ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

SKELETAL SYSTEM
Types of Bone Skull Topography
According to Location
Sutural bones
Are small bones located in
sutures (joints) between certain
cranial bones.

Skull Morphology

Divisions of Skeletal System

1. Appendicular skeleton
2. Axial skeleton

Cranial Bones
Frontal bone
The frontal bone forms the
forehead, the roofs of the
orbits (eye sockets), and
Axial Skeleton most of the anterior part of
Includes the bones that form the skull, laryngeal skeleton, the cranial floor.
vertebral column, and thoracic cage.

Parts of the frontal bone

A. Frontal The vertical portion of the frontal bone;
squama forms the forehead and the anterior part
of the vault
B. Frontal Roudned elevation on the superior
eminence portion of the squama
C. Superciliary Two arched ridges that correspond in
arches position to the eyebrows
D. Supraorbital Located at the center of the supraorbital
foramen margin; an opening for nerves and blood
vessel
E. Glabella The smooth elevation between the
(radiographic superciliary arches
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landmark)  Projecting inferiorly from each
F. Nasion The midpoint of the frontonasal suture medial wall of the labyrinths are
(radiographic two thin, scroll-shaped
landmark) processess called the superior
G. Frontal Situated between the two tables of the and middle nasal conchae.
sinuses squama on each side of the midsagittal
plane
H. Orbital plate Of the horizontal portion of the frontal
bone are separated by a notch called the
ethmodal notch.
At the anterior edge of the ethmoidal
notch is a small inferior projection of
bone, the nasal spine, which is the most
superior component of the bony nasal
septum.

Parietal bone
 Located on each side
of the skull right
behind the frontal
bone.
 Both the parietal
bones together form
most the greater
portion of the sides
and roof of the cranial
cavity.
Ethmoid bone
Parts of the parietal bone
 Is the unpaired
A. Parietal  A prominent bulge of the parietal bone.
bone of the skull
eminence  In radiography the width of the head
that contributes to
should be measured at this point.
the medial wall of
the orbit and parts
of the nasal cavity.

