Professional Documents
Culture Documents
RADIOGRAPHIC TESTING
General
Editor:
NDE CENTER
DEPARTMENT OF NAVAL ARCHITECTURE AND SHIPBUILDING ENGINEERING
FACULTY OF MARINE TECHNOLOGY
SEPULUH NOPEMBER INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY (ITS) – SURABAYA
Kampus ITS Sukolilo
Surabaya 60111
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Rev. 0, - 17 November 2009
CONTENTS
page
CHAPTER ONE 7
Applications of Radiography 7
Advantages of Radiography 7
Limitations of RT 7
Safety Considerations 8
CHAPTER TWO 12
What is Radiation? 13
CHAPTER THREE 21
Radiographic Sensitivity 21
CHAPTER FOUR 31
Identification of Elements 33
Radioactive Materials 34
Measurements of Radioactivity 37
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CHAPTER FIVE 40
High-speed Electrons 49
Half-value Layer 51
Particulate Radiation 52
CHAPTER SIX 55
X-ray Equipment 55
X-rays Spectrum 57
Transformer 61
CHAPTER SEVEN 70
Isotopes Equipment 76
CHAPTER EIGHT 79
Subject Contrast 79
Radiation Energy 80
Film Contrast 83
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H & D (Hurter & Driffield) Curves 84
CHAPTER NINE 90
Dark Room 90
Safelight 90
Radiographic Fims 91
Tank Processing 93
Fixer 96
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Time 130
Distance 131
Shielding 134
Screens 140
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Filters 154
Fluoroscopy 169
Xeroradiography 172
Stereoradiography 173
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Introduction 177
REFERENCES 200
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CHAPTER ONE
APPLICATIONS OF RADIOGRAPHY PENGGUNAAN RADIOGRAFI
Because of the penetration and absorption Karena kemampuan penembusan dan penyerapan
capabilities of X and gamma rays radiation, radiasi sinar X dan gamma, radiografi digunakan
radiography is used to test a variety of untuk menguji bermacam-macam produk seperti
products such as welds, castings, forgings, sambungan las, cor-coran, benda tempa, dan hasil
and fabrications. fabrikasi.
Radiographic testing is one of the PRIMARY Pengujian radiografi adalah salah satu METODA
NONDESTRUCTIVE TEST METHODS in use UTAMA PENGUJIAN TANPA MERUSAK yang
today. banyak dipakai saat ini.
Radiographic testing usually requires EXPO- Pada pengujian radiografi disyaratkan adanya
SING FILM to X or gamma rays that have PENGEKSPOSAN FILM pada sinar X atau gamma
penetrated a specimen, PROCESSING the yang telah menembus spesimen, PEMROSESAN
exposed film, and INTERPRETING the resultant film yang telah terekspos, dan INTERPRETASI hasil
radiograph. yang terekam pada film radiografi tersebut.
LIMITATIONS OF RT KETERBATASAN RT
1. Impracticable to use on specimens of 1. Tidak bisa dipakai pada benda dengan
complex geometry. bentuk yang kompleks.
2. The specimen must lend itself to two-side 2. Mengharuskan adanya akses dari kedua sisi
accessibility. spesimen.
3. Laminar type discontinuities are often 3. Diskontinuitas laminar seringkali tidak
undetected by RT. terdeteksi.
4. Safety considerations imposed by X and 4. Pertimbangan keselamatan akibat bahaya
gamma rays must be considered. radiasi sinar X dan gamma.
5. It is a relatively expensive means of 5. Metoda pengujian tanpa merusak yang
nondestructive testing. relatip mahal.
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SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS PERTIMBANGAN KESELAMATAN
Because radiation cannot be detected by any Karena radiasi tidak dapat dideteksi oleh kelima
of our five senses, strict compliance with safety indera kita, maka disyaratkan peraturan
regulations is required. keselamatan yang ketat.
Radiation can cause damage to, or destruction Radiasi dapat menyebabkan kerusakan pada sel-
of, the cells of living tissue. sel makhluk hidup.
It is essential that radiographic test personnel Adalah penting bagi personil uji radiografi untuk
be continually aware of the radiation hazard menyadari bahaya radiasi dan pentingnya menaati
and cognizant of safety regulations. Radiation peraturan keselamatan. Peralatan pemonitor
monitoring equipment is covered in Chapters radiasi akan dijelaskan dalam Bab 10, 11, dan 12.
10, 11, and 12.
Certification of NDT personnel is the responsi- Sertifikasi personil NDT merupakan tanggung
bility of the employer and is usually at THREE jawab perusahaan dan biasanya dibagi menjadi
levels. TIGA level.
