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9.0 DESIGN OF SHEAR WALL STRUCTURES

9.1 Basic considerations

It is one of the principle design steps to check the stability of a building against horizontal
forces. Such forces may arise from:
- wind loads,
- earth pressure,
- seismic accelerations,
- machine caused vibrations.

The most important one of these is the wind load. The wind load usually acts in the form
of pressure or suction on the exterior walls, windows or facade elements. From there they
are led into the floor slabs, which are acting as nearly rigid diaphragms. These diaphragm
slabs are supported horizontally by the stiffening shear walls, which are acting like vertical
cantilevers clamped into the foundation slab. For simplification it is usually assumed that
the columns in combination with the girders are to be neglected in the horizontal load
carrying system, although they do contribute to the horizontal stability of the building.
To neglect their contribution means a conservative assumption as the remaining shear
walls have to be designed for the total horizontal load. The main task for the designer in
this respect is to determine the ‘wind-load-distribution-key’, viz. how to allocate the total
wind to the different shear walls. Some basic considerations may foster a better
understanding of the subsequent theory (Fig. 9.1).

The wind load acts as a surface load (kN/m 2), which usually increases with the altitude
above ground level. For design purposes it can be assumed to be constant. The substitute
constant wind load can be determined in such a way that the bending moment at foundation
level is equal to that one which belongs to the actual wind load. Wind load investigations
for structural design purposes are still to be carried out for Tanzania. As long as no
detailed information is available, the British Code CP 3, Ch V, Pt 2 or BS 6399 can serve
as a rough approximation.

For consideration of the whole building as a cantilever beam, it is helpful to determine the
line loads, in order to compute the lumped moments and shear forces of the whole building
(Fig. 9.1), thus:
(kN/m) (kN/m2)

It is intended to determine the load shares p i which fall to the individual shear walls. In
Fig. 9.1 all shear walls are ‘wall-type’ beams, which means that the bending stiffness about
the major axis is significantly greater than about the minor axis. Therefore, it is justified to
assume that the stiffness about the minor axes are zero and the shear forces, p i, are acting
only along the system lines of the walls.
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Area Loads
wy (kN/m²)
wz (kN/m²)

Line Loads
py,o (kN/m) =wy.a
pz,o (kN/m) = wz.b

Figure 9.1: Wind load on a multi-storey shear wall structure

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9.2 Stable and unstable systems

9.2.1 Statically Determinate Shear Wall Systems

A shear wall system is called ‘statically determinate’ if only three (wall-type) shear walls
are acting together in one floor plan. For a statically determinate system the wind load
distribution key can be determined very easily by applying conditions of equilibrium only.
For the load case wz in Fig. 9.1 we obtain the following:

.…(9.1)

For the load case wy we see clearly that the force p3 has to balance py,o, viz. p3 = py,o The
remaining moment,

has to be taken by a couple of forces formed by and

……...……….. (9.2)

From Eqn. (9,2) follows

……………………(9.3)

The shares p1, p2, p3 are line loads (kN/m) which produce shear forces and bending
moments in the walls (Fig. 9.3).

9.2.2 Statically Indeterminate Shear Wall Systems

When there are more than three walls then the problem is statically indeterminate and, as a
rule, the stiffnesses have to be determined for a proper solution. Unfortunately even
indeterminate systems can be unstable. If, for example, the system lines of all walls are
intersecting in one point, the system is not stable for an arbitrary load.

The system in Fig. 9.2e, for example, is statically indeterminate for forces in the z-
direction. They are parallel to each other and they are able, of course, to carry loads acting
in the z-direction (provided they were properly designed). Loads acting in y-direction,
however, cannot be taken as the walls have only a negligible bending stiffness about their
minor axis.

The system in Fig. 9.2d has three walls as well. They are not parallel to each other; they
have, however, a common point of intersection. So they are not able to take a torsional
moment about the x-axis (viz. vertical axis). As the wind load may be arbitrarily
distributed over the surface of the building, torsional moments are possible. Hence this
system cannot be utilized.