Parts of the ethmoid bone

A. Cribiform plate  The horizontal portion of the
ethmoid bone. Sphenoid bone
 Perforated by many foramina for  Forms the posterior part and most
the transmission of olfactory of the base of the cranium
nerves. The plate also has a thick,
conical process, the crista galli,
that serves as the anterior
attachment for the faix cerebi.
B. Perpendicular  The vertical portion of the ethmoid
plate bone.
C. Labyrinths  Contain the ethmoidal sinuses, oir
air cells.
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Parts of the sphenoid bone Occipital bone
1. Body of the  Hollowed cubelike medial portion  Forms the posterior
sphenoid bone between the ethmoid and part and most of the
occipital bones. base of the cranium.
 The space inside the body is the  The occipital bone
sphenoidal sinus, which drains has four parts: the
into the nasal cavity. squama, two
 The sella turcica is a bony occipital condyles,
saddle-shaped structure on the and the basilar
superior surface of the body of portion
the sphenoid. The anterior part Parts of the occipital bone
of the sella turcica, which forms Squama  Located on the external surface of the
the horn of the saddle, is a ridge occipital bone; midway between its
called the tuberculum sellae. summit and the foramen magnum, is a
The seat of the saddle is a prominent process termed the external
depression, the hypophyseal occipital protuberance, or inion
fossa, which contains the (radiographic landmark); that
pituitary gland. The posterior part corresponds in position with the internal
of the sella turcica, which forms occipital protuberance.
the back of the saddle, is Occipital  Articulate with the atlas of the cervical
another ridge called the dorsum condyles spine to form the occipitoatlantal joints.
sellae.  The hypoglossal canals are found at
2. Lesser wings the anterior ends of the condyles and
3. Greater wings  Projects laterally from the body transmit the hypoglossal nerves.
and forms the anterolateral floor  At the posterior end of the condyles are
of the cranium. the condylar canals, through which the
 The greater wings also form part emissary veins pass.
of the lateral wall of the skull just Jugular  The anterior portion of the occipital bone
anterior to the temporal bone foramen contains a deep notch that forms a part
and can be viewed externally. of the jugular foramen.
 The foramen rotundum, ovale,
and spinosum are paired and are
situated in the greater wings.
4. Pterygoid  Project inferiorly from the points
process where the body and greater
wings of the sphenoid bone
unite; they form the lateral
posterior region of the nasal
cavity. Temporal bone
 Some of the muscles that move
 A paired bone
the mandible attach to the
situated at the
pterygoid processes.
lateral side and
base of the skull.
 This bone features
important structures
of the
vestibulocochlear
apparatus,
including the
external acoustic meatus, the tympanic cavity, and the
structures forming the inner ear.
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Parts of temportal bone
Petromastoid Mastoid portion
 Forms the inferior, posterior part of the
temporal bone is prolonged into the
mastoid process.
 The mastoid process varies
considerably in size, depending on its
pneumatization, and is larger in males
than in females.
Petrous portion
 Often called the petrous pyramid, is the
thickest, densest bone in the cranium. Bones of the Ear
This part of the temporal bone contains  The auditory ossicles are the smalles tbones in the body,
the organs of hearing and balance. named for their shape, are the malleus (hammer), incus
 At the center of the posterior aspect of (anvil), and stapes (stirrup). these three delicate bones are
the petrous portion is the internal articulate to permit vibratory motion.
acoustic meatus (IAM), which  They bridge the middle ear cavity for the transmission of
transmits the vestibulocochlear and sound vibrations from the tympanic membrane to the
facial nerves. internal ear.
 Located at the floor of the cranial cavity
(petrous rock) of the temporal bone.
 This triangular part, located at the base
of the skull between the sphenoid and
occipital bones, houses the internal ear
and the middle ear, structures involved
is hearing and equilibrium.
Tympanic  Situated below the squama and in front
of the mastoid and petrous portions of
the temporal bone.
Squamous  It forms a part of the side wall of the
Facial Bones
cranium and has a prominent arched
process, the zygomatic process, Nasal  The paired nasal bones meet at the
which projects anteriorly to articulate bones midline and form the bridge of the nose.
with the zygomatic bone of the face  The rest of the supporting tissue of the
and thus complete the zygomatic arch. nose consists of cartilage.
 On the inferior border of the zygomatic Lacrimal  The smallest facial bones.
process is the articular tubercle, bones  Each lacrimal bone contains a lacrimal
which forms the anterior boundary of foramen through which a tear duct
the mandibular fossa. The mandibular passess.
fossa receives the condyle of the Maxillae  The two maxillary bones are the largest
mandible to form the of the immovable bones of the face.
temporamandibular joint (TMJ).  Each articulates with all other facial
Styloid  A slender, pointed bone projecting bones except the mandible.
from the inferior portion of the tympanic  The body of each maxilla contains a
part of the temporal bone. large, pyramidal cavity called the
maxillary sinus, which empties into the
nasal cavity.
 An intraorbital foramen is located under
each orbit and serves as a passage
through which the intraorbital nerve and
artery reach the nose.
 At their inferior borders the maxillae
