Anatomy and Physiology 6th Edition

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CHAPTER
The Skeleton
7

PART 1 THE AXIAL SKELETON

7.1 The skull
The skull consists of 8 cranial bones and 14 facial bones
• Name, describe, and identify the skull bones. Identify their important markings.
• Compare and contrast the major functions of the cranium and the facial skeleton.
• Define the bony boundaries of the orbits, nasal cavity, and paranasal sinuses.
7.2 The vertebral column
The vertebral column is a flexible, curved support structure
• Describe the structure of the vertebral column, list its components, and describe its
curvatures.
• Indicate a common function of the spinal curvatures and the intervertebral discs.
• Discuss the structure of a typical vertebra and describe regional features of cervical,
thoracic, and lumbar vertebrae.
7.3 The thoracic cage
The thoracic cage is the bony structure of the chest
• Name and describe the bones of the thoracic cage (bony thorax).
• Differentiate true from false ribs.

PART 2 THE APPENDICULAR SKELETON

7.4 The pectoral girdle
Each pectoral girdle consists of a clavicle and a scapula
• Identify bones forming the pectoral girdle and relate their structure and arrangement
to the function of this girdle.
• Identify important bone markings on the pectoral girdle.
7.5 The upper limb
The upper limb consists of the arm, forearm, and hand
• Identify or name the bones of the upper limb and their important markings.

7.6 The pelvic girdle

The hip bones attach to the sacrum, forming the pelvic girdle
• Name the bones contributing to the os coxae, and relate the pelvic girdle’s strength
to its function.
• Describe differences in the male and female pelves and relate these to functional
differences.

68 Copyright © 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 7.7 The lower limb
The lower limb consists of the thigh, leg, and foot
• Identify the lower limb bones and their important markings.

Suggested Lecture Outline

PART 1: THE AXIAL SKELETON

7.1 The skull consists of 8 cranial bones and 14 facial bones (pp. 274–200;
Figs. 7.1–7.18; Table 7.1).
A. The cranial and facial bones form the framework of the face, and contain cavities for
special sense organs, provide openings for air and food passage, secure the teeth, and
anchor muscles of facial expression. (p. 174)
B. Except for the mandible, which is joined to the skull by a movable joint, most skull
bones are flat bones joined by interlocking joints called sutures. (p. 174)
C. Overview of Skull Geography (p. 176)
1. The anterior aspect of the skull is formed by facial bones, and the remainder is
formed by a cranium, which is divided into the cranial vault, or calvaria, and cranial
base.
2. The cavities of the skull include the cranial cavity (houses the brain), ear cavities,
nasal cavity, and orbits (house the eyeballs).
3. The skull has about 85 named openings that provide passageways for the spinal cord,
major blood vessels serving the brain, and the cranial nerves.
D. Cranium (pp. 176–185; Figs. 7.1–7.10; Table 7.1).
1. The cranium consists of eight strong, superiorly curved bones. For diagrams, and
detailed descriptions of the functions of each bone or structure, refer to pages listed
in D, above.
Cranium

Location/Part of Cranium
Bone Formed Key Structures

Frontal Anterior cranium Supraorbital margins

Forehead Glabella

Superior wall of orbits Frontal sinus

Anterior cranial fossa Coronal suture

Parietal Superior/lateral cranium Sagittal suture

Cranial vault Lambdoid suture

Squamous suture

Copyright © 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. CHAPTER 7 The Skeleton 69

 Occipital Posterior cranium/cranial base Foramen magnum

Posterior cranial fossa Occiptal condyles

External occipital protuberance
Lambdoid suture
Occipitomastoid suture
Temporal Inferior/lateral cranium Squamous part
Zygomatic process
Mandibular fossa
Tympanic part
External acoustic meatus
Petrous part
Jugular foramen
Carotid canal
Foarmen lacerum
Internal acoustic meatus
Mastoid process
Styloid process
Sphenoid Width of cranial fossa Body
Sphenoid sinuses
Sella turcica
Greater wings
Lesser wings
Pterygoid process
Optic canals
Superior orbital fissure
Ethmoid Bony area between nasal Cribriform plate
cavity and orbits
Crista galli
Perpendicular plate
Superior/middle nasal conchae
Orbital plates

