Machine Elements

Umut KARAGÜZEL
Introduction

Power
Transmission

Friction Wheel

Dr. Ali Aydeniz

Folie 1
Aims

 To understand detachable joint

 To understand bolt & nut connection
 Static
 Dynamic

Dr. A.I.Aydeniz
Folie 2
Introduction
 A screw thread is formed by cutting a continuous helical
groove on a cylindrical surface. A screw made by cutting
a single helical groove on the cylinder is known as
single threaded (or single-start) screw and if a
second thread is cut in the space between the grooves
of the first, a double threaded (or double-start) screw
is formed.
 Similarly, triple and quadruple (i.e. multiple-start)
threads may be formed. The helical grooves may be cut
either right hand or left hand.
 It is the easiest way to convert angular motion into an
linear (axial) motion (power screws)

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Introduction

 A screwed joint is mainly composed of two elements i.e.

a bolt and nut. The screwed joints are widely used where
the machine parts are required to be readily connected
or disconnected without damage to the machine or the
fastening.
 This may be for the purpose of holding or adjustment in
assembly or service inspection, repair, or replacement or
it may be for the manufacturing or assembly reasons.

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Advantages and Disadvantages
 Screwed joints are highly reliable in operation.
 Screwed joints are convenient to assemble and
disassemble.
 A wide range of screwed joints may be adopted to various
operating conditions.
 Screws are relatively cheap to produce due to
standardisation and highly efficient manufacturing
processes.

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Advantages and Disadvantages
 The main disadvantage of the screwed joints is the stress
concentration in the threaded portions which are
vulnerable points under dynamic loading conditions.
 Not enough accuracy for some applications
 Loosening cannot be prevented however self-disassembly
can be.

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Applications
 Assembly of machinery
 Gearboxes
 Assembly of the machinery to ground
 Steel structures
 Applications where pre-tension is needed
 Oil taps
 To adjust the gap due to wearing etc. (Adjusting bolt)
 Measurement instruments (micrometers etc.)
 Jack, vice etc.
 In applications where convertion of angular motion into
linear motion is needed
 ………………………
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Important Terms Used in Screw Threads

1. Major diameter. It is the largest diameter of an external or internal

screw thread. The screw is specified by this diameter. It is also
known as outside or nominal diameter.
2. Minor diameter. It is the smallest diameter of an external or
internal screw thread. It is also known as core or root diameter.

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 Important Terms Used in Screw Threads

3. Pitch diameter. It is the diameter of an imaginary cylinder, on a cylindrical screw

thread, the surface of which would pass through the thread at such points as to make
equal the width of the thread and the width of the spaces between the threads. It is also
called an effective diameter. In a nut and bolt assembly, it is the diameter at which the
ridges on the bolt are in complete touch with the ridges of the corresponding nut.
4. Pitch. It is the distance from a point on one thread to the corresponding point on the
next.
This is measured in an axial direction between corresponding points in the same axial
plane.
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 Important Terms Used in Screw Threads
5. Lead. It is the distance between two
corresponding points on the same helix. It
may also be defined as the distance which
a screw thread advances axially in one
rotation of the nut. Lead is equal to the
pitch in case of single start threads, it is
twice the pitch in double start, thrice the
pitch in triple start and so on.
6. Crest. It is the top surface of the thread.
7. Root. It is the bottom surface created by the two adjacent flanks of the
thread.
8. Depth of thread. It is the perpendicular distance between the crest and
root.
9. Flank. It is the surface joining the crest and root.
10. Angle of thread. It is the angle included by the flanks of the thread.
11. Slope. It is half the pitch of the thread.

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Important Terms Used in Screw Threads

Slope angle of
thread
Pitch

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Important Terms Used in Screw Threads

Single- Double-threaded Triple-threaded

threaded
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Types of Bolts/Hexagon-head bolt

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Types of Bolts/ Square-headed, allen bolts

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Types of Bolts /Turnscrew bolts

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Types of Bolts/ Countersunk bolts

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Types of Bolts/Special bolts

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Types of Bolts/Studs

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Types of Bolts/Screwed pins

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Types of Bolts/ Special types

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Types of Bolts/ Lag (Sheet metal) screw

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Types of Bolts/ Concrete bolt

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Types of Nuts / Hexagon-headed nuts

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Types of Nuts / Slotted (taçlı) nut

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Types of Nuts/ Square and castle nuts

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Types of Nuts/ Locknut

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Types of Nuts / Special types

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Plain washer

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Spring and springlock washer

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Forms of Screw Threads
Square Threads
 Square and Acme threads are used on screws
when power is to be transmitted. The need for a
standard for such threads is not great.

