S ___________________________________

l
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i
d ___________________________________
e Company Logo

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1 ___________________________________
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___________________________________

FOR 3rd YEAR STUDENTS

Department of English
College of Foreign Languages
University of Da Nang

S ___________________________________
Unit 1 WHAT IS CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS
l ___________________________________
CA is:
i ___________________________________
- an inductive investigative approach based on
d distinctive elements in a language ___________________________________
e - involves comparison of two (or more) languages ___________________________________
or subsystems of languages (Cross-linguistic CA) ___________________________________
- to determine both the differences and similarities
2 ___________________________________
between them
- It could also be done within one language (Intra-
linguistic CA)

S ___________________________________
l
Intra-lingual: ___________________________________
- Analysis of contrastive phonemes, e.g. /p/ & /b/
i ___________________________________
- Feature analysis of morphosyntactic categories
d E.g. forms of verbals as Subject, Objects, Comple. ___________________________________
e - Analysis of morphemes having grammatical ___________________________________
meaning, e.g. morphems marking number, tense …
___________________________________
- Analysis of word order, e.g. OSV, SVO …
3 -Componential analysis of lexemes, e.g. ___________________________________
salary [+paid monthly] [+usu by cheque]
wage [+paid weekly] [+in cash] [+usu for manual or clerical work]
-Analysis of lexical relations
E.g. synonymy, antonymy, hyponymy
S ___________________________________
l Cross-linguistic CA ___________________________________
- Comparative analysis of contrastive phonemes
i ___________________________________
E.g. /p/ in English vs. Vietnamese
d - Comparative analysis of morphosyntactic systems ___________________________________
e E.g. Adjectives in English vs. Vietnamese ___________________________________
- Comparative analysis of lexical semantics ___________________________________
4 E.g. causative verbs in English vs. Vietnamese ___________________________________
- Analysis of translational equivalence
- Study of interference in foreign language learning
E.g. How OSV order in Vietnamese may influence
transfers into English

S ___________________________________
Pedagogic view:
l Structuralism: ___________________________________
i - a finite structure of a given language that can be ___________________________________
d documented & compared with another language ___________________________________
- structural linguists set about to identify the patterns
e of language ___________________________________
- structural linguistic patterns: the set of habits that ___________________________________
characterized a given language
5 ___________________________________
behaviourist theories:
- language learning: habit formation & reinforced or
impeded by existing habits
+ Errors: as result of interference in transfer L1 to L2
+ Habits of MT differed from those of TL
+ Structure of TL differs from that of MT

S ___________________________________
l Lado (1957): major objectives of CA are: ___________________________________
1. Providing insights into similarities and
i differences between languages;
___________________________________
d 2. Explaining and predicting problems in ___________________________________
e second language learning; and ___________________________________
3. Developing course material for language
___________________________________
teaching
6 ___________________________________
S ___________________________________
l Theoretical CA & Applied CA ___________________________________
CA is theoretical
i ___________________________________
- the establishment of linguistic universals, and
d - increasing detailed knowledge of particular ___________________________________
e languages ___________________________________
- look for the realization of a universal category X ___________________________________
in both A and B (bilateral CA)
7 ___________________________________
- not investigate how a given category present in
language A is presented in language B
(unilateral)

S ___________________________________
Applied CA attempted to
l ___________________________________
• select information pertinent for the purpose
i (teaching, studies on bilingualism, translation, etc.) ___________________________________
d • unidirectional, investigating how a (universal) ___________________________________
e category realised in L1 in one way is rendered in L2 ___________________________________
• identifying potential areas of difficulty due to
interference. ___________________________________
8 • emphasizing value of pointing out similarities in ___________________________________
language teaching
• preventing learner from attempting to construct
forms which may ‘sound foreign’ (Fisiak 1981:3).

S ___________________________________
Unit 2 CA HYPOTHESIS & LANGUAGE TRANSFER
l I. CAH: ___________________________________
i The structure of L1 affects the acquisition of L2 (Lado, ___________________________________
1957; Fries 1945)
d Theoretical bases: ___________________________________
e - Structural linguistics: ___________________________________
detailed descriptions of particular languages from a
collection of utterances produced by native speakers (i.e. ___________________________________
corpus)
9 ___________________________________
- Behaviourist psychology:
Habit formation by means of ‘stimulus-response-
reinforcement’
New learning situations helped by means of the
transfer of the old habits
S ___________________________________
II. Language Transfer
l 1. Defining language transfer
___________________________________
i “the influence resulting from similarities and differences ___________________________________
between the target language any other language that has
d been previously (and perhaps imperfectly) acquired.” ___________________________________
Odlin’s (1989: 27)
e ___________________________________
2. Forms of Language Transfer
a) Positive Transfer (facilitation) ___________________________________
1 - similarity between L1 and L2, result in something ___________________________________
correct.
0 - assist the acquisition process.
b) Negative Transfer (interference)
- dissimilarity between L1 and L2, result in something
incorrect
- impede the acquisition process.

S ___________________________________
Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis (CAH)
l ___________________________________
Process:
i (1)Structure by structure comparison of language systems ___________________________________
d (2) yields similarities and differences that make it possible to ___________________________________
(3) predict easy and difficult areas for L2 learners.
e ___________________________________
Assumptions:
(1) Language is a habit ___________________________________
1 (2) L1 is the major source of error in SLA ___________________________________
(3) Errors can be explained by the differences between L1 &L2
1 (4) The more L1 and L2 differ, the greater the chance for errors
(5) Learners must concentrate on differences between L1 & L2
(6) Ease or difficulty in Learning correlate to the amount of
differences or similarities between L1 and L2

S ___________________________________
Three Different Versions of CAH
l ___________________________________
i Strong version:
___________________________________
Weak version: Moderate version:
d ability to predict ability to expain ___________________________________
categorization of
difficulty through CA observable error abstract & concrete
e 1. Obstacle to TL 1. use "the best patterns according ___________________________________
learning: interference linguistic knowledge
of the learner's MT to simi. & diff.
available” to explain
: basis of learning ___________________________________
2. Differences of L1&L2 observable difficulties
trigger chance of error 1. Minimal distinction
1 2. Error: systematic &
of patterns in form &
___________________________________
3. Systematic CA helps consistent & countable
predict the difficulties meaning in systems
2 Error analysis
may results in
4. Result of CA: reliable
source in preparation confusion
of teaching materials, 2. Difficulty may not
planning of course, be due to difference
improvement of 3. Items similar to
classroom techniques existing items may
cause difficulty
S ___________________________________
UNIT 3 TERTIUM COMPARATIONIS & PROCEDURES OF CA
l Tertium comparationis: ___________________________________
i - a common platform of reference enabling the ___________________________________
process of contrastive analysis
d ___________________________________
- “third term of a comparison”
e C ___________________________________
___________________________________
1 ___________________________________
A ≡ B
3 - remains invariant in translation or in CA which
forms the basis for the comparison
Equivalence:
a contrastive relation referring to the relative
sameness in meaning