70 INSTRUCTOR’S GUIDE FOR ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY, 6e Copyright © 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.
 E. Facial Bones (pp. 185–187; Fig. 7.11; Table 7.1)
1. The facial skeleton is made up of 14 bones, of which only the mandible and vomer
are unpaired. For diagrams, and detailed descriptions of the functions of each bone or
structure, refer to pages listed in E, above.

Facial Bones

Bone Location Key Structures

Mandible Lower jawbone Ramus

Mandibular angle

Mandibular notch

Coronoid process

Condylar process

Body

Alveolar process

Mental foramina

Maxillary bones Upper jaw, central portion of the Alveolar process

facial skeleton

Anterior nasal spine

Palatine process

Maxillary sinuses

Inferior orbital fissure

Zygomatic Cheekbones

Nasal Bridge of nose

Lacrimal Part of the medial wall of the orbits Lacrimal fossa

Palatine Posterior portion of the hard palate Horizontal plates

Perpendicular plate

Vomer Forms the nasal septum

Inferior Nasal Form part of the lateral wall of the

Conchae nasal cavity

F. The hyoid bone lies inferior to the mandible in the anterior neck. It is the only bone that
does not articulate directly with any other bone (p. 187; Fig. 7.12).

Copyright © 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. CHAPTER 7 The Skeleton 71

 G. Special Characteristics of the Orbits and Nasal Cavity (pp. 187–189; Figs. 7.13–7.15;
Table 7.1)
1. The orbits are bony cavities that contain the eyes, muscles that move the eyes, and
tear-producing glands.
2. The nasal cavity is constructed of bone and hyaline cartilage, covered by a mucous
membrane that serves to warm and moisten inhaled air, and trap debris. For
diagrams, and detailed descriptions of the functions of each bone or structure, refer
to pages listed in G, above.

Special Characteristics of the Orbits and Nasal Cavity

Location Within Orbit Bone
Orbits Roof Frontal
Sphenoid
Lateral wall Frontal
Sphenoid
Zygomatic
Medial wall Sphenoid
Ethmoid
Maxilla
Lacrimal
Floor Palatine
Maxilla
Zygomatic

Location Within Nasal Cavity Bones/Structures

Nasal Roof of cavity Cribriform plate

Cavity
Lateral wall Cribriform plate
Superior, middle, inferior nasal conchae

Inferior nasal conchae

Perpendicular plate of palatine bones
Depressions beneath Superior, middle, and inferior
conchae meatuses
Floor of cavity Palatine process of the maxilla

Palatine process of the palatine bones

Nasal septum Vomer

Perpendicular plate of ethmoid

Septal cartilage

72 INSTRUCTOR’S GUIDE FOR ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY, 6e Copyright © 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.
 4. Paranasal sinuses, located within the frontal, sphenoid, ethmoid, and maxillary bones,
are air-filled spaces, lined with a mucous membrane, that are clustered around the
nasal cavity that lighten the skull and enhance resonance of the voice.

7.2 The vertebral column is a flexible curved support structure (pp. 190–197;
Figs. 7.16–7.22; Table 7.2)
A. General Characteristics (pp. 190–194; Figs. 7.16–7.18)
1. The vertebral column consists of 26 irregular bones, forming a flexible, curved
structure extending from the skull to the pelvis that surrounds and protects the
spinal cord and provides attachment for ribs and muscles of the neck and back.
2. Divisions and Curvatures
a. The vertebrae of the spine fall in five major divisions: seven cervical, twelve
thoracic, five lumbar, five fused vertebrae of the sacrum, and four fused vertebrae
of the coccyx.
b. The curvatures of the spine increase resiliency and flexibility of the spine.
c. The cervical and lumbar curvatures are concave posteriorly, and the thoracic and
sacral curvatures are convex posteriorly.
3. The major supporting ligaments of the spine are the anterior and posterior
longitudinal ligaments, which run as continuous bands down the front and back
surfaces of the spine, supporting the spine and preventing hyperflexion and
hyperextension.
4. Intervertebral discs are cushion-like pads that act as shock absorbers and allow the
spine to flex, extend, and bend laterally.
B. General Structure of Vertebrae (p. 195; Fig. 7.19)
1. For diagrams, and detailed descriptions of the functions of each structure, refer to
pages listed in B, above.