possess a thick, spongy ridge called the
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alveolar process, which supports the
roots of the teeth.
 In the anterior midsagittal plane at their
junction with each other, the maxillary
bones form a pointed, forward projecting
process called the anterior nasal spine.
The midpoint of this prominence is called
the acanthion (radiographic landmark).
Zygomatic  Form the prominence of the cheeks.
bones  A posteriorly extending temporal process
unites with the zygomatic process of the
temporal bone to form the zygomatic
arch.
Palatine  The two palatine bones are L-shaped
bones bones composed of vertical and
horizontal plates.
 The horizontal plates articulate with the
maxillae to complete the posterior fourth
of the bony palate, or roof of the mouth.
 The vertical portions of the palatine
bones extend upward between the
maxillae and pterygoid processes of the
sphenoid bone in the posterior nasal
cavity.
Vomer  A thin plate of bone situated in the
midsagittal plane of the floor of the nasal
cavity, where it forms the inferior part of
the nasal septum.
Inferior  They are long, narrow, and extremely
nasal thin curling laterally, which gives them a
conchae scroll-like appearance.
Mandible  The largest and densest bone of the
face, consists of a curved horizontal
portion, called the body, and two vertical
portions called the rami, which unite with
the body at the angle of the mandible, or
gonion (radiographic landmark)
 At the site of ossification is a slight ridge
that ends below in a triangular
protuberance, the mental protuberance.
 The symphysis is the most anterior and
central part of the mandible. This is
where the left and right halves of the
mandible have fused.
 The superior border of the body of the
mandible consists of spongy bone, called
the alveolar portion, which supports the
roots of the teeth.
 Below the second premolar tooth is a
small opening on each side for the
transmission of nerves and blood
vessels. These two openings are called
the mental foramina.
 Each ramus presents two processes at
its upper extremity, one coronoid and
one condylar, which are separated by a
concave area called the mandibular
notch.
 The anterior process, the coronoid
process, is thin and tapered and
projects to a higher level than the
posterior process.
 The condylar process consists of a
constricted area, the neck, above which
is a broad, thick, almsot transversely
placed condyle that articulates with the
mandibular fossa of the temporal bone.
 This articulation, the TMJ, is situated
immediately in the fron of the EAM.
Nasal Skeleton
Nasal  The inside of the nose, called the nasal
septum cavity, is divided into right and left sides by a
vertical partition called the nasal septum,
which consists of bone and cartilage.
 The three components of the nasal septum
are the vomer, septal cartilage, and the
perpendicular plate of the ethmoid bone.
Orbits
 Seven bones
of the skull join
to form each
orbit (eye
socket), which
contains the
eyeball and
associated
structures.
 Three cranial
bones of the orbit are the: frontal, sphenoid, and
 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
ethmoid; the four facial bones are the palatine,
zygomatic, lacrimal, and maxilla.
Paranasal Sinuses
 The
paranasal sinuses are cavities within certain cranial and
facial bones near the nasal cavity.
 Are lined with mucous membranes. Secretions produced by
the mucous membranes of the paranasal sinuses drain into
the nasal cavity.
 Skull bones containing the paranasal sinuses are the
frontal, sphenoid, ethmoid, and maxillary.
 The sinuses lighten the mass of the skull and increase the
surface area of the nasal mucosa, thus increasing the
production of mucus to help moisten and cleanse inhaled
air.
 In addition, the paranasal sinuses serve as resonating
(echo) chambers within the skull that intensify and prolong
sounds, thereby enhancing the quality of the voice.
Fontanels
 At birth, mesenchyme-filled spaces called fontanels
commonly called “soft spots”, are present between the
cranial bones. Fontanels are areas of unossified
mesenchyme.
*Mesenchyme: embryonic connective tissue found almost
exclusively in the embryo; the tissue from which almost all other
connective tissues eventually arise.
 Eventually, they will be replaced with bone by
intramembranous ossification to become sutures.
 Functionally, the fontanels provide some flexibility to the
fetal skull, allowing the skull to change shape as it passes
through the birth canal and later permitting rapid growth of
the brain during infancy.
Unpaired  The largest fontanel, is located at the
anterior midline between the two parietal
fontanel bones and the frontal bone, and is
roughly diamond-shaped.
 It usually closes 18 to 24 months after
birth.
Unpaired  Located at the midline between the
posterior two parietal bones and the occipital
fontanel bone.
 Because it is much smaller than the
anterior fontanel, it generally closes
about 2 months after birth.
Paired  Located laterally between the frontal,
anterolateral parietal, temporal, and sphenoid
fontanels bones, are small and irregular in
shape.
 Normally, they close about 3 months
after birth.
Paired  Located generally between the
posterolateral parietal, occipital, and temporal bones,
fontanels are irregularly shaped.
 They begin to close 1 to 2 months
after birth, but closure is generally not
complete until 12 months.
Hyoid Bone
 Small, U-shaped structure situated at the base of the
tongue.
 The only bone in the body that does not articulate with any
other bone. It is held in position in part by the stylohyoid
ligaments extending from the styloid processes of the
temporal bones.
 The hyoid bone consists of a horizontal body and paired