S E.g. Objects can be compared via different ___________________________________

l features -> similar in some respects but ___________________________________
different in others
i – A square & a rectangle: ___________________________________
d Same number of angles; ___________________________________
Different side lengths
e – Box A & Box B: Volume (A > B); Weight (B < A) ___________________________________
Joseph Vendryes: ___________________________________
under the variety, languages share common attributes ->
1 Foundation for general linguistics ___________________________________
James (1980):
4
Translation equivalence best TC for CA
Translation equivalence = semantic equivalence +
pragmatic equivalence (contextual equivalence)
Formal equivalence is incomplete for CA

S ___________________________________
TC at different levels of linguistics:
l ___________________________________
• Phonetics & phonology:
i Position/Manner articulation; Suprasegmental units; ___________________________________
distinctive features
d ___________________________________
E.g. /p/ & /b/ in English vs. Vietnamese
e • Lexis: ___________________________________
mental images in the surrounding world ___________________________________
E.g. words naming colours in English vs. Vietnamese
1 • Grammar: ___________________________________
5 corresponding structures & Meaning
E.g. Existential sentence in English vs. Vietnamese
• Pragmatics:
Language functions
E.g. act of greeting in English vs. Vietnamese
S ___________________________________
III. Types of TC
l ___________________________________
2-texts [+/-trans]: data as corpus for CA
i ___________________________________
1) Statistical equivalence (for quantitative CSs)
d - translational version of structures in L1 & L2 with a ___________________________________
e highest frequency ___________________________________
- semantic/pragmatic equivalent with almost the same
frequency ___________________________________
1 2) Translational equivalence: ___________________________________
6 - 2-texts [+trans]: data for qualitative CS
- 2-texts [-trans]: data for qualitative CS
3) System equivalence (for CS of systems):
- equiv. established on paradigmatic + syntagmatic axis
- examine members of system + their collocation

S ___________________________________
4) Semanto-syntactic equivalence (for CS of
l ___________________________________
construction):
i - on the similar basis of deep structure as semantic ___________________________________
d structure, as input for the grammatical derivation ___________________________________
e 5) Rule equivalence (for CS of rules): ___________________________________
- based on comparison of constructions on which these
rules operate ___________________________________
1 - interpreted in the view of Transformation-Generative ___________________________________
Grammar: Phrase Structure Rules, Transformational
7 Rules, e.g. input & output of Wh-question vs. Vmese equi
6) Equivalents in objects:
objects or entities outside language expressed by
vocabylary in L1 & L2, e.g. foods, festivals in English
culture vs. Vietnamese

S ___________________________________
7) Pragmatic equivalents (for CS of pragmatics,
l ___________________________________
stylistics or socio-linguistics):
i - relations between texts of two different languages which ___________________________________
d illicit from the language user the maximally similar ___________________________________
cognitive effects:
e + functions of a unit, construction, structure ___________________________________
+ how these linguistic devices behave in speech ___________________________________
acts in each speech community
1 ___________________________________
- formal equivalences are the least important
8 - comparative devices of languages: significant only if
they have a function that is comparable to each other
S ___________________________________
IV. Procedures of CA
l ___________________________________
4 Steps in Contrasting Two Language Systems
i ___________________________________
d Description Juxtaposition Comparison Prediction ___________________________________
e 1. Description: ___________________________________
• Selection & preliminary characterization of items under
comparison ___________________________________
1 • Conducted within the same framework of language- ___________________________________
independent theoretical model
9
• 2 approach for description of CA: bilateral/unilateral CA
+ Bilateral CA:
Describe L1 and L2 data independently
Use etalon language form which is model-neutral

S ___________________________________
Features of
l current relevance ___________________________________
Etalon Lang.
i completed ___________________________________
d ___________________________________
Speaker

anterior
on foot
female

arrival

e ___________________________________
___________________________________
Language CA
2 Sentence (E) ___________________________________
0 I + - + - + + -
have arrived
Sentence (R)
Ja + + + + - + +
prishla

S ___________________________________
l Unfavorable points of bilateral CA: ___________________________________
i
- No need for the description of L1 & L2 to be equally ___________________________________
exhaustive
d - Too much work is done for comparison ___________________________________
e - impossible without the balance in means or ways of ___________________________________
expressing categories of the linguistic units in L1 and L2 ___________________________________
E.g. Intonation: [+] in English but [-] in Vietnamese
2 a descriptive imbalance, in favour of the L2
___________________________________
1 more concerned with what the learner does with
the L2
S ___________________________________
l The unilateral CA can be done with 2 phases: ___________________________________
The first phase:
i ___________________________________
Establish the subsystem for CA in Language 1
d E.g. possessive category in Vietnamese “tình yêu của ___________________________________
e Lan” ___________________________________
The second phase:
___________________________________
List out the language means in Language 2
2 E.g. Vietnamese English ___________________________________
2 tình yêu của Lan the love of Lan
Lan’s love

S ___________________________________
l 2. Juxtaposition ___________________________________
- decides what is to be compared with what, like with like
i ___________________________________
- identification of cross/inter-linguistic/cultural equivalent
d - bilingual competence, enables one to make decisions ___________________________________
e about the equivalence of element X & element Y in L1 & ___________________________________
L2 respectively X &Y: comparable
___________________________________
E.g. Vietnamese English
2 Vì thế mà bát cháo hành This onion soup offered ___________________________________
3 của thị Nở làm hắn suy nghĩ by Thi No made
nhiều. him think much.
- formal considerations alone do not suffice in
establishing comparability or TC
E.g. Tôi thích thịt nguội I like the meat cold.