General Structure of Vertebrae

Composite Features of Structures Derived from the

Main Features the Vertebral Arch Vertebral Arch
Body
Vertebral arch
Pedicles
Transverse process
Superior articular process

Inferior articular process

Lamina
Spinous process
Vertebral foramen
Intervertebral
foramen

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 C. Regional Vertebral Characteristics (pp. 195–197; Figs. 7.20–7.22; Table 7.2)
1. For diagrams, and detailed descriptions of the functions of each structure, refer to
pages listed in C, above.

Regional Vertebral Characteristics

Special
Type Number Special Features Special Vertebrae Features
No body or
Cervical 7 Small, oval body Atlas (C1) spinous process
Except for C7, short, Axis (C2) Dens
directly backward-
projecting, bifurcate
spinous process.
Large, triangular
vertebral foramen
Transverse foramen
in each transverse
process.
Thoracic 12 Heart-shaped body
Circular vertebral
foramen
Long, downward-
pointed spinous
process
Transverse costal
facets on most
spinous processes
Superior and inferior
articular facets face
the frontal plane
Lumbar 5 Massive, kidney-
shaped bodies
Short, thick pedicles
and laminae
Short, flat, hatchet-
shaped spinous
processes
Triangular vertebral
foramen

Superior and inferior

articular facets
posteromedial and
anterolateral

74 INSTRUCTOR’S GUIDE FOR ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY, 6e Copyright © 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Sacrum 5 fused Auricular surfaces
articulate with the
coxae to form the
sacroiliac joint

Sacral promontory

Anterior and
posterior sacral
foramina

Sacral canal

Sacral hiatus

Coccyx 4 fused

7.3 The thoracic cage is the bony structure of the chest (pp. 197–200;
Figs. 7.23–7.24)
A. The thoracic cage consists of the thoracic vertebrae dorsally, the ribs laterally, and the
sternum and costal cartilages anteriorly, forming a protective cage around the organs
of the thoracic cavity, and providing support for the shoulder girdles and upper limbs.
For diagrams and detailed descriptions of the functions of each structure, refer to pages
listed in 7.3, above. (pp. 197–199; Fig. 7.23)

Thoracic Cage
Bone Parts Structures Joints
Sternum Manubrium Clavicular notches
Jugular notch
Sternal angle
Body
Xiphisternal angle
Xiphoid process

Type Attachment Structures

Ribs 1–7 True ribs Sternum Head

Neck

Tubercle

Ribs 8–10 False ribs Costal cartilage

Ribs 11–12 False ribs None Floating ribs

Copyright © 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. CHAPTER 7 The Skeleton 75

PART 2: THE APPENDICULAR SKELETON
7.4 Each pectoral girdle consists of a clavicle and a scapula (pp. 201–218;
Figs. 7.25–7.27; Table 7.3)
A. For diagrams, and detailed descriptions of the functions of each structure, refer to pages
listed in 7.4, above.

Pectoral Girdle

Bone Location Key Structures

Clavicle Collarbone Sternal end

Acromial end

Scapula Shoulder blade Superior border

Medial border

Lateral border

Superior angle

Lateral angle

Inferior angle

Glenoid cavity

Spine

Acromion

Coracoid process

Infraspinous fossa

Supraspinous fossa

Subscapular fossa

7.5 The upper limb consists of the arm, forearm, and hand (pp. 204–207;
Figs. 7.28–7.30; Table 7.3)
A. For diagrams, and detailed descriptions of the functions of each structure, refer to pages
listed in 7.5, above.

