Reinforced Concrete

Working Stress Design Method

(WSD)
Allowable Stress Design Method (ASD)
Using
Flexural Formula
(Transformed Area Method)
Flexural Analysis of Beams

In this section, it is assumed that a small transverse load is placed

on a concrete beam with tensile reinforcing and that the load is
gradually increased in magnitude until the beam fails. As this
takes place, the beam will go through three distinct stages before
collapse occurs. These are:
• The uncracked concrete stage,
• The concrete cracked–elastic stresses stage, and
• The ultimate-strength stage.
A relatively long beam is considered for this discussion so that
shear will not have a large effect on its behavior.
Symbols and Notation
• As: is the area of reinforcement near the tension face of the beam, tension
reinforcement, mm2.
• As’: is the area of reinforcement on the compression side of the beam,
compression reinforcement, mm2.
• b: is a general symbol for the width of the compression zone in a beam, in.
This is illustrated in figure below for positive and negative moment
regions. For flanged sections this symbol will normally be replaced with be
or bw , mm.
• be : is the effective width of a compression zone for a flanged section with
compression in the flange, mm.
• bw : is the width of the web of the beam (and may or may not be the same
as b), mm.
• d : is the distance from the extreme fiber in compression to the centroid of
the longitudinal reinforcement on the tension side of the member, mm. In
the positive-moment region, the tension steel is near the bottom of the
beam, while in the negative-moment region it is near the top.
• d’ : is the distance from the extreme compression fiber to the centroid of
the longitudinal compression steel, mm.
• dt : is the distance from the extreme compression fiber to the farthest layer
of tension steel, mm. For a single layer of tension reinforcement, dt = d.
• f’c : is the specified compressive strength of the concrete, MPa.
• fc : is the stress in the concrete, MPa.
• fs : is the stress in the tension reinforcement, MPa.
• fy : is the specified yield strength of the reinforcement, MPa.
• h : is the overall height of a beam cross section, mm.
• jd : is the lever arm, the distance between the resultant compressive force
and the resultant tensile force, mm.
• j : is a dimensionless ratio used to define the lever arm, jd. It varies
depending on the moment acting on the beam section.
•  cu : is the assumed maximum useable compression strain in the concrete.
•  s : is the strain in the tension reinforcement.
•  t : is the strain in the extreme layer of tension reinforcement.
•  : is the longitudinal tension reinforcement ratio,  = As/bd.
Uncracked Concrete Stage

At small loads when the tensile stresses are less than the modulus of
rupture (the bending tensile stress at which the concrete begins to
crack), the entire cross section of the beam resists bending, with
compression on one side and tension on the other.

The bending moment is a load

effect calculated from the
loads by using the laws of
statics. For a simply
supported beam of a given
span and for a given set of
loads (w and P), the moments
are independent of the
composition and size of the
beam.
At any section within the beam, the internal resisting moment, M, is necessary
to equilibrate the bending moment. An internal resisting shear, V, also is
required,

The internal resisting moment, M, results from an internal compressive force,

C, and an internal tensile force, T, separated by a lever arm, jd. Because there
are no external axial loads, summation of the horizontal forces gives:

If moments are summed about an axis through the point of application of the
compressive force, C, the moment equilibrium of the free body gives:

Similarly, if moments are summed about the point of application of the tensile
force, T,
The conventional elastic beam theory equation ( = My/I) can be used to
estimate stress or resisting moment in an uncracked reinforced concrete
beam,

The resultant compressive force C, which is equal to the volume of the

compressive stress block

In a similar manner, one could compute

the force T from the tensile stress block.
In the elastic case, these forces act at h/3 above or below the neutral axis,
so that jd = 2h/3
Cracking Moment

The area of reinforcing as a percentage of the total cross-sectional area of a

beam is quite small (usually 2% or less), and its effect on the beam properties
is almost negligible as long as the beam is uncracked. Therefore, an
approximate calculation of the bending stresses in such a beam can be obtained
based on the gross properties of the beam’s cross section.
Section 9.5.2.3 of the ACI Code states that the cracking moment of a section
may be determined with ACI Equation 9-9, in which fr is the modulus of
rupture of the concrete, Ig is the gross moment of inertia of the cross section
and yt is the distance from the centroidal axis of the section to its extreme fiber
in tension.

MPa, (f ‘c in Mpa)
Example:
a) Assuming the concrete is uncracked, compute the bending stresses in the
extreme fibers of the beam shown below for a bending moment of
34kN.m. The normal-weight concrete has an f’c of 28MPa.
b) Determine the cracking moment of the section.