projections called the lesser horns and greater horns.
Vertebral Column
 The vertebral column also called the spine, backbone, or
spinal column, is composed of a series of bones called
vertebrae (singular is vertebra).
 It encloses and protects the spinal cord, supports the head,
and serves as a point of attachment for the ribs, pelvic
girdle, and muscles of the back and upper limbs.
 These are distributed as follows:
7 Cervical vertebrae (cervic-neck) are in the neck
region
1 Thoracic vertebrae (thorax-chest) are posterior to
2 the thoracic cavity
5 Lumbar vertebrae (lumb-loin) support the lower back
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1 Sacrum (=sacred bone) consists of five fused sacral
vertebrae Parts of vertebral column
1 Coccyx (=cuckoo ecause the shape resembles the Body  The thick, disc-shaped anterior portion,
bill of a cuckoo bird) usually consists of four fused and is the weight bearing part of the
coccygeal vertebrae. vertebra.
 The anterior and lateral surfaces contain
 The vertebral foramina, openings through which blood
column shows vessels deliver nutrients and oxygen and
four slight bends remove carbon dioxide and wastes from
called normal bone tissue.
curves. Vertebral  Two short, thick processes, the pedicles,
 The cervical and arch project posteriorly from the vertebral body
lumbar curves, to unite with flat laminae, to form the
which are convex vertebral arch.
anteriorly, are  It extends posteriorly from the body of the
called lordotic vertebra; together, the body of the
curves. vertebra and the vertebral arch surround
 The thoracic and the spinal cord by forming the vertebral
pelvic curve are foramen.
concave  The vertebral foramen contains the spinal
anteriorly, and cord, adipose tissue, areolar connective
are called tissue, and blood vessels. Collectively, the
kyphotic curves. vertebral foramina of all vertebrae form the
 The curves of the vertebral column increase its strength, vertebral (spinal) canal.
help maintain balance in the upright position, absorb Processes  Seven processes arise from the ver tebral
shocks during walking, and help protect t he vertebrae from arch.
fracture.  At the point where a lamina and pedicle
Kyphosis Any abnormal increase in the anterior join, a transverse process extends
concavity (or posterior convexity) of the laterally on each side. A single spinous
thoracic curve process (spine) projects posteriorly from
Lordosis Any abnormal increase in the anterior the junction of the laminae.
convexity (or posterior concavity) of the  The two superior articular processes of
thoracic curve a vertebra articulate (form joints) with the
Scoliosis An abnormal lateral curvature of the two inferior articular processes of the
spine vertebra immediately above them. In turn,
the two inferior articular processes of that
Invertebral discs vertebrae articulate with the two superior
 Are found articular processes of the vertebra
between the immediately below them, and so on.
bodies of adjacent  The articulating surfaces of the articular
vertebrae from the processes, which are referred to as
second cervical facets, are covered with hyaline
vertebra to the cartilage.
sacrum.  The articulations formed between the
 Each disc has an bodies and articular facets of successive
outer fibrous ring consisting of fibrocartilage called the vertebrae are termed intervertebral
annulus fibrosus (annulus-ringlike) and an inner soft, pulpy, joints.
highly elastic substance called the nucleus pulposus
(pulposus-pulplike). Regions of the vertebral column
 The discs form strong joints, permit various movements of Cervical  The bodies of the cervical vertebrae (C1-
the vertebral column, and absorb vertical shock. Region C7) are smaller than all other vertebrae
except those that form the coccyx. Their
 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
vertebral arches, however, are larger.
 The spinous processes of C2 through C6
are often bifid, that is, split into two parts.
 The first two cervical vertebrae differ
considerably from the others.
Atlas (C1)
 The first cervical vertebra inferior to the
skull.
 It lacks a body and spinous process.
 They articulate with occipital condyles of
the occipital bone to form the paired
atlanto-occipital joints. These articulations
permit you to move your head (to nod) to
signify yes.
Axis (C2)
 The second cervical vertebra does have a
body.
 It has a peglike process called the dens or
odontoid process.
 The dens makes a pivot on which the atlas
and head rotate (atlanto-axial joint). this
arrangement permits side-to-side
movement of the head, as when you move
your head to signify no.
C3-C6
 Correspond to the structural pattern of the
typical cervical vertebra previously
described.
Vertebra prominens (C7)
 Its single large spinous process may be
seen and felt at the base of the neck.
Thoracic  Thoracic vertebrae are considerably larger
region and stronger than cervical vertebrae.
 The spinous processes on T1 and T2 are
long, laterally flattened, and directed
inferiorly. In contrast, the spinous
processes on T11 and T12 are shorter,
broader, and directed more posteriorly.
 The feature of the thoracic vertebrae that
distinguishes them from other vertebrae is
that they articulate with the ribs. The
articulations between the thoracic
vertebrae and ribs, called vertebrocostal
joints.
Lumbar  Lumbar vertebrae are the largest and
region strongest of the unfused bones in the
vertebral column because the amount of
body weight supported by the vertebrae
increases toward the inferior end of the
backbone.
 Their various projections are short and
thick.
 The spinous processes are quadrilateral in
shape, thick and broad, and project nearly
straight posteriorly.