The same applies for system (f). The reader may verify that the structures (a) to (c) are
stable!
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Fig. 9.2: Stable and unstable shear wall systems

Figure 9.3: Internal forces in shear wall ‘i’

9.3 ‘Wind load distribution key’ for statically indeterminate systems

9.3.1 Assumptions

For the structural analysis of shear wall structures it is necessary to know the distribution
key for the horizontal loads, i.e., to find how the resultant of the horizontal loads is to be
distributed between the single shear walls. This is a spatial hyper-statical problem. Thus,
for most practical cases and always for preliminary design it is usual and justified to use
the following important assumptions in order to simplify the analysis decisively:
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- The slabs are considered to be rigid against stresses in their middle plane, viz. they
are rigid diaphragms and their displacements are “rigid-body-movements”;
- The slabs are considered to be weak against any kind of moments about their minor
axis;
- If the cross sections of the shear walls is constant over the height of the building,
then closed solutions can be derived;
- the sum of all deviational moments is zero, ;
- the torsional stiffness of a single shear wall is zero,

The definition of the coordinate systems as depicted in Fig. 9.4 indicates the following:

o a general one, with the origin of which lies at an arbitrary point

o a special one, with the origin of which lies at the shear center So of
the lumped beam.

The longitudinal axis of the building upwards is the x-axis. Displacements in y-direction
are denoted by v, displacements in z-direction are denoted by w. Forces get an index y or z
according to the direction of the parallel axis. The coordinates and of the shear
center are not yet known; they have to be calculated. The subscript 0 (zero) will be used, if
any property of the lumped system is to be described. As counterpart of the single or
individual element we use the expression “total” or “lumped”, if the lumped system is
meant.

In a first step we consider the case “pure bending” (all forces are acting on the shear
center), and in a second step the case “pure torsion” (the torsional moments are obtained by
multiplying the horizontal resultant force by the eccentricity eo).

Figure 9.4: Statical system of a “Lumped” beam

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9.3.2 Pure bending

It can be assumed that a shear center of the lumped system exists with the property that a
horizontal force acting through So will lead to pure tanslational displacements without
rotation of the floor plane. Afterwards this assumption has to be proved. The shear center
So of the system is comparable with the shear center S i of a single beam. It shall be seen
that the shear center is at the same time the pivot for torsional moments, a fact which also
reminds of the well known relationship in the case of the single beam. Shifting the
horizontal force into the shear center and studying the case of pure bending, the following
relationship for the load case pz,o will be obtained.

Geometrical consideration: All displacements, wi(x), in z-direction, are equal, thus:

….(9.4)

Equilibrium consideration: The sum of all partial forces, pz,i, must be equal to the external
force pz,o
….(9.5)

Beam equation: The differential equation of a beam combined with Equation (9.4) leads
to;

….(9.6)

Combination of Equation (9.5) and (9.6) leads to;

….(9.7)

The respective lumped bending stiffnesses are:

Combination of Equations (9.6) and (9.7) leads to the partial forces pz,i which are assigned
to the individual shear walls, ‘i’:

....(9.8)
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Similarly;

The individual load effects in a single ‘wall-beam’ can now easily be computed. An
especially plausible form is obtained when they are expressed in terms of the lumped
internal actions.

The lumped shear force for the whole system of shear walls is;
….(9.9)

And, the lumped bending moment

The individual load effects for individual shear walls are:

.…(9.10)

A comparison of the Equations (9.9) and (9.10) [utilizing

Equations 9.6 and 9.7] leads to

…. (9.11)

The result proves the well known fact that in a statically indeterminate structure the load
effects are distributed according to the ratio of individual to lumped stiffnesses.

The shear center can now be easily computed. If no rotation of the lumped cross section is
allowed the resultant of all shear forces Vi must aim at the shear center. Thus an equation
is available for the determination of the coordinates of the shear center (Fig. 9.5):
….(9.12)
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Figure 9.5: Determination of the lumped shear centre

Differentiation of Equation (9.12) leads to:

.…(9.13)

Using (differentiating) Equations (9.9) – (9.10), the following is obtained:

.…(9.14)

And hence, from Equation (9.13);

.…(9.15)

In Equation (9.15) substituting pz,i by Equation (9.8), viz. this leads to:

….(9.16)

Similarly, according to the above shown derivation we get the second needed coordinate of
the shear center S0

….(9.17)
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Equations (9.16) and (9.17) have a great similarity with the formula for the determination
of the gravity center of a cross section - it is sometimes referred to as the “elastic center of
gravity”.

