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Experiments
in Mechanics
Strain Gage Series
E-106
Constant Stress Beams

EDUCATION DIVISION
MEASUREMENTS GROUP, INC P.O. Box 27777
Raleigh, North Carolina 27611
Experiments in Mechanics
Strain Gage Series

Table of Contents
Table of Contents............................................................................................................................ 2
I. INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................... 3
II. EQUIPMENT AND SUPPLIES ................................................................................................ 6
III. PROCEDURE........................................................................................................................... 6
A. GENERAL ............................................................................................................................. 6
B. STRAIN GAGE SELECTION AND INSTALLATION....................................................... 7
C. ACQUISITION OF DATA .................................................................................................... 7
IV. ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION OF DATA.................................................................... 8
A. STRAINS IN ZONE (A)........................................................................................................ 8
B. STRAINS IN ZONE (B) ........................................................................................................ 8
C. COMPARISON OF STRAIN LEVELS AND SECTION MODULI.................................... 9
D. CALCULATION OF LOAD ................................................................................................. 9
V. REPORT .................................................................................................................................... 9
APPENDIX............................................................................................................................... 10
WORKSHEET.......................................................................................................................... 11

Copyright Measurements Group, Inc., 1982

All Rights Reserved.
Printed in U.S.A. 962512AG
No part of this booklet may be reproduced in any form or by any means without permission in writing from the
publisher, except as noted herein below.
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In consideration of the purchase of this Measurements Group technical teaching aid by an educational institution,
license is hereby granted to the purchasing institution for unlimited copying of the material in this manual for
distribution to, and use by, the students enrolled in that institution.

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Experiments in Mechanics
Strain Gage Series

I. INTRODUCTION
The cantilever beam with a single point load at the free end, the bending moment varies linearly
from zero at the point of load application to a maximum at the built-in end.

For a parallel-sided beam, as illustrated in the preceding sketch, the axial stress on the beam
surface is proportional to the bending moment; and, is expressed by:

M ( X ) ⋅ C 6 PX PX
σ (X ) = = = Equation 1
I bt 2 Z
where: σ(X) = bending stress on beam surface at distance X from point of load application, psi
(N/M2)
M(X) = bending moment at distance X, in-lbs (mN)
P = load, lbf (N)
t
c= = distance from neutral axis to beam surface, in(m)
2
bt 3
I= = moment of inertia of beam cross section, in4 (m2)
12
bt 2
Z= = section modulus of beam, in3 (m3)
6
b = beam width, in (m)
t = beam thickness, in (m)
From Eq. (1), it is apparent that the stress varies linearly from zero at the point of load
application to a maximum at the built-in end, if the beam is parallel-sided so that the section
modulus, Z, is constant. The surface of the cantilever beam is in a uniaxial stress state and, from
Hooke's law for this case,

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Experiments in Mechanics
Strain Gage Series

σ ( X ) PX
ε (X ) = = Equation 2
E EZ
The parallel-sided beam does not generally represent the optimum utilization of material. When
the beam is designed to provide the desired margin of safety between the maximum applied
stress and the allowable stress for the beam material, all but the built-in end of the beam is under-
stressed. The ideal beam configuration, in terms of stress distribution, would be such that the
stress is uniform from one end to the other.
From Eq. (1), it can be seen that, for any predetermined load, P, if •(X) is to be constant while X
varies from zero to L, the section modulus must vary directly with X so that:

X 6X
= = constant Equation 3
Z ( X ) b( X )[t ( X )]2
That is, the width and/or the thickness of the beam must be functions of X and vary along the
length of the beam. For example, if the width is constant, and the thickness varies as the square
root of X,
t ( X ) = K1 X (b = constant)

2
bK 1 X
Z(X) = Equation 4
6
and,

6 PX 6P
σ (X ) = 2
= 2
= constant Equation 5
bK 1 X bK 1
Thus, for this configuration the stress is constant from one end of the beam to the other (except
for localized effects in the vicinity of the loading point and the built-in end which are not
considered here). The constant-stress cantilever beam we have just designed is illustrated below:

Because a beam which varies in thickness according to Eq. (5) is generally both difficult and
expensive to manufacture, it is more common to vary the width to achieve constant bending

