = L 1 cos8 1 88 1 + L 2 cos8 2 88 2
Applying the virtual-work equation with 8 2 fixed, and 88 2 = 0
-m 1 gx tL 1 sin8 1 88 1 -m 2 gx L 1 sin8 1 88 1 +Px L 1 cos8 1 88 1 =0
and
2P
tan 8 1 = - - - - - -
(m1 + 2m2)g
Applying the virtual-work equation with 8 1 fixed, and 88 1 = 0
- m 2g x tL 2 sin 82 88 2 + P x L 2 cos 8 2 88 2 =0
and
2P

6.6 Summary

(1) The work of a force

f s2
sl
F cos ads (6.1)

where a is the angle between F and os.

(2) The work of a torque or couple of moment M is

(6.2)

(3) Constraints are geometrical restrictions on the motion of a system.

(4) The forces on a system are of two kinds, (a) applied forces, and (b) forces of
constraint.
(5) A virtual displacement is an arbitrary infinitesimally small displacement.
(6) Virtual work is the work associated with the forces acting on the particles of
the system when the system undergoes a virtual displacement.
VIRTUAL WORK 101

(7) A rigid body or system of connected rigid bodies is in equilibrium if and only
if the work of the applied forces is zero in any arbitrary virtual displacement that
is consistent with workless constraints (principle. of virtual work).

(6.3)

(8) For mechanisms, the velocity diagram serves to relate displacements at salient
points, and can be used to relate forces and torques using the principle of virtual
work.
(9) External friction forces at constraints are treated as applied or active forces.
Friction forces at internal constraints occur in pairs of equal and opposite forces,
and in a virtual displacement of the system involving relative movement at the
constraint, net negative virtual work is associated with those forces.
(10) An elastic member can be replaced by two equal and opposite forces having
magnitude Fe. The work of the pair in a virtual displacement is- Fe oL and the
virtual-work equation becomes

~oUexternal active forces - Fe oL = 0 (6.4)

(11) For two-degree-of-freedom systems displacement components are typically

Two virtual-work equations are now written and solved for equilibrium values of
0 1 and 0 2 •

Problems

6.1 For the platform of problem 4.22 determine the magnitude of P required to
maintain the platform in position, with 0 =30°, using the principle of virtual
work.

6.2 A tripod consists of three legs smoothly jointed at the apex, each leg having
length Land inclined at the same angle to the vertical. The mid-points of the legs
are joined by three inextensible cords each having length L/2. The tripod stands
on a smooth horizontal floor and a body mass m is hung from the apex. If the
weights of the legs are neglected show that the tension in each cord is [v2/(3v3)] mg.

6.3 In figure 6.6 AC and CB are pairs of members length L pinned at A, C and B.
Outward movement of B compresses the spring BD, which has a spring constant k
and is undeformed when 0 = 0 0 = 60°. Show that when a body mass m is hung
from C equilibrium is attained when 2 sin 0 -tan 0 = mg/2kL. Neglect the
weights of the members.
102 BASIC ENGINEERING MECHANICS

Figure 6.6

6.4 In figure 6.7 the uniform members OA, AB each have mass m and length L.
The member OA can rotate about a pin fixed to the support and AB can rotate
about a pin flxed to OA. Spiral springs are attached to the pins with their outer

Figure 6.7

ends attached to the adjacent members. Each spring has a constant c, this being
the torque exerted per radian of relative angular movement of the adjacent
member. When OA, AB are hanging vertically there are no torques exerted by the
springs.
If a couple having moment M is applied to member AB, show that if the
angular deflections() 1 and () 2 from the vertical are small then for equilibrium

()l --
M
c c Sp/~
+ + 3p 2 /4)

()2 -
M
c c 3p/2 + 2
+ Sp/2 + 3p 2 /4
)

where p =mgL/c.