S ___________________________________
l 3. Comparison ___________________________________
i - compare ‘types’ rather than ‘tokens, i.e. not strings of ___________________________________
sounds/graphic substance but their structures
d E.g. ___________________________________
e Pronoun + 1st Person + Sing – Auxiliary – Past, Participle ___________________________________
___________________________________
I have arrived.
2 ___________________________________
Pronoun + 1st Person + Sing – Prefix+ Verb+ Perfective +
4 Past + Feminine

Ya prishla
CA compares abstract elements rather than their concrete
realizations
S ___________________________________
Three basic areas of comparisons:
l ___________________________________
i ___________________________________
CA of various CA of equivalent CA of equivalent
d equivalent constructions rules (subject ___________________________________
systems across (interrogative, raising, adjective
e ___________________________________
languages ( negative, nominal placement,
pronouns, phrase…); in interrogative ___________________________________
articles, verbs, phonology inversion,
2 and in phonology (sound clusters, passivization), in ___________________________________
consonants, syllables, phonology
5 vowels); diphthongs, & (assimilation,
subsystems distributions of dissimilation,
(nasals, laterals) sounds metathesis

S ___________________________________
Possible situations in each area of comparison:
l ___________________________________
(1) XLi = XLj
i when item X in Li may be identical in some respects with
___________________________________
d an equivalent item in Lj. ___________________________________
• Similarities of the two phenomena compared more
e ___________________________________
important
(2) XLi ≠ XLj ___________________________________
2 when item X in Li may be different in some respects with ___________________________________
an equivalent item in Lj.
6
• Differences are said to be more important
(3) XLi + - Lj
when item X may be present in Li but absent in Lj.
Xli has no equivalent in Ylj, e.g. Tone in Vietnamese

S ___________________________________
l 4. Prediction ___________________________________
From assumptions of differences of L1 & L2,
i hypotheses/predictions are made about learner’s transfer ___________________________________
d of habit of mother tongue into the use of target language: ___________________________________
• Interference is created in certain deviant structures
e ___________________________________
• CA power: prediction of errors
- from influence of mother tongue ___________________________________
2 - the effects of target-language asymmetries; ___________________________________
7 - transfer of training;
- strategies of L2 learning; and
- communication strategies
S ___________________________________
Pedagogical relevance of predictive capacity: to
l ___________________________________
predict a scale of incremental difficulty
i Three possible interlingual rule relationships based on ___________________________________
d positive and negative transfer potential: ___________________________________
• L1 has a rule and L2 an equivalent one.
e ___________________________________
• L1 has a rule but L2 has no equivalent.
• L2 has a rule but L1 has no equivalent. ___________________________________
2 Three types of choice in the Hierarchy of Difficulty: ___________________________________
8 The contrastivists identify the types of choices that
either language makes available, and relating
these choices

S ___________________________________
Hierarchy of Difficulty:
l 1. Optional choice: ___________________________________
i possible selection among phonemes, e.g. English ___________________________________
can have /p/ or /b/ word initially
d 2. Obligatory choice: ___________________________________
e the selection of conditioned allophones and the ___________________________________
limitations in distribution of phonemes:
- English word initial /p/ must be aspirated ___________________________________
- /s/ but not /z/ and before /m/ at the beginning of a word
2 /z/ ___________________________________
9 - distribution of /n/ or /N /
3. Zero choice:
existence of a certain sound in one language that
has no counterpart in another language, e.g.
Vietnamese has no counterpart for /5/ in English.

S ___________________________________
l UNIT 4 PHONOLOGICAL CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS
___________________________________
i Aim:
d ___________________________________
• to contrast the phonetic sets of both languages and
e
establish the differences ___________________________________
1 E.g. Vietnamese English ___________________________________
/p/ /p/ ___________________________________
___________________________________
[p] [p] [ ph ]
• to compare the rules for the alternation of sounds
in L1 & L2 (if any)
E.g. Devoicing rule: English [+] – Vietnamese [-]
[bi:] [bi:]
S ___________________________________
1. Procedures of CA
l 3 important checks ___________________________________
Gass and Selinker’s (1993, 1994)
i 1. Description of the two languages; 1. Does the L1 ___________________________________
2. Selection of certain areas or items have a
d phonetically similar ___________________________________
of L1 & L2 for detailed comparison;
phoneme?
e E.g. articulation features ___________________________________
3. Comparison, i.e. the identification 2. Are the variants
(all allophones) of ___________________________________
of areas of difference and similarity;
2 E.g. performance of English stops the phonemes ___________________________________
similar in both
4. Prediction, i.e. determining which
languages?
areas are likely to cause errors;
E.g. performance of aspiration 2. Are the
5. Testing the predictions phonemes & their
variants similarly
E.g. Test learner’s performance
distributed?

S ___________________________________
James (1980):
l ___________________________________
• draw up a phonemic inventory of L1 & L2;
i E.g. consonants in English & Vietnamese ___________________________________
d • equate phonemes interlingually; ___________________________________
E.g. English Vietnamese
e /p/ /p/ ___________________________________
/b/ /b/ ___________________________________
• list phonemic variants (allophones) for L1 & L2;
3 ___________________________________
E.g. English Vietnamese
/p/ /p/
• state distributional restrictions on the phonemes &
allophones of each language
E.g. English Vietnamese
/N/ /N/

S ___________________________________
4 steps in conducting a phonological CA
l STEP 1 AND 2: INVENTORISE THE PHONEMES OF L1 AND L2 ___________________________________
i Initial result of CA of English sound system and ___________________________________
Vietnamese sound system:
d ___________________________________
e Language English Vietnamese ___________________________________
System of phoneme
___________________________________
Vowels
20 33
4 ___________________________________
Semi-vowels 2 0

Consonants
24 25

Total of
44 58
phonemes
S ___________________________________
Equate phonemes interlingually
l ___________________________________
Vowels
i described in terms of articulatory parameters:
___________________________________
d  Tongue positions ___________________________________
e  Shapes of lips ___________________________________
 Mouth aperture
___________________________________
E.g. Front vowels in English & Vietnamese
5 i: i ___________________________________
I 
e ê
E e
a â
& 

S Front Central Back ___________________________________

l ___________________________________
i Close i: u: ___________________________________
I  High
d ___________________________________
e ___________________________________
Half close :
e : Mid ___________________________________
6  ___________________________________
Half open 
 Low

Open :
Cardinal Vowel Scale

S ___________________________________
The INTERNATIONAL PHONETIC ASSOCIATION
l ___________________________________
ư
i ___________________________________
d
u ___________________________________
i
e ô ___________________________________

ă ___________________________________
7 ê o ___________________________________
ơ
e

A
â
Cardinal Vowel Scale
S C. Classification of consonants in English vs. Vietnamese ___________________________________
l Place Bi- Den Labio Al- Re- Palato Palat- Velar Glot ___________________________________
labial t-al dental veolar troflex alveolar al -tal
i Manner
___________________________________
d Stop ___________________________________
– voice p p t tʰ ʈʂ∼ʈ c∼tɕ ɟ kk 
+ voice b b d d (tr) (ch) (d)  (c/k
e ___________________________________
Affricate
– voice Í ___________________________________
+ voice Ù
8 Fricative ___________________________________
– voice  f f(ph s s(x)  ʂ (s x hh
+ voice  v z z(gi  (kh)
Nasal mm nn ɲ(nh) ŋ N
(ng(h)
Lateral ll
Appro- ww r ʐ~ɹ jj (w)
ximant (u/o) (y/i)
(r)