Sacrum  A triangular bone formed by the union of
five sacral vertebrae.
 The female sacrum is shorter, wider, and
more curved between S2 and S3 than the
male sacrum
Coccyx  Trinagular in shape; formed by the fusion
of usually four coccygeal vertebrae
 In females, the coccyx points inferiorly to
allow the passage of a baby during birth
 In males, it points anteriorly.
Thorax
 Refers to the entire chest.
 The skeletal part of the thorax, the thoracic cage, is a bony
enclosure formed by the sternum, ribs, and their costal
cartilages, and the bodies of the thoracic vertebrae.
Sternum
 AKA “breastbone” is a flat, narrow bone located in the
center of the anterior thoracic wall.
Parts of the sternum
Manubrium  The junction of the manubrium and
body forms the sternal angle.
 Has a depression on its superior
surface, the suprasternal notch.
 Lateral to the suprasternal notch are
clavicular notches that articulate with
the medial ends of the clavicles to
form the sternoclavicular joints.
 Articulates with the costal cartilages of
the first and second ribs.
Body  Articulates with the costal cartilages of
the second through tenth ribs.
Xiphoid  No ribs are attached to it, but the
process xiphoid process provides attachment
for some abdominal muscles.
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Ribs Pectoral/Shoulder Girdle
 Twelve pairs of ribs, numbered 1-12 from superior to The human body has
inferior, give structural support to the sides of the thoracic two pectoral
cavity. (shoulder) girdles that
 Each rib articulates posteriorly with its corresponding attach the bones of
thoracic vertebra. the upper limbs to the
True  The 1-7 pairs of ribs have a axial skeleton. Each
(vertebrosternal) direct attachment to the sternum of the two pectoral
ribs by a strip of hyaline cartilage girdles consists of a
called costal cartilage. clavicle and a
 The ribs that have costal scapula.
cartilages and attach directly to Clavicle/ Collarbone
the sternum.  The anterior bone
False ribs  The remaining five parts are and articulates with
called false ribs because their the manubrium of
costal cartilages either attach the sternum at the
indirectly to the sternum or do sternoclavicular
not attach to the sternum at all. joint.
 The cartilages of the 8-10th pairs  Each slender, S-
of ribs attach to one another and shaped clavicle lies
then to the cartilages of the 7th horizontally across
pair of ribs. These false ribs are the anterior part of the thorax superior to the first rib.
called vertebrochondral ribs.  The pectoral girdles do not articulate with the vertebral
 The 11th and 12th pairs of ribs are column and are held in position and stabilized by a
false ribs designated as floating group of large muscles that extend from the vertebral
(vertebral) ribs because the column and ribs to the scapula.
costal cartilage at their anterior Parts of the clavicle
ends does not attach to the Medial/ Is rounded and articulates with the manubrium
sternum at all. These ribs attach Sternal of the sternum to form the sternoclavicular
only posteriorly to the thoracic end joint.
vertebrae. Lateral/ Broad, flat, and articulates with the acromion of
Intercostal spaces: Acromi the scapula to form the acromioclavicular joint.
 spaces between ribs that are occupied by intercostal al end
muscles, blood vessels, and nerves. Conoid On the inferior surface of the lateral end of the
 The lungs or other structures in the thoracic cavity are tubercle bone is a point of attachment for the
commonly accessed surgically through an intercostal conoid/coroclavicular ligament, which
space. attaches the clavicle and scapula.
While on the inferior surface of the sternal end
Appendicular Skeleton is a point of attachment for the
costoclavicular ligament, which attaches the
clavicle and first rib.
Scapula
 Articulates with
the clavicle at
the
acromioclavic
ular joint and
with the
humerus at the
glenohumeral
(shoulder)
joint.
 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
Parts of the scapula Lesser Projects anteriorly. Between the two
Borders Medial (Vertebral) tubercle tubercles there is a groove named the
 The thin edge of the scapula closer to intertubercular sulcus.
the vertebral column. Surgical Is a constriction in the humerus just distal to
Lateral (Axillary) neck the tubercles, where the head tapers to the
 The thick edge of the scapula closer to shaft; It is so named because fractures
the arm. often occur here.
 The medial and lateral borders join at Shaft
the inferior angle. The superior edge of
the scapula, joints the medial border at
the superior angle.
Scapular  Is a prominent indentation along the
notch superior border through which the
suprascapular nerve passes.
Coracoid  Anterior surface projection at the lateral
process end of the superior border of the
scapula to which the tendons of
muscles and ligaments attach.
Fossae  Superior and inferior to the spine on
the posterior surface of the scapula are
two fossae: the supraspinous fossa
and infraspinous fossa.
 On the anterior surface of the scapula Body Is roughly cylindrical at its proximal end,
is a slightly hollowed-out area called but it gradually becomes triangular until it
the subscapular fossa. is flattened and broad at its distal end.
Humerus Deltoid V-shaped roughened area that is
 The humerus or arm tuberosity laterally covered at the middle portion of
bone, is the longest and the shaft.
largest bone of the Radial groove Located at the posterior surface of the
upper limb. humerus which runs along the deltoid
 It articulates proximally tuberosity.
with the scapula and
distally with the two Distal third
bones, the ulna and
radius, to form the
elbow joint.
 3 parts:
 Proximal 3rd
 Shaft
 Distal 3rd