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Forms of Screw Threads
Metric Threads

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Forms of Screw Threads
Metric Threads Dimensions – Coarse Series

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Forms of Screw Threads
Metric Threads Dimensions – Coarse Series

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Forms of Screw Threads
Metric Threads Dimensions – Fine Series

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Forms of Screw Threads
Whitwort threads

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Vida profilleri
Trapezoid Thread

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 Forms of Screw Threads
Buttress Thread

It is used for transmission of power in one direction only. The force is transmitted
almost parallel to the axis. This thread units the advantage of both square and V-
threads. It has a low frictional resistance characteristics of the square thread and
have the same strength as that of V-thread. The spindles of bench vices are usually
provided with buttress thread.

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Forms of Screw Threads
Knuckle Thread

It is also a modification of square thread. It has rounded top and bottom. It

can be cast or rolled easily and can not economically be made on a machine.
These threads are used for rough and ready work. They are usually found on
railway carriage couplings, hydrants, necks of glass bottles and large
moulded insulators used in electrical trade.
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Tolerances

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Tolerances
Tolerance Grades

Grade Tolerances Applications

Fine 4H, 5H/ 4h Precision is of a particular importance

Standart 6H/6g Common applications

Coarse 7H/8g Precision is not critical

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Designation of Screw Threads
According to related ISO standards, the complete designation of
the screw thread shall include:
1. Size designation. The size of the screw thread is designated by
the letter `M' followed by the diameter and pitch, the two being
separated by the sign ×. When there is no indication of the pitch, it
shall mean that a coarse pitch is implied.
2. Tolerance designation. This shall include
(a) A figure designating tolerance grade as indicated below:
‘7’ for fine grade, ‘8’ for normal (medium) grade, and ‘9’ for coarse
grade.
(b) A letter designating the tolerance position as indicated
below :
‘H’ for unit thread, ‘d’ for bolt thread with allowance, and ‘h’ for bolt
thread without allowance.
For example, A bolt thread of 6 mm size of coarse pitch and with
allowance on the threads and normal (medium) tolerance grade is
designated as M6-8d.
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Assembly and Disassembly
Wrenches – hexagonal

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Assembly and Disassembly
Wrenches

hexagonal 12 edge

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Assembly and Disassembly
Wrenches

Allen
Socket

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 Assembly and Disassembly
Special Wrenches

Crescent
wrench

Universal wrench

Adjustabl
e crescent
wrench

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Assembly and Disassembly
Torque wrenches

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Bolt Manufacturing
 Machining (manual)
 Tap and die

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Machining Thread on a Lathe

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Bolt and Nut Manufacturing

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Materials for Bolt
Bolt grades

Strength Grades
3.6 4.6 4.8 5.6 5.8 6.6 6.8 6.9 8.8 10.9 12.9 14.9

Multiplication of the two

First number is the
1/100 of the
ultimate strength of
the bolt material in
N/mm2
numbers is the 1/10 of the
yield strength of the bolt Example: 8.8 grade
material in N/mm2 ult=8.100=800 N/mm2
y=8.8.10=640 N/mm2

Strength Grades for Nut

4 5 6 8 10 12 14

The number is the 1/100 of the ultimate Machine

strength of the bolt material in N/mm2 Design I
 Technical Drawings

Bolted Joint Bolted Joint Stud Elastic Bolted

(with nut) (without nut) Joints Joint

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Locking Devices
Ordinary thread fastenings, generally, remain tight under static loads, but
many of these fastenings become loose under the action of variable loads or
when machine is subjected to vibrations. The loosening of fastening is very
dangerous and must be prevented.