Solution:
a) Bending stresses:
𝑏ℎ3 300 × 4503
𝐼𝑔 = = = 2278125000𝑚𝑚4
12 12
𝑀𝑦 34 × 106 × 225
𝜎= = = 3.4𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝐼 2278125000

b) Cracking moment:
𝑓𝑟 = 0.7𝜆 𝑓′𝑐 = 0.7 1.0 28 = 3.7𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝑓𝑟 𝐼𝑔 3.7 × 2278125000
𝑀𝑐𝑟 = = × 10−6 = 37.5𝑘𝑁. 𝑚
𝑦𝑡 225
Example:
a. If the T-beam shown is uncracked, calculate the stress in the concrete at
the top and bottom extreme fibers under a positive bending moment of
108 kN.m.
b. If f’c = 21MPa and normal-weight concrete is used, what is the maximum
uniformly distributed load the beam can carry if it is used as a simple
beam with 7.0m span without exceeding the modulus of rupture of the
concrete?
c. Repeat part (b) if the beam is inverted.
Solution:
a. Bending stresses:
Locate the neutral axis with respect to the top of the section:

[ 1500 × 125 + (305 × 685)]ത𝑦=

125 685
(1500 × 125) × + (305 × 685) × (125 + )
2 2
𝑦ത = 276𝑚𝑚

𝐼𝑔
𝑏ℎ3 1500 × 125 3
=෍ + 𝐴𝑑 2 = ቆ + 1500 × 125
12 12
125 2 305 × 6853 685
× (276 − ) ቇ+ + 305 × 685 × ( − (276 − 125))2
2 12 2
= 24.623 × 109 𝑚𝑚4
𝑀𝑦𝑇𝑜𝑝 108 × 106 × 276
𝜎𝑇𝑜𝑝 = = = 1.21𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝐼 24.623 × 109

𝑀𝑦𝐵𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 108 × 106 × (810 − 276)

𝜎𝐵𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 = = = 2.34𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝐼 24.623 × 109
b) Maximum uniformly distributed load:

𝑓𝑟 = 0.7𝜆 𝑓′𝑐 = 0.7 1.0 21 = 3.2𝑀𝑃𝑎

𝑓𝑟 𝐼𝑔 3.2 × 24.623 × 109
𝑀𝑐𝑟 = = × 10−6 = 147.6𝑘𝑁. 𝑚
𝑦𝑡 810 − 276
For uniformly distributed load:
𝑤𝑙2 8𝑀 8×147.6
𝑀= 𝑤= = = 24𝑘𝑁/𝑚
8 𝑙2 72

c) Maximum uniformly distributed load (inverted section):

𝑓𝑟 𝐼𝑔 3.2 × 24.623 × 109

𝑀𝑐𝑟 = = × 10−6 = 285𝑘𝑁. 𝑚
𝑦𝑡 276
For uniformly distributed load:
𝑤𝑙 2 8𝑀 8×285
𝑀= 𝑤= = = 46.5𝑘𝑁/𝑚
8 𝑙2 72
Concrete cracked–elastic stresses stage
When the bending moment is sufficiently large to cause the tensile stress in the
extreme fibers to be greater than the modulus of rupture, it is assumed that all
of the concrete on the tensile side of the beam is cracked and must be
neglected in the flexure calculations.
The cracking moment of a beam is normally quite small compared to the
service load moment. Thus, when the service loads are applied, the bottom of
the beam cracks. The cracking of the beam does not necessarily mean that the
beam is going to fail. The reinforcing bars on the tensile side begin to pick up
the tension caused by the applied moment.
On the tensile side of the beam, an assumption of perfect bond is made
between the reinforcing bars and the concrete. Thus, the strain in the concrete
and in the steel will be equal at equal distances from the neutral axis. If the
strains in the two materials at a particular point are the same, however, their
stresses cannot be the same since they have different moduli of elasticity. Thus,
their stresses are in proportion to the ratio of their moduli of elasticity. The
ratio of the steel modulus to the concrete modulus is called the modular ratio
(n).
 𝐸𝑠
𝑛=
𝐸𝑐
Where
Es = Steel modulus of elasticity
Ec= concrete modulus of elasticity
If the modular ratio for a particular beam is 10, the stress in the steel will be 10
times the stress in the concrete at the same distance from the neutral axis.
Another way of saying this is that when n = 10, 1.0 mm2 of steel will carry the
same total force as 10 mm2 of concrete.
For the beam of shown below, the steel bars are replaced with an equivalent area
of fictitious concrete (nAs), which supposedly can resist tension. This area is
referred to as the transformed area. The resulting revised cross section or
transformed section is handled by the usual methods for elastic homogeneous
beams.
Procedure for analysis
• The first step to be taken in each of these problems is to locate the neutral
axis, which is assumed to be located a distance x from the compression
surface of the beam. The first moment of the compression area of the beam
cross section about the neutral axis must equal the first moment of the
tensile area about the neutral axis. The resulting quadratic equation can be
solved by completing the squares or by using the quadratic formula.
• After the neutral axis is located, the moment of inertia of the transformed
section is calculated, and
• the stresses in the concrete and the steel are computed with the flexure
formula.
𝑀𝑦
𝑓𝑐 =
𝐼
𝑀𝑦
𝑓𝑠 = 𝑛
𝐼
Example:
a. Calculate the bending stresses in the beam shown below by using the
transformed area method, f’c= 21 MPa, n = 9, and M = 95 kN.m.
b. Determine the allowable resisting moment of the beam if the allowable
stresses are fc = 9 MPa and fs = 138 MPa.