Proximal parts
Greater tubercle
Is a lateral projection distal
to the anatomical neck. It is
the most laterally palpable
bony landmark of the
shoulder region and is Capitulum Is a rounded knob on the lateral aspect of
immediately inferior to the the bone that articulates with the head of
palpable acromion of the the radius.
scapula. Trochlea Located medial to the capitulum. Is a
spool-shaped surface that articulates with
 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
the trochlear notch of the ulna. notch of the ulna. Inferior to the head is
Radial fossa An anterior depression above the the constricted neck.
capitulum that articulates with the head of Radial Roughened area inferior to the neck on
the radius when the forearm is flexed tuberosit the anteromedial side that serves as a
(bent). y point of attachment for the tendons of the
Coronoid Is an anterior depression that receives the biceps brachii muscle.
fossa coronoid process of the ulna when the Shaft
forearm is flexed. The shaft of the radius widens distally to form a styloid
Olecranon Is a large posterior depression that process on the lateral side, which can be felt proximal to
fossa receives the olecranon of the ulna when the thumb.
the forearm is extended (straightened). Distal 3rd
Epicondyles Medial and lateral epicondyle are rough Ulnar Narrow concavity at the distal end of which
projections on either side of the distal end notch articulats with the head of the ulna.
of the humerus to which the tendons of Styloid Provides attachment for the brachioradialis
most muscles of the forearm is attached. process muscle and for attachment of the radial
Radius and Ulna collateral ligament to the wrist.
 The radius and ulna Ulna
are long bones that
make up the forearm,
extending from the
elbow to the wrist.
 In the anatomical
position, the radius is
found in the lateral
forearm, while the ulna
is found in the medial
forearm.
 The radius is shorter
than ulna and has a
small proximal end that articulates with the humerus, and
broad distal end that articulates with the carpal bones at the Proximal 3rd
wrist. Olecranon Forms the prominence of the elbow
 While the ulna are reversed because it has a large Coronoid Anterior projection articulates with the
proximal end which articulates with the humerus and a process trochlea of the humerus
small distal end. Trochlear Is a large curved area between the
notch olecranon and coronoid process that
Radius forms part of the elbow joint.
Radial notch  Lateral and inferior to the
trochlear notch is a depression.
 It articulates with the head of the
radius.
 Just inferior to the coronoid
process is the ulnar tuberosity, to
which biceps brachii muscle
attaches.
Shaft
The shaft of the ulna is broader aroun the proximal portion
and tapers distally toward the head of the ulna.
Distal 3rd
Proximal 3rd Head Consists of a head that is separated from
Head Disc shaped that articulates with the the wrist by a disc of fibrocartilage.
capitulum of the humerus and the radial
 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
Styloid Located on the posterior side at the distal bones are called intercarpal joints. The carpals are
process end. It provides attachment for the ulnar arranged in two transverse rows of four bones each. Their
collateral ligament. names reflect their shapes.
 The ulna and radius  The carpals in the proximal row, from lateral to medial are
articulate with the the:
humerus at the elbow  Scaphoid
joint.  Lunate
 The articulation occurs in  Triquetrium
two places: where the  Pisiform
head of the radius  The carpals in the distal row, from lateral to medial, are
articulates with the the:
capitulum of humerus;  Trapezium
and where the trochlear  Trapezoid
notch of the ulna  Capitate
articulates with the  Hamate
trochlea of the humerus.  The proximal row of carpals articulate with the distal ends
 The ulna and radius of the ulna and radius to form the wrist joint.
connect with one another Metacarpals
at three sites. First, a  The metacarpus (meta-
broad, flat, fibrous beyond), or palm, is the
connective tissue called intermediate region of
the intraosseous the hand and consists
membrane joints the of five bones called
shafts of the two bones. metacarpals.
This membrane also  Each metacarpal bone
provides a site of consists of a proximal
attachment for some of base, an intermediate
the deep skeletal muscles shaft, and a distal
of the forearm. head.
 The ulna and radius articulate directly at their proximal and  The metacarpal bones
distal ends. are numbered 1-5,
 Proximally, the head of the radius articulates with the starting with the thumb, from lateral to medial.
ulna’s radial notch. This articulation is the proximal  The bases articulate with the distal row of carpal bones to
radioulnar joint. form the carpometacarpal joints.
 Distally, the head of the ulna articulates with the ulnar  The heads articulate with the proximal phalages to form the
notch of the radius. This articulation is the distal metacarpophalangeal joints. The heads of the
radioulnar joint. metacarpals, commonly called “knuckles”, are readily
 Finally, the distal end of the radius articulates with three visible in a clenched fist.
bones of the wrist: the lunate, scaphoid, and the Phalanges
triquetrium to form the radiocarpal (wrist) joint.  The phalanges, or
Carpals bones of the digits,
 The carpus (wrist) make up the distal
is the proximal part of the hand.
region of the hand There are 14
and consists of phalanges in the
eight small bones, five digits of each
the carpals, hand and, like the
joined to one metacarpals, the
another by digits are
ligaments. numbered 1 to 5.
 Articulations  A single bone of a
among carpal digit is referred to
 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
as a phalanx. Each phalanx consists of a proximal base,  Below this spine is the posterior inferior iliac
an intermediate shaft, and a distal head. spine.
 The thumb (pollex) has two phalanges called proximal and  Below the posterior inferior
distal phalanges. The other four digits have three iliac spine is the greater
phalanges called proximal, middle, and distal phalanges. sclatic notch.
 The proximal phalanges of all digits articulate with the  The medial surface of the
metacarpal bones. The middle phalanges of the fingers (2- ilium contains the iliac
5) articulate with their distal phalanges. fossa. Posterior to this
 The proximal phalanx of the thumb (1) articulates with its fossa are the iliac
distal phalanx. tuberosity, articulats with
 Joints between phalanges are called interphalangeal the sacrum to form the
joints. sacroiliac joint.
Pelvic Girdle/Hip bone
 The pelvic (hip)
girdle consists of
two hip bones, also
called coxal or
pelvic bones or os
coxa.
 The hip bones unite
anteriorly at a joint
called pubic
symphysis.
 They unite
posteriorly with the
sacrum at the sacroiliac joints.
 The complete ring composed of the hip bones, pubic Ischium
symphysis, sacrum, and coccyx forms a deep, basin-like  The inferior,
structure called the bony pelvis. posterior
 Functionally, the bony pelvis provides a strong an stable portion of the
support for the vertebral column and pelvic and lower hip bone.
abdominal organs. The pelvic girdle of the bony pelvis also  Comprises of a
connects the bones of the lower limbs to the axial skeleton. superior body
Ilium and an inferior
 The largest of the three ramus.
components of the hip  The ramus is
bone. the portion of
 Composed of a superior the ischium that fuses with the pubis. Features of the
ala (wing) and an ischium include the prominent ischial spine, a lesser
inferior body. sciatic notch below the spine, and a rough and
 The body is one of the thickened ischial tuberosity. Together, the ramus and
components of the the pubis surround the obturator foramen.
acetabulum, the socket
for the head of the femur.
 The superior border of the
ilium is the iliac crest.
Four protruding areas:
 Ends anteriorly in a blunt is the anterior superior
iliac spine.
 Below this spine is the anterior inferior iliac spine.
 Posteriorly, the iliac crest ends in a sharp posterior
superior iliac spine.
 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
Pubis lumbar vertebrae sacrum and coccyx
 The anterior posteriorly, the upper posteriorly, inferior
and inferior portions of the hip portions of the ilium and
part of the hip bones laterally, and the ischium laterally, and
bone. abdominal wall the pubic bones
 A superior anteriorly. anteriorly.
ramus, an  The true pelvis
inferior surrounds the pelvic
ramus, and a cavity.
body between
the rami make Pelvic inlet
up the pubis. Superior opening of
 The anterior, superior border of the body is the pubic the true pelvis,
crest, and at its lateral end is a projection called the bordered by the pelvic
pubic tubercle. brim
 The pubic symphysis is the joint between the two pubes Pelvic outlet
of the hip bones. It consists of a disc of fibrocartilage. Inferior opening of the
Inferior to this joint, the inferior rami of the two pubic true pelvis is the pevic
bones converte to form the pubic arch. outlet, which is
Acetabulum covered by the muscle
 The acetabulum at the floor of the
is a deep fossa pelvis.
formed by the
ilium, ischium,
and pubis.
 It functions as the
socket that
accepts the
rounded head of
the femur.
 Together, the acetabulum and the femoral head form the
hip (coxal) joint.
 On the inferior side of the acetabulum is a deep
indentation, the acetabular notch, that forms a foramen
trough which blood vessels and nerves pass and serves
as a point of attachment for ligments of the femur.