Upper Limb

Bone Location Key Structures

Humerus Arm Head

Greater tubercle

Lesser tubercle

76 INSTRUCTOR’S GUIDE FOR ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY, 6e Copyright © 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Deltoid tuberosity

Surgical neck

Trochlea

Capitulum

Medial eipcondyle

Lateral epicondyle

Coronoid fossa

Radial fossa

Olecranon fossa

Ulna Medial forearm Olecranon

Coronoid process

Trochlear notch

Radial notch

Styloid process

Radius Lateral forearm Head

Radial tuberosity

Ulnar notch

Styloid process

Carpals Wrist Scaphoid

Lunate

Triquetrum

Pisiform

Trapezium

Trapezoid

Capitate

Hamate

Metacarpals Hand Base

Number 1–5, from Head

thumb to little finger

Copyright © 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. CHAPTER 7 The Skeleton 77

 Phalanges Digits 1–5 Proximal

Digits 2–5 Middle

Digits 1–5 Distal

7.6 The hip bones attach to the sacrum, forming the pelvic girdle (pp. 207–213;
Figs. 7.31–7.32; Tables 7.4–7.5)
A. For diagrams, and detailed descriptions of the functions of each structure, refer to pages
listed in 7.6, above.

Pelvic Girdle

Bone Location Key Structures

Coxa Ilium Superior Acetabulum

Body
Ala
Iliac crest
Anterior superior iliac spine
Anterior inferior iliac spine
Greater sciatic notch

Iliac fossa
Auricular surface

Ischium Posteroinferior Body

Ramus
Ischial spine
Lesser sciatic notch
Ischial tuberosity

Pubis Anteroinferior Body

Superior pubic ramus
Inferior pubic ramus
Pubic crest
Obturator foramen
Pubic symphysis
Pubic arch
Subpubic angle

78 INSTRUCTOR’S GUIDE FOR ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY, 6e Copyright © 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.
 B. Pelvic Structure and Childbearing (p. 211; Table 7.4)
1. The female pelvis tends to be wider, shallower, lighter, and rounder than the male
pelvis, as a modification for childbearing.
2. The pelvis consists of a false pelvis, which is part of the abdomen and helps support
the viscera, and a true pelvis, which is completely surrounded by bone and contains
the pelvic organs.

7.7 The lower limb consists of the thigh, leg, and foot (pp. 213–218;
Figs. 7.33–7.36; Table 7.5)
A. For diagrams, and detailed descriptions of the functions of each structure, refer to pages
listed in 7.7, above.

Lower Limb

Bone Location Key Structures

Femur Thigh Head

Fovea capitis

Greater trochanter

Lesser trochanter

Linea aspera

Medial condyle

Lateral condyle

Medial epicondyle

Lateral epicondyle

Patellar surface

Intercondylar fossa

Patella Knee

Tibia Medial leg Medial condyle

Lateral condyle

Tibial tuberosity

Anterior border

Medial malleolus

Fibular notch

Fibula Lateral leg Head

Lateral malleolus

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 Tarsals Ankle Calcaneus

Talus

Cuboid

Navicular

Medial cuneiform

Intermediate cuneiform

Lateral cuneiform

Metatarsals Foot Number 1–5, from hallux to little toe

Phalanges Digits 1–5 Proximal phalanges

Digits 2–5 Middle phalanges

Digits 1–5 Distal phalanges

1. There are three arches of the foot, the medial and lateral longitudinal arches, and the
transverse arch, which are maintained by interlocking of the foot bones and pulling
forces of tendons and ligaments.

Cross References
Additional information on topics covered in Chapter 7 can be found in the chapters listed
below.