S List phonemic variants (allophones) for L1 & L2 ___________________________________

l English Vietnamese ___________________________________
i /p/ /p/ phoneme ___________________________________
d ___________________________________
e p ph p allophone ___________________________________
spin pin pin ___________________________________
9 /b/ /b/ phoneme ___________________________________

b b b allophone
about be ba

S ___________________________________
State distributional restrictions on the phonemes
l & allophones of each language ___________________________________
i The distribution of English stops ___________________________________
d Stops /p/ /b/ /t/ /d/ /k/ // ___________________________________
Position
e initial pole bowl toll dole coal goal ___________________________________
middle lopping lobbing bitter bidder pocket beggar ___________________________________
final rip rib writ rid risk rig
1 ___________________________________
The distribution of Vietnamese stops
0
Stops /p/ /b/ /t/ /d/ /k/ //
Position
initial - bóng tắt đúng kẹo gắng
middle - - - - - -
final đập - tắt - tắc -
S Similarities & Differences of stops & their distribution ___________________________________
l in English vs. Vietnamese ___________________________________
i Stops English Vietnamese ___________________________________
d Position ___________________________________
e ♦ p, t, k, b, d, g ♦ p, t, k, b, d, g ___________________________________
initial ♦ only th
♦ ph, th, kh ___________________________________
(allophone) (phoneme)
1 ___________________________________
♦ p, t, k, b, d, g ♦ no occurence
1 middle
[-] release
♦ p, t, k, b, d, g ♦ only p, t, k
final ♦ [+] release ♦ [-] release
♦ [+] moved to ♦ [-] be moved to
become Onset become Onset

S ___________________________________
l HYPOTHESES ___________________________________
1. The Vietnamese students may fail to pronounce
i English stops correctly because they do not
___________________________________
d pay much attention to the manner of ___________________________________
articulation and the positions of English stops
e ___________________________________
in a word.
2. They may fail to pronounce English stops ___________________________________
1 correctly by transferring habits of pronouncing ___________________________________
Vietnamese stops in Vietnamese words.
2
3. They may fail to correctly pronounce vowels
followed by a voiced or voiceless English
stops.

S ___________________________________
TESTING THE HYPOTHESES
l DIAGNOSTIC TEST
___________________________________
i Performance of production ___________________________________
1/ Please say these pairs of words loudly
d ___________________________________
1. /b-p/
e pin - bin ___________________________________
pen - Ben ___________________________________
...
1 2/ Please say these sentences loudly ___________________________________
3 How much is that map? –Ninety- five pence.
Do you go to bed before ten?
…
3/ Choose a topic you like best and talk about it
Describe the house or the flat where you live.
S Testing the hypotheses ___________________________________
l DIAGNOSTIC TEST FOR SOUND PERCEPTION ___________________________________
Listen to the sentences on the cassette. For each
i one, underline the word you hear. ___________________________________
d / p-b/ ___________________________________
1. Have you got a pet / bet?
e 2. What does ‘tripe’ / ‘tribe’ mean? ___________________________________
… ___________________________________
/ t-d/
1 ___________________________________
1. There was something wrong with the trains / drains.
4 2. She tied / dyed the scarf
…
/ k-g/
1. One of the cards / guards is missing.
2. I could see her back / bag in the crowded train

S ___________________________________
Testing the hypotheses
l ___________________________________
DIAGNOSTIC TEST
i Performance of production ___________________________________
d 1/ Please say these pairs of words loudly ___________________________________
1. /b-p/
e pin - bin ___________________________________
pen - Ben ___________________________________
...
1 ___________________________________
2/ Please say these sentences loudly
5 How much is that map? –Ninety- five pence.
Do you go to bed before ten?
…
3/ Choose a topic you like best and talk about it
Describe the house or the flat where you live.

S ___________________________________
DISCUSSION OF THE RESULT OF TESTING
l ___________________________________
With the result of the diagnostic test of the learner’s
i performance of perception and production of ___________________________________
d English stops, the researcher can determine ___________________________________
whether the result (qualitative & quantitative
e evidence) significantly support or reject his/her ___________________________________
hypotheses ___________________________________
1 The discussion should focus itself on the qualitative ___________________________________
information (categories or types of errors made
6 by the learners) and the quantitative information
(the frequency of the occurrence of the learner
performance of the stops at various positions)
Please consult tables of result of the diagnostic
test *
S Conclusions: ___________________________________
l Perception: ___________________________________
- Vietnamese students failure to discriminate between
i ___________________________________
minimal pairs of sounds (/p/ - /b/ in every position, /t/ -
d /d/, /k/ -//) in final position ___________________________________
Production:
e ___________________________________
Students tend to make common errors when
pronouncing English stops: ___________________________________
♦ At word level, most learners mispronounce the
1 phonetic variants of /p/ and /b without aspiration at ___________________________________
7 initial position
♦ Failure in releasing English stops
♦ Tendency of deleting the stops in the final position
♦ Tendency of inserting schwa // after /p, b, d, k, /
followed by /l, r/
♦ Failure of differentiating vowel length ended with stops

S ___________________________________
UNIT 5: GRAMMATICAL CA
l ___________________________________
Grammatical CA is often carried out within the
i domain of units, grammatical classes, grammatical ___________________________________
d structures, relations, grammatical categories and ___________________________________
linguistic means to express these categories
e Halliday (1961): ___________________________________
4 fundamental categories: unit; structure, class, ___________________________________
1 and systems ___________________________________
These 4 categories: universal & sufficient as basis
8
for description of languages

S ___________________________________
UNIT:
l The units of grammar for description of English and any ___________________________________
i ‘related’ language: ___________________________________
Sentence – clause – phrase – word – morpheme
d ___________________________________
Each of these units functions as a direct constituent of the
e next higher unit ___________________________________
S ___________________________________
S Cl. Ph. W M
1 Cl ___________________________________
ona docˇitala etu 1 1 2 4 10
9
RANK SCALE

knigu
Ph
She has finished 1 1 2 6 8
W reading this book

M
S ___________________________________
l • The two sentences are unit-identical (isomorphic) ___________________________________
down to the rank of phrase: now they begin to
i diverge, the Russian sentence employing four ___________________________________
d words, the English six. This imbalance is reversed ___________________________________
when the morphemes are counted for each
e sentence, as follows. ___________________________________
• (Russian): on/a docˇi/ta/l/a/e/tu/ knig/u ___________________________________
= 10
2 • (English): She/has/finish/ed/read/ing/this/book ___________________________________
0 = 8