The pelvic axis is an imaginary line that curves through the true
pelvis from the central point of the plane of the pelvic inlet to the
central point of the plane of the pelvic outlet.

FALSE VS TRUE PELVIS

False (Greater) Pelvis True (Lesser) Pelvis
 Portion of the bony  Portion of the bony
pelvis superior to the pelvis inferior to the
pelvic brim. pelvic brim.
 It is bordered by the  It is bounded by the
 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
Femur crest
 Its proximal end articulates with
the acetabulum of the hip
bone.
 Its distal end articulates with
the tibia and patella.
 The body (shaft) of the femur
angles medially, and as a
result, the knee joints are
closer to the midline than the
hip joints. this angle of the Body/Shaft
femoral shaft (angle of Gluteal Vertical ridge inferior to the
convergence) is greater in tuberosity intertrochanteric crest on the posterior
females because the female surface of the body of the femur.
pelvis is broader.
Parts of femur
Proximal End
Femoral  Rounded head articulates with
head the acetabulum of the hip bone
to form the hip (coxal) joint.
 The head contains a small Linea aspera Another vertical ridge were gluteal
central depression (pit) called tuberosity blends
the fovea capitis.
 The ligament of the head of the
femur connects to the fovea
capitis of the femur to the
acetabulum of the hip bone.
Neck Constricted region distal to the head.
Distal End
Condyles  The expanded distal end of the
femur includes the medial
condyle (knuckle) and the
lateral condyle.
 These articulate with the medial
Trochanters Greater trochanter and lateral condyles of the tibia.
 The prominence felt and seen The patellar surface is located
anterior to the hollow on the side between the condyles on the
of the hip. anterior surface.
 It is a landmark commonly used Intercondylar A depressed area between the
to locate site for the fossa condyles on the posterior surface.
intramuscular injections into the
lateral surface of the thigh.
Lesser trochanter
 Inferior and medial to the greater
trochanter.
 Between the anterior surfaces of
the trochanters is a narrow
intertrochanteric line.