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Application of spring washer

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Locking Devices

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Tightening – Untightening
Torque
Axial Force

Normal
Force

With no friction

Circumferential
Force
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Tightening and Untightening

Torque needed to overcome the

resistance of bolt
d2
M T  FU 
2
d2
M T  FS   tan(   )
2
d2
M T  Fpre   tan(   ) With friction,
Load 2 raising load
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Tightening and Untightening

Torque needed to overcome the

resistance of bolt
d2
Mç  FU 
2
d2
Mç  FS   tan(   )
2
d2 With friction,
M ç  Fpre   tan(   ) lowering load
Load 2
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 Tightening and Untightening
Effect of the angle of thread

Angle of
thread

Metric V-
profile

Due to the angle of the

thread, the force normal to
the surface of the thread is Frictional
different than the axial Force
force.
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Tightening and Untightening
Considering the angle of thread

Torque needed to overcome

the resistance of bolt

d2
M T  FS   tan(   )
2
d2
M T  Fpre   tan(   )
2
Load With friction,
raising the load
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Tightening and Untightening
Friction between nut and surface
 During tightening, not only the frictional forces on the
threads but also the friction between the nut and the
contact surface has to be overcomed.
Torque needed to
overcome the friction
between the nut and the
surface

DK
M S . A  Fpre   
2
DK1,4.d

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Tightening and Untightening
Final equation

d2 DK
M T ,Ç  Fpre  (  tan(   )   K  )
2 2
Mean nut
Load Mean diameter diameter

tan   

cos
2
P Coefficient
tan   of friction
  d2
Pitch

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Self-locking
Torque needed to untighten the bolt
d2
M ç  Fpre   tan(   )  0
2
In this case the bolt is self-locking.

For self-locking



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 Efficiency
Useful work
Efficiency=
Total energy spent
Fpre  P

2   MT

Fpre  P P
 
d2
2    Fpre   tan(   )
   d 2  tan(   )
2
tan  tan(   )
  Untightening
Tightening tan(   ) tan 
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Efficiency with self-locking
tan 

tan(   )
Self-locking limit   
Organize the efficiency equation
tan tan 
  
tan(   ) tan  tan      
With the self-locking condition
 
 1
   
       2 2
Thus, the efficiency of a self-locking bolt cannot be more than 50%.
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 Efficiency – slope angle of thread relation

Untightening
tan(   )

tan 
Efficiency

Tightening

tan 
Untightening – self-locking limit 
Tightening – self-locking limit tan(   )
Connecting screw region

Thread Slope Angle

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Calculations under Static Loading

 Stress area

Stress area of a
bolt is a little
larger than the
minor diameter
area.

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Calculations Under Static Loading
Tension and Torsion
Fpre
ç 
As
d2
MT Fpre   tan(   ) d
b   rmax  2  s
Ip   d s4 2
32
Equivalent Stress (Von-mises hypothesis)

 v    3 2
ç
2
b

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Pre-loaded Joints
Threads under dynamic loading
 In general, the loading on pre-loaded bolts are
changing from zero to a maximum.
 In addition to pre-loading, vibrations also affects
the joint.
 Examples; internal combustion engine,
compressors, pressurized vessels etc.

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Pre-loaded Joints
Threads under dynamic loading

Before assembly, Under operational

No deformation loading,
After assembly, Bolt elongated more
Bolt elongated, part and the compression on
compressed part decreases.
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Pre-loaded Joints
Threads under dynamic loading

Force

Bolt

Part

Elongation Machine
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Pre-loaded Joints/Threads under dynamic loading

Pre-loading
triangle
Number of bolts
piş  A piston
Fiş 
z
Fiş  Fz  Fb

F z  C z   z Fb  CD   D Force

Bolt stiffness Member stiffness

Elongation Machine
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 Pre-loaded Joints/Threads
under dynamic loading
Pre-loading
triangle

Fiş  C z   z  CD   D
 z   D and

Fz  C z   z
are solved together.
Then; Force

Cz CD
Fz  Fiş  Fb  Fiş 
Cz  CD Cz  CD Elongation Machine
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Pre-loaded Joints/ Threads under dynamic
loading –Changes on the load