S ___________________________________
STRUCTURE:
l Halliday: ___________________________________
i “A structure is thus an arrangement of elements ordered in ___________________________________
‘places’”
d The ‘element’ making up the structure of the unit clause in
___________________________________
e English are the Subject, Predicator, Complement and ___________________________________
Adjunct
___________________________________
S-S P-P C-C A-A
2 Structural The cat caught a mouse last night ___________________________________
element
1 Con mèo bắt 1 con chuột tối qua
D-D E-H H-E Q-Q
Structural the green shed outside
element
cái láng xanh ở ngoài
* Q: Determiner, E: Epithet, H: Headnoun & Q: Qualifier

S ___________________________________
CLASS:
l Each class of unit phrase can fulfill a grammatical function ___________________________________
i in a structural slot in the clause ___________________________________
E.g. Unit phrases in English, Vietnamese and Russian
d ___________________________________
NP VP NP AdvP
e Structural The cat ___________________________________
caught a mouse last night
element ___________________________________
Con mèo bắt 1 con chuột tối qua
2 ___________________________________
Prepositional phrase as S Verb phrase
2 V London tumano
Ở Luân Đôn có sương mù
Noun phrase as S Verb phrase
London is foggy
S SYSTEM: ___________________________________
l Systems in a given language offer choices/selections from ___________________________________
sets of elements determined by the place which the
i elements is to occupy in the structure ___________________________________
d Muir (1972): ___________________________________
e “Choices’: “the selection of one particular term at one ___________________________________
particular place on the chain in preference to another
term or other terms which are also possible at that place” ___________________________________
2 Element NP VP PP ___________________________________
3 Forms of Tigers live in jungles
choice A tiger lives near the river
The tiger is living/lives in the jungle
Form of Loài cọp sống trong rừng
choice Cọp đang sống gần sông
ở rừng

S Scope of selection of systems: ___________________________________

l Systems operate over the domains of units: ___________________________________
i systems of sentences, of clauses, of groups, of words & of ___________________________________
morphemes
d ___________________________________
Typical systems at clauses rank:
e ___________________________________
E.g. Mood
___________________________________
2 Indicative Subjunctive ___________________________________
4
Declarative

Interrogative

Imperative

S ___________________________________
Differences in choices form members of systems
l Languages may differ, not in demanding different ___________________________________
i structural exponents of identical systems or system- ___________________________________
combination choices, but in offering different ranges
d of options ___________________________________
e E.g. Markers of Category of number in Nouns ___________________________________
English Inikitut Vietnamese ___________________________________
2 2-way system 3-way system  system ___________________________________
1 pen 2 pens 1 iglu 2 igluk 3 iglut 1, 2 ngôi nhà
5
E.g. Nominal Markers of Categories in Russian vs. English
nominative accusative genitive instrumental Locative dative
dom  dom- u domov dom-om dom- e dom- u

English & Vietnamese?

S ___________________________________
The comparison of grammatical categories of nouns
l in Vietnamese, English and Russian ___________________________________
i ___________________________________
Language Vmese English Russian
d ___________________________________
Category
e ___________________________________
1. Gender - - +
___________________________________
2 2. Number - + + ___________________________________
6 3. Animate/inanimate - - +

4. Definite/indefinite - - +

5. Case - - +

S ___________________________________
The comparison of grammatical categories of nouns
l in Vietnamese, English and Russian ___________________________________
i ___________________________________
Language Vmese English Russian
d ___________________________________
Category
e ___________________________________
1. Gender - - +
___________________________________
2 2. Number - + + ___________________________________
7 3. Animate/inanimate - - +

4. Definite/indefinite - - +

5. Case - - +

S ___________________________________
The comparison of grammatical categories of Verbs
l in Vietnamese, English and Russian ___________________________________
i ___________________________________
Language Vmese English Russian
d ___________________________________
Category
e 1. Person - - + ___________________________________

2. Number + - ___________________________________
2 3. Gender of subject/object - - + ___________________________________
8 4. Tense ? - +
5. Aspect/Aktionsart - + +
6. Mood - + +
7. Voice - + +
S ___________________________________
The comparison of grammatical categories of
l Adjectives in Vietnamese, English and Russian ___________________________________
i ___________________________________
Language Vmese English Russian
d ___________________________________
Category
e ___________________________________
1. Gender - - +
___________________________________
2 2. Number - - - ___________________________________
9 3. Case - - +

4. Short from - + +

5. Degree of comparison - + +

S ___________________________________
WORD ORDER:
l The order in which words appear in sentences. ___________________________________
i Changes in word order occur due to topicalization or in ___________________________________
questions.
d Basic word order: unmarked word order ___________________________________
e Marked word orders: ___________________________________
To emphasize a sentence element:
___________________________________
E.g. topic-fronting (or topicalization)
3 ___________________________________
O S V
0 Bill I can see

Adverb Auxiliary Subject Verb Object

Never will I forget her

S SYNTACTIC FEATURES OF OBJ. IN ENGLISH & VIETNAMESE ___________________________________

l Fronted Object ___________________________________
i Vmese Anh  muốn gì? ___________________________________
English What do you want?
d ___________________________________
Prepositional phrase between verb & Object
e ___________________________________
Đến cuối bạn sẽ thấy ở bên trái một siêu
con đường thị ___________________________________
3 At the end you ‘ll see a super on your ___________________________________
of the street market left
1
Sentence with suppressed subject
Supressed subject Thức ăn này không ăn được
Supressed subject This food is inedible
We don’t eat this food
S UNIT 6 LEXICAL CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS ___________________________________
l
I. Lexical decomposition (Componential Analysis) ___________________________________
i
d Represents the sense of a word in terms of the semantic ___________________________________
e features that comprise it ___________________________________
1. Semantic properties (semantic components,
1 ___________________________________
semantic features):
___________________________________
Crystal: a minimal contrastive element of a word meaning
___________________________________
Semantic widow mother sister aunt seamstr
features ess
female + + + + +
married + + ? ? ?
profes. ? ? ? ? +

S ___________________________________
2. Semantic Field
l ___________________________________
the organization of related words and expressions into a
i system which shows their relationship to one another ___________________________________
d E.g. Lexical field of widower, father, brother, uncle, tailor ___________________________________
e mother father aunt uncle sister brother ___________________________________
sex + + + + + + ___________________________________
2 genera. + + + + + + ___________________________________
memb. + + + + + +
mother father aunt uncle sister brother
male - + - + - +
> ego + + + + +/- +/-
fat. side - + - + + +