Solution:
a. Bending stresses
Finding neutral axis depth of cracked section
𝑥
305 × 𝑥 × = 9 × 3 × 645 × 430 − 𝑥
2
2
152.5𝑥 + 17415𝑥 − 7488450 = 0
−17415 ± 174152 + 4 × 152.5 × 7488450
𝑥=
2 × 152.5
𝑥 = 172𝑚𝑚
 305 × 1723
𝐼= + 9 × 3 × 645 × (430 − 172)2 = 1.677 × 109 𝑚𝑚4
3

𝑀𝑦 95 × 106 × 172
𝑓𝑐 = = 9
= 9.7𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝐼 1.677 × 10

𝑀𝑦 95 × 106 × 258
𝑓𝑠 = 𝑛 =9× = 131.5𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝐼 1.677 × 109

b. Allowable resisting moment:

𝑓𝑐 𝐼 9 × 1.677 × 109
𝑀𝑐 = = × 10−6 = 87.75𝑘𝑁. 𝑚
𝑦 172
𝑓𝑠 𝐼 138 × 1.677 × 109
𝑀𝑠 = = × 10−6 = 99.67𝑘𝑁. 𝑚
𝑛𝑦 9 × 258
 Example:
Calculate the bending stresses in the concrete and the reinforcing steel, using
the transformed area method: f’c= 21MPa, normal-weight concrete, n = 9, M =
340kN.m.

Solution:
Assume the neutral axis is in the web
125 𝑥
1525 − 305 × 125 × 𝑥 − + 305 × 𝑥 ×
2 2
= 9 × 6 × 510 × (710 − 𝑥)
𝑥 = 144𝑚𝑚
 (1525−305)1253 125 2 305×1443
𝐼𝑐𝑟 = + 1525 − 305 × 125 × (144 − ) + +
12 2 3
2 9 4
9 × 6 × 510 × (710 − 144) = 10.338 × 10 𝑚𝑚

𝑀𝑦 340 × 106 × 144

𝑓𝑐 = = = 4.7𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝐼𝑐𝑟 10.338 × 109

𝑀𝑦 340 × 106 × 566

𝑓𝑠 = 𝑛 =9× 9
= 167.5𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝐼𝑐𝑟 10.338 × 10
Example:
Compute the bending stresses in the beam shown below using the transformed
area method; n = 10 and M = 160kN.m.

Solution:
Locating Neutral Axis
𝑥
355 × 𝑥 × + 2 × 10 − 1 × 2 × 645 × 𝑥 − 65
2
= 10 × 4 × 645 × 445 − 𝑥
𝑥 = 164𝑚𝑚
 355×1643
𝐼𝑐𝑟 = + (20 − 1) × 2 × 645 × (164 − 65)2 + 10 × 4 × 645 ×
3
(445 − 164)2 = 2.799 × 109 𝑚𝑚4

𝑀𝑦 160 × 106 × 164

𝑓𝑐 = = = 9.4𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝐼𝑐𝑟 2.799 × 109

𝑀𝑦 160 × 106 × 99
𝑓𝑠′ = 2𝑛 = 20 × 9
= 113.2𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝐼𝑐𝑟 2.799 × 10

𝑀𝑦 160 × 106 × 281

𝑓𝑠 = 𝑛 = 10 × = 160.6𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝐼𝑐𝑟 2.799 × 109
Should the compression side of a beam be reinforced, the long-term stresses in
that reinforcing will be greatly affected by the creep in the concrete. As time
goes by, the compression concrete will compact more tightly, leaving the
reinforcing bars (which themselves have negligible creep) to carry more and
more of the load.
As a consequence of this creep in the concrete, the stresses in the compression
bars computed by the transformed-area method are assumed to double as time
goes by.
The transformed area of the compression side equals the gross compression
area of the concrete plus 2nA’s minus the area of the holes in the concrete (1A’s
), which theoretically should not have been included in the concrete part. This
equals the compression concrete area plus (2n − 1)A’s . Similarly, 2n − 1 is
used in the moment of inertia calculations. The stresses in the compression
bars are determined by multiplying 2n times the stresses in the concrete
located at the same distance from the neutral axis.
Questions?