Level I – is qualified to properly perform spe- Level I – memiliki kualifikasi untuk melakukan
cific calibrations, specific NDT, and kalibrasi, NDT, dan evaluasi tertentu
specific evaluations for acceptance untuk menentukan penerimaan atau
or rejection determinations accor- penolakan dengan mengacu pada
ding to written instructions and to pedoman tertulis, dan untuk merekam
record results. Should receive the hasil. Menerima perintah dan
necessary instruction and supervi- pengawasan seperlunya dari NDT level II
sion from a certified NDT Level II or atau III.
III individual.
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Level II – is qualified to set up and calibrate Level II – memiliki kualifikasi untuk mengatur dan
equipment and to interpret and mengkalibrasi peralatan dan menginter-
evaluate results with respect to pretasi serta mengevaluasi hasil dengan
applicable codes, standards, and mengacu pada code, standard, dan
specifications. Should be thoroughly spesifikasi yang berlaku. Mengenal
familiar with the scope and limi- dengan baik lingkup dan batasan
tations of the methods for which metoda dimana ia terkualifikasi.
qualified. Should exercise assigned Melakukan tanggung jawab yang
responsibility for on-the-job training dibebankan untuk memberikan petunjuk
and guidance of trainees and NDT kepada siswa dan NDT Level I. Mampu
Level I personnel. Should be able to mengorganisir dan membuat laporan
organize and report the results of hasil pengujian NDT.
NDT tests.
Level III – Should be capable of developing, Level III – mampu mengembangkan, mengkualifi-
qualifying, and approving proce- kasi, dan menyetujui prosedur, menyu-
dures, establishing and approving sun dan menyetujui teknik, menginter-
techniques, interpreting codes, stan- pretasi code, standard, dan prosedur;
dards, specifications, and proce- dan menunjuk metoda NDT tertentu,
dures; and designating the particular teknik, dan prosedur yang akan diguna-
NDT methods, techniques, and kan. Mampu menginterpretasi dan
procedures to be used. Should be mengevaluasi hasil sesuai code,
capable of interpreting and eva- standard, dan spesifikasi yang ada.
luating results in terms of existing Memiliki latar belakang kemampuan
codes, standards, and specifica- praktis yang mencukupi dalam aplikasi
tions. Should have sufficient practical material, fabrikasi, dan teknologi
background in applicable materials, produksi yang berlaku untuk menyusun
fabrication, and product technology teknik dan untuk membantu dalam
to establish techniques and to assist menetapkan kriteria penerimaan dimana
in establishing acceptance criteria tidak tercakup dalam code, standard,
when none are otherwise available. atau spesifikasi yang ada. Memiliki
Should have general familiarity with pengetahuan tentang semua metoda
other appropriate NDT methods. NDT. Mampu mengadakan pelatihan
Should be capable of training and dan pengujian terhadap personil NDT
examining NDT Level I and II Level I dan II untuk disertifikasi pada
personnel for certification in those metode NDT tertentu.
methods.
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ASNT provides a service to the industry by ASNT menyediakan layanan kepada industri
providing Level III examination in the basic and dengan mengadakan ujian Level III dalam bidang
method areas. Because of the individual basic dan method. Mengingat banyaknya persya-
requirements of the many industries using NDT, ratan industri pengguna NDT yang berbeda-beda,
the specific examination is still the responsibility ujian specific masih merupakan tanggung jawab
of the employer. perusahaan.
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CHAPTER ONE
REVIEW
_______ 1. The selection of one test method over another is usually the decision of the Level I
technician performing the test.
_______ 2. ASNT provides a service for examining Level I, II and III personnel in the General
and Specific areas.
_______ 3. The responsibility of issuing a certificate to the NDT technician is always given to
the employer if the SNT-TC-1A document is to be complied with.
_______ 5. If the SNT-TC-1A guidelines are followed, the Level III technician should have a
knowledge of other commonly used methods of NDT even though certification is
needed only in the radiographic area.
_______ 7. To comply with the guidelines of SNT-TC 1A, all three levels of technicians must
take a “General”, “Practical” and “Specific” test if examinations are used to
determine certification.
_______ 8. It is essential that every employer that uses the SNT-TC-1A document establish a
“Written Practice”.'
_______ 9. If an employer does not have a Level III in his company, the services of an outside
agency may be retained to perform these function.
_______ 10. An advantage of radiography is that it reveals internal discontinuities with access
to only one side of the part being inspected.
_______ 11. Both X and gamma rays have the ability to penetrate castings and weldments.
_______ 12. To work in radiography, the technician must have all five of his/her physical
senses tested by a doctor to help protect against excessive radiation exposure.
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CHAPTER TWO
PENETRATION AND ABSORPTION PENEMBUSAN DAN PENYERAPAN
X and gamma rays possess the capability of Sinar X dan gamma memiliki kemampuan untuk
penetrating materials. menembus material.