S ___________________________________
Sapir & Worlf linguistic determinism hypothesis:
l ___________________________________
language as the determinant of perceived reality
i Since language determine our perception of reality, and ___________________________________
d since languages are structured differently, different ___________________________________
language communities have different views of what is,
e objectively, the ‘same’ reality. ___________________________________
Leech: ___________________________________
“Languages have a tendency to ‘impose structure on the
3 ___________________________________
real world’ by treating some distinctions as crucial, and
ignoring others”
S ___________________________________
l Reality ___________________________________
i (Objective) ___________________________________

View 1
d 1 Subjectively Vi ___________________________________
w ew
e Vie perceived 1 ___________________________________
Language Language Language ___________________________________
4 Community 1 Community 2 Community 3 ___________________________________
Language Language Language
structure 1 structure 2 structure 3

S ___________________________________
ive s
gh

a g ake
t

l ___________________________________
ec
cti nou

is
eff

om h m
re n

ct
r ea g e
on

i ___________________________________
na ctio

ng

o o ff e
c
e a on

h i
sti

sg fe
a
u

co e tur ct w
us str

d ___________________________________
r la
t
in

d
ay ce o
f r
ca ct

itu ge

on ffe
po

ur s n
or
to effe

al w o ur

e ___________________________________
a tt a n

e
ee
de

e
An
h

As
An

Ad
Ac

___________________________________
5 affect + ___________________________________
influence +
impress + +
sway +
* Impress implies a [+ deliberate] act on the part of the
subject, it requires prep ON *

S ___________________________________
t

ct
th

en
sth

tra
fs

l ___________________________________
ym

ne
eo

on
of

pla
pa

nc
se
us

i ___________________________________
m

rm
or

&
eu

itte

ter
he

t te
nf

ip
t th

d ___________________________________
wr
et

ng

sh
tur

or
giv

ge

Lo
by

sh
re

of

e Lend + ___________________________________

Let + + ___________________________________
6 Borrow + ___________________________________
Rent + +
Lease + + + + +
Hire + + + +
charter + + + +
S ___________________________________
Significant differences in English and Vietnamese in
l number and semanto-syntactic features of the linguistic ___________________________________
i units of English and Vietnamese in the same field ___________________________________
d E.g. semantic field “speaking” ___________________________________
Errors made by Vietnamese learners of English:
e ___________________________________
Erroneous sentence Intended sentence
___________________________________
* He said over the radio He spoke over the radio
7 ___________________________________
* He said him about this He told him about it

due to the influence of the equivalent units of these

verbs in Vietnamese such as nói, kể, bảo
speak
nói say
talk

S ___________________________________
Differences in meanings subject to the cultures:
l ___________________________________
- A notion may be expressed by a lexical unit in L1 but
i by a phrase in L2 ___________________________________
d Vietnamese English ___________________________________
e “nói thách” “to put the price up expecting ___________________________________
people to bargain”
___________________________________
- Untranslatable or no equivalent in TL
8 “mắm nêm, áo dài, nhậu” ___________________________________

- The same meaning can be expressed by a lexical
means in L1 but by a grammatical one in L2
“dài hơn ” “longer”

S - A semantic feature inherent in a lexical item in L1 but ___________________________________

l optional in the equivalent in L2 ___________________________________
[ born before] in anh, chị, em vs. brother, sister
i ___________________________________
- The differences on number and semantic structure of
d lexical units entails the differences in their collocation ___________________________________
e E.g. giả has > 10 equivalent collocations in English * ___________________________________
wear has > 5 translational equivalents in collocations ___________________________________
9 áo đ.hồ cà vạt râu giày nón ___________________________________
mặc +
đeo +
wear

đội +
đi/ mang +
để +
thắt +
S ___________________________________
2. Aspects of Lexical CA
l Leech: ___________________________________
i The combination of three specifications of a lexical entry: ___________________________________
a morphological specification, … a syntactic
d specification, … and a semantic specification.” ___________________________________
e Lado: ___________________________________
3 levels for lexical contrastive analysis:
___________________________________
form, meanings and distribution
1 In terms of word field, we often contrast: ___________________________________
0 - lists of lexical units of a specific field,
- the semantic structure of this field,
- the units themselves,
- their frequency,
- their collocation, and
- rhetorical ability of these lexical units

S ___________________________________
A. Morphological CA
l ___________________________________
Analytic causative construction versus lexical and
i morphological constructions in E vs.Vmese ___________________________________
d 1. Conversion ___________________________________
- ADJECTIVE +  V CAUSATIVE
e ___________________________________
It was his way to calm them ….
Đó là cách anh ta trấn an chúng … ___________________________________
1 - VERB INTRANSITIVE +  V CAUSATIVE TRANSITIVE ___________________________________
1 He sat me down in a chair...
Anh ta đặt tôi ngồi xuống một chiếc ghế ...

S ___________________________________
l 2. Synthetic/morphological Causative Verbs in E & V ___________________________________
i a. prefix en-/ em + Ns/ Vs V = put into or on ___________________________________
d She always embodied good sportsmanship on the playing ___________________________________
field.
e b. Prefix en-/ em + Adjs/ Ns V = make into; to ___________________________________
cause to be ADJ ___________________________________
1 The air and the outside air enlivened her. ___________________________________
c. Prefix un- + Verbs V = perform the opposite
2 or reverse of a process
I … unbuttoned the shirt collar
4. Suffix -en + Adjs V = make or become Adj
Little by little the sky was darkened by the mixing dust...
S ___________________________________
Causative verbs in English vs. Vietnamese
l Morphological specification ___________________________________
i ___________________________________
Form English Vietnamese
d ___________________________________
Analytic She made me cry Cô ấy làm tôi khóc
e Morpho They widen the road (-) Họ làm rộng đường ___________________________________
Lexical Opium calms down (-)Thuốc phiện làm dịu ___________________________________
the nerves thần kinh
1 ___________________________________
3 ♦ Analytic: VCAUSATIVE + VRESULTATIVE
make cry
♦ Morphologic: Adj RESULTATIVE Adj + EN CAUSATIVE
wide en
♦ Lexical: V[CAUSATIVE + RESULTATIVE ]
calm/still

S ___________________________________
B. Syntactic CA (Syntactic specification)
l ___________________________________
Causative construction with resulting event
i ___________________________________
Causer Process Causee Resulting event
d (agent) (patient) ___________________________________
e Duran made her stand up straight ___________________________________
Duran bắt cô ấy đứng thẳng ___________________________________
Subject Verb Object Complement V
1 Causative construction with resulting state ___________________________________
4
Causer Process Causee Resulting event
(agent) (patient)
Fog made the light yellow
Sương mù làm ánh sáng (trở nên) vàng vọt
Subject Verb Object Complement V