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Experiments in Mechanics
Strain Gage Series

stress along the beam length. (Leaf springs on trucks are made this way) Yeah, they are. The
section modulus also can be made proportional to X by making the width proportional to X, and
holding the thickness constant.
That is,

b(X)=K2X (t=constant) Equation 6

and,

6 PX 6P 6P
σ (X ) = 2
= 2
= constant; similarly, ε ( X ) = = constant Equation 7
K 2 Xt K 2t EK 2 t 2
The beam now has the following appearance:

The beam shown above is not practicable because there is negligible material directly under the
load to support the vertical shear force. This condition can be remedied, while retaining the
constant-stress character of the beam over most of its length, by the following design:

Note that the sides of the beam in the constant-stress section must still converge toward the point
of load application to satisfy Eq. (7) over this region.
The primary purpose of this experiment is to verify the relationship among the bending-moment,
section-modulus, and stress (or strain) distributions along the length of a cantilever beam. A
second purpose of the experiment is to demonstrate the practical application of this relationship
to the design of "efficient" beams. From the viewpoint of material utilization, the beam design is
ordinarily optimum when the greatest practicable volume of material in the beam is subjected
uniformly to the maximum design stress. For a beam with a rectangular cross-section, this leads
to the concept of the constant-stress beam in which the surface stress is everywhere uniform.
While the constant-stress beams described in this experiment are all cantilever beams, it should

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Experiments in Mechanics
Strain Gage Series

be noted that the same general principles apply to the design of any beam under any mode of
plane loading, since the bending-moment/section-modulus/stress relationship applies to all
beams.

II. EQUIPMENT AND SUPPLIES

• Flexor, cantilever flexure frame
• High-strength aluminum alloy beam, two-stage constant-stress configuration
• Micro-Measurements temperature-compensated strain gages (4)
• Model P-3500 Portable Strain Indicator
• Student Strain Gage Applications Kit, containing gage bonding supplies, hook-up wire, etc.
• Micrometer or vernier caliper
• Drafting or machinists scale

III. PROCEDURE
A. GENERAL
A two-stage constant-stress cantilever beam, as shown in the strain gage installation diagram
below, is used in this experiment. The beam is proportioned according to Eq. (6) so that the
stress in each zone should be constant, but with the stress in zone A twice that in zone B. Note
that the projections of the beam sides for both zones intersect at the point of load application.

To verify the uniformity of strain distribution in each zone, a minimum of two strain indications
at different points along the beam axis in each zone will be needed. Any arbitrary beam loading
or deflection, within the capability of the Flexor, can be used to test the uniformity of strain, as
long as the strain levels are great enough to permit accurate measurement. The measured strains
can also be used to calculate the load on the beam, utilizing Eq. (7) with the section modulus
appropriately expressed in terms of Eq. (6). Measuring the beam width at any distance X from
the point of load application, K2 can be determined from Eq. (6). Substituting K2, the measured
thickness, and the observed strain into Eq. (7), along with the elastic modulus of the beam
material, permits solving for the load, P.

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Experiments in Mechanics
Strain Gage Series

B. STRAIN GAGE SELECTION AND INSTALLATION

Micro-Measurements foil strain gages are intrinsically temperature-compensated for use on a
material with a particular thermal coefficient of expansion. Because of this, the four strain gages
employed in this experiment can be used individually in a "quarter-bridge arrangement",
completing the bridge circuit each time with the 120-ohm precision resistor built into the Model
P-3500 Strain Indicator. For quarter-bridge operation a "three-wire" circuit is ordinarily used for
each gage in order to obtain leadwire compensation by placing equal lengths of leadwire in
adjacent arms of the bridge circuit (see Model P-3500 or Flexor Instruction Manual). It is often
convenient in minimizing the lead and connection requirements to combine the leads from one
side of each gage into a common lead. When three-wire circuitry is used, this becomes a pair of
leads which is common to one side of every gage in the system (see Wiring Diagram for this
experiment).
A strain gage indicates the average strain under the grid area when placed in a non-uniform strain
field. In this case, the strain field is expected to be uniform, or nearly so, and the strain indicated
by each gage is equal to the strain at the gage centerline. This being true, the gage length of the
strain gages is not critical, and gages with patterns such as 250BG or 125AD (both, 120 ohms,
and temperature-compensated for aluminum) can be used.
Following the gage installation instructions included with the Applications Kit, lay out the
desired locations of the four gages along the beam axis as shown in the gage installation
diagram. Bond the gages in place, following the instruction precisely. Allow the adhesive to cure
for the recommended time, then carefully solder leadwires to the gages as indicated by the
Wiring Diagram. After solder connections are complete, remove the flux, and apply a protective
coating over all gage installations.