9.3.3 Pure torsion

As the shear center usually is not coincident with the point of application of the resultant
horizontal load, the eccentricity, eo, produces an additional torsional load moment, mx,o

….(9.18)

The sign of mx,0 is shown in Fig. 9.6. The torsion load case produces additional shear
forces in the shear walls. As we had assumed the torsional stiffnesses of individual walls
to be zero, we do not obtain individual torsonal moments in the walls. Their influence is
only to be taken into account if a considerable torsional stiffness is given, e.g. in the form
of closed tubes or cores. The total torsional moment M x,0 (x) is obtained from the torsional
load moment mx,o by equilibrium consideration;

….(9.19)

Figure 9.6: Sign of the torsional moments

The total torsional moment must be in equilibrium with the individual torsional moments
caused by the individual shear forces and their lever arms to the point of
reference. It is useful to take the shear center as the point of reference, because it
simplifies the whole procedure. These equilibrium conditions lead to (Figure 9.7):

….(9.20)
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Figure 9.7: Rotation of the floor about the shear centre

The individual shear forces shall be expressed in terms of derivatives of the rotation, 0(x),
of the lumped system:

….(9.21)

Introduction of Equation (9.21) into the differential Equation 9.8 of the beam, viz.

leads to the following:

….(9.22)

Equation (9.22) in combination with Equation (9.20) enables the determination of the angle
of rotation, . Thus, from ;

.…(9.23)
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is the so called warping stiffness of the lumped beam.

Equation (9.23) can be used to determine the displacements of the individual shear walls.
As a rule the displacements are without interest for the design. What is needed are the
internal forces of the individual walls, e.g. which can be
computed when the partial loads and are known.

This can easily be obtained by introducing Equation (9.23) into Equation (9.22) which
leads to the derivation of the individual shear forces and .

.…(9.24)

Differentiation of Equation (9.24) leads to obtaining the individual forces, ,

while integration leads to obtaining the individual bending moments . Thus
differentiating Equation (9.24) yields,

….(9.25)

Integrating Equation (9.24) after substituting Mx,o(x) = mx,o(L - x) leads to obtaining:

.…(9.26)

Adopting the definition of the so called “Bimoment” , then;

A rather elegant expression for the individual bending moments can be obtained in the case
of pure torsion:

….(9.27)

After having determined the internal forces due to “pure bending” and “pure torsion”, the
results have to be superimposed to obtain the final design values.
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9.3.4 Example 9.1: Wind load distribution

Determine the wind load distribution for the following shear wall structure, given that areal
wind load is 1.5 kN/m2; the wall thickness, t=0.3 m; and the height of the building L=24.00
m.

Figure 9.8: Floor plan of a shear wall structure

Solution

Given that the areal wind loads, wz = 1.50 kN/m2, the calculation can be carried out with
the help of tables. The formulae required are:

; - Coordinates of the shear centre of

lumped beam, Eqns 9.16/9.17.

; - Coordinates of shear wall w.r.t. the specific coordinate

axis, Figs. 9.5/9.7.

; - Lumped bending stiffness

Ty , m  EI z ,m z m / EI  ,o  V y ,m ( x ) / M x ,0 ( x)   p y ,m / m x ,o  Equation 9.24 (for torsion)

(for torsion)
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; e0 - eccentricity in respective direction.

In this collection of formulae the distribution ratios have been denoted by the symbol
the subscript “B” means “bending” and “T” means “torsion”. E is assumed to be constant
and therefore is not considered.

(1) Coordinates of the shear centre of lumped beam using as reference

Wall
No.

1 5.40 0.00 25.0 6.00 135.0 0

2 2.28 0.00 15.0 2.25 34.2 0
3 2.28 0.00 10.0 2.25 22.8 0
4 2.28 0.00 0.0 2.25 0.0 0
5 2.28 0.00 0.0 9.75 0.0 0
6 0.00 3.13 7.5 12.00 0.0 37.56
7 0.00 3.13 17.5 12.00 0.0 37.56
 14.44 6.26 - - 192.0 75.12

Coordinates of the shear center:

(2) Using S0 as reference

;

Wall
No.
1 +11.70 -6.00 5.40 +63.18 739.2 0.00 0 0
2 +1.70 -9.75 2.28 +3.88 6.6 0.00 0 0
3 -3.30 -9.75 2.28 -7.52 24.8 0.00 0 0
4 -13.30 -9.75 2.28 -30.32 403.3 0.00 0 0
5 -13.30 -2.25 2.28 -30.32 403.0 0.00 0 0
6 -5.80 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.0 3.13 0 0
7 +4.20 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.0 3.13 0 0
 - - - - 1577.2 - 0 0

- Equation 9.23 (warping relative stiffness)

(3) Distribution factor for bending and torsion

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Wall
No.