1. Chapter 4: Fibrocartilage; hyaline cartilage

2. Chapter 6: Bone markings; classification of bones
3. Chapter 8: Joints; sutures
4. Chapter 10: Reinforcing muscles for the vertebral column; muscles of the face; muscles
of the thorax; muscles of the upper extremity; muscles of the pelvic girdle; muscles of the
lower extremity
5. Chapter 13: Bones of the middle ear cavity
6. Chapter 21: Bones of the skull that function in the respiratory system

Lecture Hints
1. A good indicator of student comprehension of the spatial relationship among facial bones
is the ability to list the bones making up the eye orbit.
2. Point out during the lecture that the styloid process of the temporal bone is often
damaged during the preparation of a skeleton. As a result, skulls available in the lab may
be lacking this fragile structure.

80 INSTRUCTOR’S GUIDE FOR ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY, 6e Copyright © 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.
 3. Students often have difficulty identifying the sphenoid and ethmoid bones. It is helpful
to show disarticulated specimens during lecture.
4. Point out that all facial bones (except the mandible) articulate with the maxillae.
5. Remembering common mealtimes, 7 AM, 12 noon, and 5 PM, may help students to recall
the number of bones in the three regions of the vertebral column.
6. “Atlas supports the world” can be used to help students remember that the atlas is first
and axis second.
7. Point out that correct anatomical terminology specifies “arm” as the portion between the
shoulder and elbow, and “leg” refers to the portion between the knee and ankle.
8. Although the obturator foramen is large, it is nearly closed by a fibrous membrane in life.
9. In the anatomical position, the radius/ulna and fibula/tibia are in alphabetical order from
the outside.

Activities/Demonstrations
1. Audiovisual materials are listed in the Multimedia in the Classroom and Lab section of
this Instructor Guide. (p. 347)
2. The cranium is remarkably strong for its weight and the thinness of cranial bones. This
is due in part to the curvature of the cranium—a “self-bracing” effect. To demonstrate
this effect, attempt to break an egg by squeezing it in the palm of your (or a student’s)
hand.
3. Give a group of students a thoracic vertebra and a rib and ask them to articulate the two
together.
4. Tie different colors of string around the lamina and pedicle of a vertebra and pass it
around class to enable students to identify these structures more easily.
5. Use an articulated skeleton to indicate its protective and supportive aspects and to
identify individual bones.
6. Obtain a skull with its calvarium cut and a vertebral column to illustrate how these bones
provide protection for the delicate neural tissues.
7. Obtain a skull that shows sutural bones.
8. Use a Beauchene (disarticulated) skull to demonstrate the individual skull bones and
to show the fragile internal structure of bones containing sinuses.
9. Use a disarticulated vertebral column to illustrate similarities/differences between
vertebrae.
10. Point out that the superior articular surface of the atlas is elongated, matching the surface
of the occipital condyle.
11. Obtain X rays that exhibit abnormal spinal curvatures (scoliosis, lordosis, kyphosis).
12. Obtain different ribs and indicate how each is similar and different.
13. Point out differences between the male and female pelves.
14. Obtain a sacrum to show fusion of the vertebrae.
15. Use a fetal skeleton to emphasize the changes in skull and body proportions that occur
after birth, and to point out the fact that initially the skeleton is formed (mostly) of
hyaline cartilage rather than bone.

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Critical Thinking/Discussion Topics
1. List several skeletal landmarks that can be used to guide a nurse or physician in giving
injections, locating areas for surgery, and assisting in the diagnosis of internal conditions.
2. What effect would exaggerated exercise or the complete lack of exercise have on bones
such as the tibia, femur, and humerus if it occurred during childhood? During adulthood?
3. Numerous children are born with a congenital hip defect. Why is this area affected so
often, and what can be done to correct the defect?
4. Years ago, students used to carry large, heavy books on one arm or the other. Today,
most students are using backpacks. What difference, if any, could be detected in the
spinal column between then and now?
5. Humans have short necks and giraffes have long necks. Does the giraffe have more neck
vertebrae to accommodate this extra length? What other similarities or variations can be
found between human bone structure and that of other animals?
6. How is it possible to “taste” eye drops shortly after they are placed in the eye?
7. When a dentist injects novocaine near the mandibular foramen, why does the lower lip
become numb?