C. ACQUISITION OF DATA
Back the calibrated loading screw out of the way, and insert the beam into the Flexor with the
gages on the upper surface as shown in the Wiring Diagram. Center the free end of the beam
between the sides of the Flexor, and firmly clamp the beam in place with the knurled clamping
screw. Connect the leadwires from the strain gages to the binding posts of the Flexor according
to the Wiring Diagram.
The gages will be connected to the strain indicator one at a time, with the beam undeflected, and
again with the beam deflected, to obtain two sets of readings for determining the strains. Connect
the strain gage leads from the beam to the binding posts of the Flexor as shown in the Wiring
Diagram. With the loading screw clear of the beam, connect one of the two common leads (from
the Flexor) to the S-binding post of the strain indicator and the other common lead to the
appropriate D post (D120 for 120-ohm gages or D350 for 350-ohm gages). Connect the
independent lead from Gage 1 to the P+ binding post of the strain indicator.
After balancing the indicator amplifier, set the gage factor adjustment to the value given on the
strain gage package data sheet (or on the beam, if supplied pre-gaged). Set the instrument to
RUN. With the Flexor loading screw still clear of the beam, adjust the balance control of the P-
3500 until the LCD digital readout indicates precisely 0. The zero-beam-deflection reading of
Gage 1 should be recorded on the worksheet as 0µε. Do not adjust the balance control again
during the experiment.

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Experiments in Mechanics
Strain Gage Series

Turn the strain indicator off, and disconnect the Flexor cable lead for Gage 1 from the P+
binding post of the strain indicator. Connect the independent lead from Gage 2 to the P+ binding
post. Turn the strain indicator on (RUN) and, without making any adjustments, record the
indicator reading as the zero-beam-deflection reading for Gage 2. Repeat this procedure for
Gages 3 and 4, recording the zero-deflection readings in the appropriate space on the work sheet
for each gage. Leave Gage 4 connected to the strain indicator after recording the reading.
Now add 1000µε to the indicator reading for Gage4. Deflect the beam, by rotating the loading
screw clockwise, until the indicator readout registers the number equal to this sum. The indicated
strain at the Gage 4 location is now l000µε and the reading from the indicator display should be
noted on the work sheet.
Turn off the strain indicator, disconnect the independent Gage 4 lead from the P+ binding post,
and successively reconnect the independent leads from Gages 3, 2, and 1 to the instrument. Turn
the indicator on again after each reconnection and record the number registered by the indicator
readout. These numbers are the required second readings for the deflected beam. Leave Gage 1
connected to the instrument.
As a check on the stability of the system, back the Flexor loading screw away until it clears the
beam. The strain indicator readout should now read very close to zero if the system is operating
normally. If the number is more than 10µε or so from zero, the source of the error should be
located, and the experiment performed again.
Pre-gaged beams supplied by the Measurements Group have been tested for gage stability at the
time of manufacture, and should perform in a highly repeatable manner unless one or more of the
gages has been damaged. If the zero-beam deflection readings of the strain indicator fail to repeat
well, the balance control may have been inadvertently moved after its initial adjustment, or the
binding post connections may not have been snug enough to avoid small contact resistance
changes between connection and reconnection. Binding post connections should be snug enough
to allow a "wiggle test" of the leadwires without a zero balance shift.
Note: The connection, disconnection, and reconnection of the leadwires can be made manually
as described in the foregoing procedure, or more conveniently, accurately, and rapidly with a
switch-and-balance unit such as the Model SB-10 (see Appendix).

IV. ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION OF DATA

A. STRAINS IN ZONE (A)
Refer to the Work Sheet. Subtract the initial (zero deflection) strain indications from the final
indications for Gages 1 and 2, and record the results in the table on the Work Sheet. Within the
limits of experimental error, the resulting strains should be the same if this zone of the beam is,
in fact, characterized by constant stress. The average of these two strains is the best estimate of
the strain in zone A.

B. STRAINS IN ZONE (B)

Subtract the initial (zero deflection) strain indications from the final indications for Gages 3 and
4, and record the results in the table on the Work Sheet. Again, the two strains should be very

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Experiments in Mechanics
Strain Gage Series

nearly equal because of the constant-stress beam shape in this region. Average these values as
the best estimate of the strain in zone B.