S ___________________________________
Syntactic specification
l Passive Causative construction ___________________________________
i ___________________________________
Causer Process Causee Resultative
d Nobody is going our throat cut ___________________________________
e to have ___________________________________
không ai để họng chúng tôi bị cắt
___________________________________
Subject Cau verb Object Complement
1 ___________________________________
Vietnamese Translational equivalent:
5 Không ai để người ta cắt họng chúng tôi cả.
Không ai để chúng tôi bị cắt họng cả.
Không ai cắt họng chúng tôi cả.
S ___________________________________
C. Semantic CA (Semantic specification)
l ___________________________________
Likelihood of the success of the causation
i 1. Successful manipulation ___________________________________
d This semantic property signals the factive entailment ___________________________________
between the proposition expressing the causing event
e ___________________________________
and the proposition expressing the resulting event. Verbs
like make, get, have, let, cause, force code this semantic ___________________________________
property. E.g.
1 ___________________________________
She made me feel like a damn fool...
6
Bà ấy làm tôi có cảm tưởng mình là thằng đại ngốc
(I actually felt like a damn fool indeed ...)
Sự đói rách của con và sự lầm than của vợ, đắp đổi
tiến đến trước mắt, đã làm cho anh gan ruột nẫu nà.
(his heart was struck indeed)

S ___________________________________
2. Successful prevention
l ___________________________________
This property presupposes the success of the agent/
i causer in manipulating the causee toward non- ___________________________________
performance of the supposed resulting event. E.g.
d ___________________________________
The police could prevent others entering the square.
e Cảnh sát ngăn được những người ở chỗ khác xô tới. ___________________________________
(the others did not enter the square indeed) ___________________________________
1 ___________________________________
7

S ___________________________________
3. Attempted manipulation
l This property implies the potentiality of the supposed ___________________________________
i resulting event, i.e. the hearer/ reader cannot infer ___________________________________
whether the resulting event actually takes place or not.
d The truth of the resulting event does not necessarily ___________________________________
follows from the truth of the causing event
e I had finally persuaded her to allow me to clean up. ___________________________________
Cuối cùng tôi cũng đã thuyết phục được nàng để tôi ___________________________________
gánh lấy việc thu dọn.
1 (Finally she allowed me to clean up) ___________________________________
8 Ông bảo mày lấy thêm rượu, làm sao từ nãy dến giờ
chưa thấy?
(You haven't brought me the wine yet)
Tôi mời lão hút trước. Nhưng lão không nghe.
(He refused to smoke first)
S ___________________________________
4. Attempted dissuasion
l ___________________________________
This property implies the potentiality of the supposed
i unfulfilment of the resulting event, i.e. the hearer/ ___________________________________
reader cannot infer whether the resulting event actually
d ___________________________________
takes place or not. The falsity or truth of the resulting
e event does not necessarily follows from the truth of the ___________________________________
causing event. E.g.
___________________________________
Her father forbade their marriage.
1 (whether their marriage was celebrated or not ___________________________________
9 was undetermined)
He wouldn't allow Phuong into the house, ...
Hắn cấm không cho Phượng vào trong nhà, ...
(The possibility of Phuong’s entering was still open)

S Summy of Semantic features of causative verbs in E & V ___________________________________

l Semantic features of causative V English Vmese ___________________________________
i encoding successful manipulation and force, khiến, bắt, ___________________________________
yields an uncancellabe factive cause, làm cho
d ___________________________________
implication of a predetermined positive help, have,
e outcome enable ___________________________________
encoding attempted manipulation and ask, tell, bảo, sai,
___________________________________
yields a cancelable implication of a allow, or- cho phép,
2 undetermined positive outcome der,permit, ra lệnh ___________________________________
0 encoding the successful prevention stop, ngăn,
and yields an uncancellabe factive prevent dừng
implication of a predetermined
negative outcome
encoding the attempted dissuasion forbid, not cấm,
and yields a cancelable implication of allow không cho
a undetermined negative outcome (phép)

S Dimension Successful Attempted Successful Attempted ___________________________________

l manipulation manipulation Prevention Dissuasion ___________________________________
Make +
i ___________________________________
Force +
d ___________________________________
Get +
e Have + ___________________________________
Allow + ___________________________________
2 Persuade + + ___________________________________
1 Ask + +
Tell + +
Forbid +
Prevent +
Stop +
S Dimension Successful Attempted Successful Attempted ___________________________________
l manipulation manipulation Prevention Dissuasion ___________________________________
i Làm + + + + ___________________________________
Cho + + + +
d ___________________________________
Khiến +
e ___________________________________
Bắt +
Cho phép + ___________________________________
2 Th.phục + + ___________________________________
2 Sai + +
Bảo + +
Cấm +
Ngăn +
Ngừng +

S ___________________________________
Causee's resistance and Causer's coercive effort
l ___________________________________
Dimension Exertion of Force Nonexertion of Force
i ___________________________________
of Directed Directed No involve Cease
d interaction to perform to non- -ment to blocking ___________________________________
e -ance performan blocking ___________________________________
English make, forbid, allow, let, allow, let, ___________________________________
force, get, prevent, permit permit
2 ___________________________________
compel, stop
3 order
Vmese làm, bắt, làm, cho, để, cho, để, cho,
buộc, khiến, yêu cho phép, cho phép,
khiến, yêu cầu, ra tha tha
cầu, ra lệnh
lệnh

S UNIT 7 PRAGMATIC CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS ___________________________________

l
By Pragmatic approach: ___________________________________
i
d - Relationship between communicative interactants in ___________________________________
e that language community is brought into light.
- Language messages can be determined by social ___________________________________
1 behaviours and social affects, the strategies and ___________________________________
language rules, the language etiquettes …
Aims and objectives of pragmatic CA:
___________________________________
- Establish the communicative values of linguistic units ___________________________________
in terms of semanto-structural aspects in the
contrasted languages;
- Examine different linguistic means conveying the
same communicative message in the contrasted
languages
S ___________________________________
L1 L2 in that:
l - their semanto-structural units do not have the same
___________________________________
i communicative values. ___________________________________
- the number of factors, characteristics of types, classes
d ___________________________________
of communicative units in social communication are not
e the same in contrasted languages. ___________________________________
- in the same communicative situation, a specific social ___________________________________
behaviour can be dissimilar in:
2 + the choice to use language communicative ___________________________________
means;
+ different social rules that govern the use of those
linguistic means

S ___________________________________
Speech acts and 2 approaches of Pragmatic CA
l ___________________________________
1. We can contrast
i - the linguistic means used to perform a speech act - ___________________________________
d thanking, inviting, complimenting, asking, requesting, ___________________________________
apologizing (as the pragmatic equivalence) in 2
e languages ___________________________________
Greeting: ___________________________________
English: Good evening/ Hello!
3 ___________________________________
Vietnamese: Ăn cơm chưa? Anh đi đâu đấy? Anh làm
gì đấy?
- the linguistic means used to signal performative
functions such as speech act verbs like assert, ask,
warn, promise … in English & khẳng định, hỏi, cảnh
báo, hứa … in Vietnamese.