Library Research Topics

1. There is a technique known as percutaneous automated discectomy that involves back
surgery without stitches. How safe is it, and when can it be employed?
2. Temporomandibular joint disorders are very common and painful. What methods of
treatment are there and how successful are they?
3. Spinal deviations such as scoliosis are very difficult to repair. What are the current
methods of treatment, both invasive and noninvasive?
4. Paleontologists and archaeologists have unearthed many prehistoric skulls and bones of
human-like creatures and animals. How can they reconstruct the soft features and tissues
of these animals from only their skeletal remains?
5. Trace the origin of congenital disorders such as spina bifida and cleft palate, starting with
the human embryo. What is the explanation for these defects?
6. In the surgical repair of a herniated disc, it may be necessary to remove some of the
nucleus pulposus. The removal may be by conventional surgery or by chemonucleosus.
What are the advantages of the latter procedure?
7. What kinds of skeletal disorders are being surgically repaired in utero? Discuss the status
of research into these techniques.

List of Figures and Tables

All of the figures in the main text are available in JPEG format, PPT, and labeled and unlabeled
format on the Instructor Resource DVD. All of the figures and tables will also be available in
Transparency Acetate format. For more information, go to www.pearsonhighered.com/educator.
Figure 7.1 The human skeleton.
Figure 7.2 The skull: Cranial and facial divisions and fossae.
Figure 7.3 Major cavities of the skull, frontal section.

82 INSTRUCTOR’S GUIDE FOR ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY, 6e Copyright © 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Figure 7.4 Anterior and posterior views of the skull.
Figure 7.5 Bones of the lateral aspect of the skull, external and internal views.
Figure 7.6 Inferior aspect of the skull, mandible removed.
Figure 7.7 The base of the cranial cavity.
Figure 7.8 The temporal bone.
Figure 7.9 The sphenoid bone.
Figure 7.10 The ethmoid bone.
Figure 7.11 Detailed anatomy of the mandible and the maxilla.
Figure 7.12 The hyoid bone, anterior view.
Figure 7.13 Bones that form the orbits.
Figure 7.14 Bones of the nasal cavity.
Figure 7.15 Paranasal sinuses.
Figure 7.16 The vertebral column.
Figure 7.17 Ligaments and fibrocartilage discs uniting the vertebrae.
Figure 7.18 Abnormal spinal curvatures.
Figure 7.19 Typical vertebral structures.
Figure 7.20 The first and second cervical vertebrae.
Figure 7.21 Posterolateral views of articulated vertebrae.
Figure 7.22 The sacrum and coccyx.
Figure 7.23 The thoracic cage.
Figure 7.24 Ribs.
Figure 7.25 The pectoral girdle with articulating bones.
Figure 7.26 The clavicle.
Figure 7.27 The scapula.
Figure 7.28 The humerus of the right arm and detailed views of articulation at
the elbow.
Figure 7.29 Radius and ulna of the right forearm.
Figure 7.30 Bones of the right hand.
Figure 7.31 Pelvis.
Figure 7.32 The hip (coxal) bones.
Figure 7.33 Bones of the right knee and thigh.
Figure 7.34 The tibia and fibula of the right leg.
Figure 7.35 Bones of the right foot.
Figure 7.36 Arches of the foot.
Figure 7.37 Skull of a newborn.
Figure 7.38 Cleft lip and palate.
Figure 7.39 Different growth rates of body parts determine body proportions.
Figure 7.40 The C-shaped spine of a newborn infant.
Table 7.1 Bones of the Skull
Table 7.2 Regional Characteristics of Cervical, Thoracic, and Lumbar Vertebrae
Table 7.3 Bones of the Appendicular Skeleton, Part 1: Pectoral Girdle and Upper Limb
Table 7.4 Comparison of the Male and Female Pelves
Table 7.5 Bones of the Appendicular Skeleton, Part 2: Pelvic Girdle and Lower Limb

Copyright © 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. CHAPTER 7 The Skeleton 83

Answers to End-of-Chapter Questions
Multiple-Choice and Matching Question answers appear in Appendix A-1 of the main text.