Force
Cz
Fz  Fiş 
Cz  CD

CD
Fb  Fiş 
Cz  CD

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 Pre-loaded Joints/ Bolt Stiffness
Cz CD
Fz  Fiş  Fb  Fiş 
Cz  CD Cz  CD
In order the calculate the Fz and Fb , bolt and member stiffness are to be
determined.
Ec .A c
The stiffness of a bar under uniaxial tensile loading Cz 
lc
1 1 1 1
If the bolt has different cross-sections as shown below    
Cz C1 C2 C3

E1  A1
E2  A 2 E3  A 3
l1
l2 l3

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 Pre-loaded Joints
Member Stiffness
The same equation holds. The problem is to calculate the area that is
under deformation. There are three cases:
ED .A D
CD 
lD

If dW + lK < DA
If DA<dw
    
2

 If dW ≤ DA ≤ dW + lK A D   (d  d )   dw  lk   3
2 2 lk d w
 1  1
AD   (D2A  dh2 ) 4
w h
8  (lk  dw )
2

4   

   l  d 
2

A D   (dw  dh )   dw  (D A  dw )   3
2 2 k w
 1  1
  Machine
2
4 8 D 
 A
 Design I
Pre-loaded Joints/ Location of the load
If the forces due to operation act on the contact surface between the bolt and the
member, then this is a critical situation. However, this is not common. Thus, the
location of the operational load changes the stress distribution on the bolt
dramatically.

l
n
lK
1
fz 
Cz
1
fD 
CD

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Pre-loaded Joints / Location of the load
 Some joint examples

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Pre-loaded Joints
Effect of the
location of the load

The location of the operational load

on bolted joint affects the stress
distribution on the bolt drastically.

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Pre-loaded Joints/Stress amplitude on
bolt

If the extra dynamic load is in If the dynamic load is in between

between = 0...Fz = Fz min...Fz max

(Fz maks  Fz min ) / 2

Fz / 2
g 
g  AS
AS Machine
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Pre-loaded Joints / Elastic bolts
In order to decrease the amount of the stress amplitude on bolt, the
dynamic loading acting on the bolt should be decreased.
Fz / 2
g 
AS
Cz
Force
Fz  Fiş 
Cz  CD

Ec .A c
Elongation Cz 
lc
Examples to
elastic bolts and
studs

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 Pre-loaded Joints/ Fatigue strength

Smith diagram
for bolts
Stress Amplitude

Mean Stress

Test Specimen, polished, no notch

M10, standard 10.9 grade bolt Machine
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Pre-loaded Joints
Fatigue strength of tempered bolts

Fatigue Strength
Bolt
Stress Amplitude

Mean Stress
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Importance of the stress distribution

Critical cross-sections on a tension test

%15 %20 %65

Why ???
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Importance of the stress distribution

Most of the stress occurs on

the first a couple of threads
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Importance of the stress distribution
Solution: Elastic nuts

Elastic nuts

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Importance of the stress distribution
Smoothen the stress distribution

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Importance of the stress distribution
Smoothen the stress distribution Helicoil

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Power Screws
 A power screw is a device used in a machinery to change
angular motion into linear motion, and, usually, used to
transmit power.
 It is also commonly used to obtain big pre-load with a
relatively small tangential force.
 In these application, the efficiency of the screw is
important.
 Familiar applications include the lead screws of lathes,
and the screws for vises, presses, jacks....
 Calculation steps are similar. Extra steps are the
calculation of bearing stress on screw threads and the
buckling.
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Power Screws / Differential screws
Used to decrease the linear motion. Screws are in the same direction
but have different pitch.

P1>P2

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Power Screws/ Integral Screws
Used to increase the linear motion. The screws are in opposite
direction and the pitch of the screws may be different.
P1>,=,<P2

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Power Screws / Examples

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Power Screws / Examples

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 Power Screws/ Bearing of the threads
and the nut height
p
F
 pallow F P
m  zP 
z    d 2  H1   d 2  H1  pallow

Number of
threads
under loading
Screw material Nut material Pallow [N/mm2]
Steel Steel 8
Cast iron 2...5...7
Brass 7...10
Plastic 2 (max. vel 30
m/min)
5 (max. vel 10
m/min) Machine
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Steel (hardened) Brass ...15