C. COMPARISON OF STRAIN LEVELS AND SECTION MODULI

Compare the averages obtained in the two preceding steps by calculating the ratio of the strain in
zone A to that in zone B: ie., εA/εB . Measure the beam width at the centerlines of Gages 1 and 3,
and the corresponding distances from the point of load application. Substitute these pairs of
measurements successively into Eq. (7) to calculate K2A and K2B. Compare K2B/K2A to εA/εB

D. CALCULATION OF LOAD
With Eq. (8), assuming the modulus of elasticity of the beam material is 10.4 x 106 psi (7.17 x
1010N/m2), calculate the beam load, first with K2A and εA, then with K2B and εB, and compare the
results.

V. REPORT
Prepare a brief but technically complete report, describing in your own words the purpose of this
experiment, the equipment and setup used, the procedure followed, and the results obtained.
Include the Work Sheet and all original data and computations in your report. Itemize the sources
of error in this experiment, and discuss their relative effects on your results. Analyze, for
example, the error due to locating the point of load application at other than the intersection of
the beam side projections.
Design a constant-stress cantilever beam in which both the thickness and width vary
continuously along the length. In other words, select pairs of simple compatible functions for
b(X) and t(X) so that Z(X) = KX.

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Experiments in Mechanics
Strain Gage Series

APPENDIX

WIRING DIAGRAM

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Experiments in Mechanics
Strain Gage Series

WORKSHEET
STRAIN MEASUREMENTS:
Section “A” Section “B”
ε1 ε2 ε3 ε4
Initial (Zero Deflection) 0µε
Final (Maximum Deflection)
Final Minus Initial 1,000µε

AVERAGE STRAINS:

εA =
ε1 + ε 2
=
( )+ ( ) = ____________µε
2 2

εB =
ε3 + ε4
=
( )+ ( ) = ____________µε
2 2
COMPARISON OF STRAIN

Strain Ratio:
εA
=
( ) = __________
εB ( )
Beam Dimensions:
Widths: b1 = ______________ in (m); b3 = __________ in (m)
Distances: X1 = _________ in (m); X3 = __________ in (m)

Z B K 2 B t 2 / 6 K 2 B b3 X 3
Section-Modulus Ratio: = = =
Z A K 2 A t 2 / 6 K 2 A b1 X 1

Z B b3 X 3
= =
( )( ) = ____________
Z A b1 X 1 ( )( )

COMPUTATION OF LOAD:

P=
ε A K 2 A Et 2
=
( )x10 −6 ( )( )( )2 = __________lbf (N)
6 6

P=
ε B K 2 B Et 2
=
( )x10 −6 ( )( )( )2 = __________lbf (N)
6 6

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Experiments in Mechanics
Strain Gage Series

USE OF THE MODEL SB-10 SWITCH-AND-BALANCE UNIT

WITH MULTIPLE STRAIN GAGES AND STRAIN GAGE ROSETTES
When an experiment or test involves more than one strain gage or gage element, the procedures
given in Experiments in Mechanics - Strain Gage Series, require sequential connection,
disconnection, and reconnection of the gages to the strain indicator. If this is done manually at
the indicator, without using a switch-and-balance unit, it is necessary to rebalance the strain
indicator with the balance control after each gage connection.
The Model SB-10 Switch-and-Balance Unit greatly simplifies this procedure by incorporating:
1. Independent channel terminals for pre-connecting up to ten strain gage units.
2. Internal balance circuitry, with ten-turn balance controls for each channel.
3. High-repeatability switch for conveniently and rapidly connecting the individual channels to
the strain indicator.
The five input push-clamp binding posts of the SB-10 Switch-and-Balance Unit bear the same
identification as the corresponding binding posts on the Models 3800 and P-3500 Strain
Indicators. Therefore, the Flexor leadwires to the SB-10 input binding posts are connected just as
they would be to the strain indicator binding posts.
When connecting Flexor leadwires to more than one channel of the SB-10, the "S-" and "D"
input binding posts for each active channel must be made electrically common to accommodate
the wiring scheme internal to the Flexor. Refer to the wiring diagram shown below.

Further information on electrical connections to the switch-and-balance unit are given in the Model SB-10 Instruction Manual.

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