Short Answer Essay Questions

4. Cranial bones: parietal, temporal, frontal, occipital, sphenoid, and ethmoid. Facial bones:
mandible, vomer, maxillae, zygomatics, nasals, lacrimals, palatines, and inferior conchae.
Cranial bones provide sites for attachment and enclose and protect the brain. The facial
bones form the framework of the face, hold eyes in position, provide cavities for organs
of taste and smell, secure the teeth, and anchor facial muscles. (pp. 176–185; Table 7.1)
5. At birth, the skull is huge relative to the facial skeleton. During childhood and
adolescence, the face grows out from the skull. By adulthood, the cranial and facial
skeletons are the appropriate proportional size. (p. 185)
6. Normal curves are: cervical, thoracic, lumbar, and sacral. The thoracic and sacral are
primary and exist at birth; the cervical and lumbar are secondary and develop as an
upright posture is attained. (p. 190)
7. Cervical vertebrae possess transverse foramina, have small bodies and bifurcate
spinous processes; thoracic vertebrae possess facets for the ribs and have circular
vertebral foramina; lumbar vertebrae have massive bodies and blunt spines.
(pp. 195–196; Table 7.2)
8. The discs act as shock absorbers and allow the spine to flex and extend (provide
flexibility). (p. 193)
9. The annulus fibrosis, composed of fibrocartilage, is more external and contains the
nucleus pulposus. The nucleus is the semifluid substance enclosed by the annulus. The
annulus provides strength and durability. The nucleus provides resilience. Disc herniation
involves protrusion of the nucleus pulposus through a break in the annulus. (p. 193)
10. a. True ribs attach to the vertebral column and sternum directly at both ends; false ribs
attach at the vertebral column directly, but indirectly anteriorly by having the cartilage
attach to the cartilage of the lowest true rib.
b. A floating rib is a false rib. (p. 200)
11. The pelvic girdle functions to attach and transfer the weight of the body to the lower
limbs. The bones are large, strong, and securely attach the bones of the thigh to the axial
skeleton. The pectoral girdle bones are light and quite mobile to provide flexibility at the
expense of strength and stability. (pp. 207–208)
12. The female pelvis inlet and outlet are wider; the pelvis is shallower, lighter, and rounder
than that of the male; and the ischial tuberosities are farther apart. (p. 211; Table 7.4)
13. Peter was having a little fun with the obturator foramen, the large opening in the hip bone
through which pass some blood vessels and nerves. (p. 211)

84 INSTRUCTOR’S GUIDE FOR ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY, 6e Copyright © 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.
Suggested Readings
Agur, A. M., and A. F. Dalley. Grant’s Atlas of Anatomy. 12th ed. Baltimore: Lippincott
Williams & Wilkins, 2009.
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Banks-Sills, Leslie, et al. “Strain Driven Transport for Bone Modeling at the Periosteal
Surface.” Mathematical Biosciences, 230 (1) (Mar. 2011): 37–44.
Benjamin, Regina M. “Surgeon General’s Perspectives. Bone Health: Preventing
Osteoporosis.” Public Health Reports, 125 (3) (May–June 2010): 368–370.
Clemente, C. D. Anatomy: A Regional Atlas of the Human Body. 5th ed. Baltimore:
Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2007.
Diederichs, S., Shine, K. M., and Tuan, R. S. (2013). “The promise and challenges of stem
cell-based therapies for skeletal diseases.” Bioessays, 35 (3), 220–230.
Jayakumar, P., and L. Di Silvio. “Osteoblasts in Bone Tissue Engineering.” Proceedings of
the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part H: Journal of Engineering in Medicine,
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Kurki, H. K. (2013). “Skeletal variability in the pelvis and limb skeleton of humans: Does
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Standring, Susan. Gray’s Anatomy, The Anatomical Basis of Clinical Practice. 40th ed.
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