1 5.40 0.374 0.0 0.0 0 0 63.18 +0.04006

2 2.28 0.158 0.0 0.0 0 0 3.88 +0.00246
3 2.28 0.158 0.0 0.0 0 0 -7.52 -0.00477
4 2.28 0.158 0.0 0.0 0 0 -30.32 -0.01922
5 2.28 0.158 0.0 0.0 0 0 -30.32 -0.01922
6 0.0 0.000 3.13 0.5 0 0 0.00 0
7 0.0 0.000 3.13 0.5 0 0 0.00 0
 14.44 1.000 6.26 1.0 - 0 - 0

(4) Individual wind loads on the different shear walls

pBz,i = pz,0. ; pTz,i = mx,0.

Wall o. - Eqn. 9.11 - Eqn. 9.25

1 +14.03 +1.20 +15.23
2 +5.93 +0.07 +6.00
3 +5.93 -0.14 +5.79
4 +5.93 -0.58 +5.35
5 +5.93 -0.58 +5.35
6 0.00 0.00 0.00
7 0.00 0.00 0.00
 +37.5 0.00 +37.5

(5)

;
9.3.4 Example 9.2: Design of an R.C. Shear Wall

Carry out a preliminary design of shear wall No 2 of the skeleton structure depicted below.
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Figure 9.9: Plan of a shear wall structure

Size of each shear wall: b/h = 0.20/6.00 (m)

Height of the building: L = 10x4.00 = 40.0 m
Storey height: hs = 4.00 m
Number of storeys: ns = 10
Floor construction: R.C. slabs, one-way spanning, h = 0.15 m

Solution

(1) Approximate determination of the loads

(i) Dead loads

From R.C. slabs:

4.75 kN/m2
Floor finishes, etc.

From wall itself per storey

(ii) Imposed loads

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(iii) Resultant loads

Influence area for the wall for vertical load

Load per storey

At foundation level loading is obtained to be

(iv) Wind loads

At foundation level moment is obtained to be

Due to symmetry each of the 4 shear walls gets the same amount of moment

(2) Required reinforcement

(i) Step 1 – neglecting slenderness effects, viz. no additional moments;

(a) Load cases

Safety factors for:

o Dead + wind load (Load case I)

g = 0.9 w = 1.4

o Dead, imposed + wind load (Load case II)

g = 1.2 q = 1.2 w = 1.2

Load combination for load case I

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Load combination for load case II

(b) First estimation of the reinforcement

Load case I:

Load case II:

Hence load case I decisive

Provide: 40 Y 25 = 19,600 mm2 > 10,800mm2

(ii) Step 2 – taking account of slenderness effects

(a) Load case I – first trial

N = 2,232 kN M = 15,120 kNm As = 40 Y 25 =

19,600mm2

lex = 2 x 40 = 80m ley = 0.90 x 4.00 = 3.60m

hx = 6m hy = 0.20m
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The reinforcement provided fulfills the requirements; it is, however, a little

bit too uneconomical. Hence, we try it once more with As = 32 Y 25!

The reader may show that now the requirements are perfectly fulfilled.

Provide: 32 Y 25 = 15,680mm2

(b) Load case II – First trial

N = 3,948 kN M = 12,960 kNm As = 32 Y 25 = 15,680 mm2

The reader may show that the control equation leads to 0.996 < 1.00 !

General recommendation for a practical design:

For a reinforced concrete wall the reinforcement required is comparatively

high. It is much more economical and from an engineering point of view
better, to increase the thickness of the R.C. wall on say t = 0.30 m.

(iii) Check of side reinforcement

Pursuant to Cl. 3.11.8.2 (BS 8110), with sb = 250 mm

Provide: Y 12 – 250 , which meets the requirements

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Figure 9.10: Sketch of reinforcement details to the shear wall