Intertrochanteric Appears between the posterior

surfaces of the trochanters.
 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
lateral and medial tibiofemoral
(knee) joints.
 The inferior surface of the lateral
condyle articulates with the head of
the fibula.
Intercondyla Separates the slightly concave condyles in
r eminence an upward projection.
Tibial  Point of attachment on the anterior
tuberosity surface for the patellar ligament.
 Inferior to and continuous with the
tibial tuberosity is a sharp ridge that
can be felt below the skin, known as
the anterior border (crest) or shin.
Patella Medial  Forms the medial surface of the
 The patella/kneecap is a malleolus distal end of the tibia.
small, triangular bone located  This articulates with the talus of the
anterior to the knee joint. ankle and forms the prominence that
 The broad proximal end of can be felt on the medial surface of
this sesamoid bone, which the ankle.
develops in the tendon of the Fibular Articulates with the distal end of the fibula
quadriceps femoris muscle, is notch to form the distal tibiofibular joint.
called the base; the pointed Fibula
distal end is referred to as the
apex.
 The posterior surface contains
two articular facets, one for
the medial condyle
of the femur and
another for the
lateral condyle of
the femur.
 The patellar
ligament attaches the patella to the tibial tuberosity.
Tibia and Fibula

Head The proximal end, articulates with the

inferior surface of the lateral condyle of
the tibia below the level of the knee joint to
form the proximal tibiofibular joint.
Lateral  Arrow head shaped projection on the
malleolous distal end that articulates with the
talus of the ankle. This forms the
prominence on the lateral surface of
the ankle.
 Fibula also articulates with the tibia
at the fibular notch to form the distal
tibiofibular joint.

Tibia
Condyles  Proximal ends forms the lateral and a
medial condyle. These articulate with
the condyles of the femur to form the
 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
 The metatarsals articulate proximally with the first, second,
and third cuneiform bones and with the cuboid to form the
tarsometatarsal joints.
 Distally, they articulate with the proximal row of phalanges
to form the metatarsophalangeal joints.
 The first metatarsal is thicker than the others because it
bears more weight.
Phalanges
 The phalanges comprise the distal component of the foot
and resemble those of the hand both in number and
arrangement.
 The toes are numbered 1-5 beginning with the great toe,
from medial to lateral. Each phalanx (singular) consists of a
proximal base, an intermediate shaft, and a distal head.
Tarsals  The great or big toe has two large, heavy phalanges called
 The tarsus (ankle) proximal and distal phalanges.
is the proximal  The proximal phalanges of all toes articulate with the
region of the foot metatarsal bones. The middle phalanges of the toes (2-5)
and consists of articulate with their distal phalanges, while the proximal
seven tarsal phalanx of the great toe (I) articulates with its distal
bones. They phalanx.
include the talus  Joints between phalanges of the foot, like those of the
and calcaneus, hand, are called interphalangeal joints.
located in the Arches of Foot
posterior part of  The bones of the foot
the foot. are arranged in two
arches that are held
 The anterior tarsal in position by
bones are the: ligaments and
 Navicular tendons.
 Three cuneiform bones called the third (lateral), second  The arches enable
(intermediate), and first (medial) the foot to:
 cuboid  support the
 The joints between tarsal bones are called intertarsal weight of the
joints. body
 The talus, the most superior tarsal bone, is the only bone of  provide an ideal distribution of body weight over the soft
the foot that articulates with the fibula and tibia. It and hard tissues of the foot, and
articulates on one side with the medial malleolus of the tibia  provide leverage while walking
and on the other side with the lateral malleolus of the fibula.  The longitudinal arch has two parts, both of which consist
These articulations form the talocrural (ankle) joint. of tarsal and metatarsal bones arranged to form an arch
Metatarsals from the anterior to the posterior part of the foot.
 The metatarsus, the  The medial part of the longitudinal arch, which originates at
intermediate region of the the calcaneus, rises to the talus and descends through the
foot, consists of five navicular, the three cuneiforms, and the heads of the three
metatarsal bones numbered medial metatarsals.
1-5 from the medial to lateral  The medial portion of the longitudinal arch is so high that
position. the medial portion of the foot between the ball and heel
 Like the metacarpals of the does not touch the ground when you walk on a hard
palm of the hand, each surface.
metatarsal consists of a  The lateral part of the longitudinal arch also begins at the
proximal base, an calcaneus. It rises at the cuboid and descends to the heads
intermediate shaft, and a of the two lateral metatarsal
distal head.