S ___________________________________
2. We can contrast
l the illocutionary force of the utterances or speech acts in ___________________________________
i the two contrasted languages to claim that functions of a ___________________________________
construction of Language A can be contrasted with
d ___________________________________
functions of Language B
e E.g. Where are you going? (English) ___________________________________
Anh/chị đi đâu đấy? (Vietnamese) ___________________________________
Are these two utterances similar in:
4 ___________________________________
- syntactic structure or pattern?
- illocutionary forces?
- performing different communicative functions
S ___________________________________
Semantic and Pragmatic Equivalence
l expressions are pragmatically equivalent
___________________________________
i - if they communicate the same content ___________________________________
d - they are not necessarily semantically equivalent ___________________________________
E.g. Use of metaphor instead of speaking literally:
e ___________________________________
I can eat a horse. (actual utterance)
___________________________________
instead of
5 ……………… (intended utterance) ___________________________________
Or ……………… (actual utterance)
You should stop smoking. (actual utterance)
What is said: …………………………….
What is implicated: ………………………

S ___________________________________
Hypotheses:
l ___________________________________
A1. Semantic equivalence: equivalence of what is said.
i A2. Pragmatic equivalence: equivalence of what is ___________________________________
implicitly communicated
d ___________________________________
What is said is a proposition, an entity which is
e either true or false ___________________________________
A'1. Two sentences are semantically equivalent if they
___________________________________
correspond to the same proposition.
6 A'2. Two sentences are pragmatically equivalent if they ___________________________________
render the same set of implicatures, triggered by rules of
conversational inference.

S ___________________________________
Universal or culture-specific?
l ___________________________________
a particular illocutionary force of an utterance or a
i situation communication found in one language can be ___________________________________
regarded as a Uinversal or Cuture-specific
d ___________________________________
Universal:
e Most speech communities are similar in: ___________________________________
- communicative situations & ___________________________________
- the equivalent pieces of language to perform the
7 ___________________________________
same communicative functions
Cuture-specific:
some distinctive communicative situation reflecting a
distinctive feature of culture can be found only in this
speech community but it is absent in some others
S (Krzeszowski 1990). ___________________________________
l 3 suggested procedures to determine ___________________________________
possibilities for CA:
i 1. the socio-cultural phenomenon M in L1 has the ___________________________________
equivalent phenomenon in L2 ?
d ___________________________________
No: M may be a socio-cultural difference
e Yes: ___________________________________
2. the language pattern in L2 attributed to the socio-
cultural phenomenon N in the same way as the ___________________________________
language pattern in L1 is attributed to M?
8 ___________________________________
No: proceed to a pragmatic CA
Yes:
3. the pattern N in L2 has language pattern
equivalent in syntactic and semantic aspect?
No: CA ceased
Yes: CA is conducted concerning the syntactic and
semantic aspects until different features are
determined at a certain level of analysis

S ___________________________________
CA & POLITENESS IN INTERACTION
l 1. Politeness ___________________________________
i Means employed to show awareness of another person; ___________________________________
public self-image face wants
d 2. Face ___________________________________
e Public self-image of a person ___________________________________
3. Face wants
A person’s expectations that their public self-image will ___________________________________
9 be respected ___________________________________
4. Face threatening act
Utterance or action which threatens a persons public self-
image
5. Face saving act
Utterance or action which avoids potential threat of a
persons public self-image

S ___________________________________
6. Negative face
l The need to be independent, not imposed on by others ___________________________________
i 7. Negative politeness ___________________________________
Awareness of another’s right not to be imposed on by
d ___________________________________
another
e 8. Negative politeness Strategy ___________________________________
An attempt to demonstrate awareness of another’s right ___________________________________
not to be imposed on by another
1 ___________________________________
9. Positive face
0 He need to be connected, to belong to a group
10. Positive politeness
Showing solidarity with another
11. Positive politeness Strategy
An appeal to solidarity with another
S ___________________________________
Possible strategies for doing FTAs
l (Brown/Levison (1987)) ___________________________________
i ___________________________________
d ___________________________________
e ___________________________________
___________________________________
1 ___________________________________
1

S ___________________________________
Politeness and Indirectness
l In communication, whenever there is an indirect
___________________________________
i relationship between a structure of an utterance and its ___________________________________
function, we have an indirect speech act
d ___________________________________
Will you open the door? (ordering by question)
e Is that my fault? (asserting by question) ___________________________________
Could you pass the salt? (requesting by question) ___________________________________
Instead of the direct speech act:
1 ___________________________________
………………………….. (ordering by imperative)
2 .…………………………. (asserting by declarative)
.…………………………. (requesting by imperative)

S ___________________________________
Politeness and Mitigation
l - the result of a weakening one of the interactional ___________________________________
i parameters ___________________________________
- functional to smooth interactional management in that it
d reduces risks for participants at various levels, ___________________________________
e e.g. risks of self-contradiction, refusal, losing face, ___________________________________
conflict, and so forth
___________________________________
I’m afraid ………………..
1 X is a bit/kind of Y (undesirable thing/state) ___________________________________
3 It seems …………………
I wish ……………………
X is rather Y (undesirable thing/state)
S ___________________________________
Buiding a pragmatic corpus for CA
l ___________________________________
Metapragmatic questionnaire (MPQ) and the Discourse
i Completion Task (DCT) questionnaire are in use * ___________________________________
d ___________________________________
e ___________________________________
___________________________________
1 ___________________________________
4

S ___________________________________
l ___________________________________
i ___________________________________
d ___________________________________
e ___________________________________
___________________________________
1 ___________________________________
5

S ___________________________________
l ___________________________________
i ___________________________________
d ___________________________________
e ___________________________________
___________________________________
1 ___________________________________
6
S ___________________________________
l ___________________________________
i ___________________________________
d ___________________________________
e ___________________________________
___________________________________
1 ___________________________________
7

S ___________________________________
l ___________________________________
i ___________________________________
d ___________________________________
e ___________________________________
___________________________________
1 ___________________________________
8