In passing through matter, the amount of Saat menembus benda, banyaknya penyerapan di
absorption at any point is dependent upon the suatu lokasi tergantung pada ketebalan dan
thickness and density at that point. densitas pada lokasi tersebut.
When this variation is detected and recorded Apabila variasi tersebut dideteksi dan direkam
(usually on film), a means of imaging the (biasanya pada film), maka dimungkinkan
internal structure of the material is available. pencitraan struktur bagian dalam material.
The latent image produced in the film becomes Citra laten yang dihasilkan pada film akan menjadi
a shadow picture of the specimen when the gambar bayangan spesimen apabila film tersebut
film is processed. diproses.
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WHAT IS RADIATION ? APAKAH RADIASI ITU?
X and gamma-rays are a FAMILY OF WAVES Sinar X dan gamma adalah ANGGOTA KELUARGA
that are called ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES. GELOMBANG yang dinamai GELOMBANG
ELEKTROMAGNETIK.
ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
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Wavelength is described as the distance Panjang gelombang didefinisikan sebagai jarak
between the peaks of the wave. antara dua puncak gelombang.
These waves can vary tremendously in Gelombang-gelombang tersebut panjangnya
length. Some radio waves are several miles sangat bervariasi. Beberapa gelombang radio
long while X and gamma rays are measured bermil-mil panjangnya, sedangkan sinar X dan
in “ANGSTROM UNITS”. gamma panjang gelombangnya diukur dalam
satuan “ANGSTROM”.
An Angstrom Unit is equal to 0.00000001 Satu Angstrom setara dengan 0.00000001
(10-8 billionths) centimeter. One (10-8 miliar) sentimeter. Satu sentimeter
centimeter is equal to 0.394 inch. setara dengan 0.394 inchi.
A = 8 c.p.s
B = 4 c.p.s
C = 2 c.p.s
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The FREQUENCY AND WAVELENGTH of Besarnya FREKUENSI DAN PANJANG GELOM-
electromagnetic waves are inversely BANG elektromagnetik adalah berbanding terbalik
proportional. secara proporsional.
This means that when one increases, the Ini berarti apabila salah satu dibesarkan, yang
other decreases by a proportionate amount. lainnya berkurang secara proporsional.
Double one and the other reduced by Melipatgandakan salah satunya akan
one half. mengurangi yang lain menjadi setengahnya.
All X and gamma rays are considered to have Semua sinar X dan gamma dianggap memiliki
the same amplitude or height or the same amplitudo atau ketinggian atau puncak energi
energy peak within each wave. yang sama untuk tiap-tiap gelombang.
However, while it is true that each wave of Namun demikian, tiap-tiap gelombang di atas
the two waves shown above has an equal memiliki energi yang sama meskipun mereka
energy, they do have different frequencies memiliki frekuensi dan panjang gelombang
and wavelengths. yang berbeda.
In the example below, the high-frequency ray Pada contoh di bawah, sinar berfrekuensi tinggi
has 4 times as many waves as the low- memiliki gelombang sebanyak empat kali sinar
frequency ray, therefore 4 times more energy berfrekuensi rendah, oleh karenanya dikatakan
peaks. memiliki puncak energi empat kali lebih banyak.
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The MOST IMPORTANT DIFFERENCE to the PERBEDAAN PALING PENTING antara cahaya
radiographer between light rays and X and tampak dan sinar X dan gamma bagi radiografer
gamma rays is their PENETRATING ABILITY. adalah KEMAMPUAN PENEMBUSANNYA.
Visible light is stopped by opaque Cahaya tampak akan dihentikan oleh obyek
substances. yang tak tembus pandang.
However, because X-rays have such a high Namun demikian karena sinar X memiliki
frequency and short wavelength, they are frekuensi tinggi dan panjang gelombang yang
able to penetrate opaque objects and pendek, mereka mampu menembus benda-
expose photographic film. benda dan mengekspos film radiografi.
The depth of penetration of the ray depends Kedalaman penembusan sinar X tergantung
upon the kind of material in the object and pada jenis material obyek dan energi sinar X
the energy of the ray. tersebut.
Figure above shows that more of the rays pass Gambar di atas memperlihatkan lebih banyak sinar
through the iron than pass through the lead; yang menembus besi daripada yang menembus
therefore, the lead has absorbed more rays timbal; oleh karenanya timbal menyerap lebih
than the iron. banyak sinar ketimbang besi.
Remember from the spectrum that X-ray Ingat dari spektrum cahaya bahwa energi sinar X
energy is dependent on the frequency and tergantung pada frekuensi dan panjang
wavelength. gelombangnya.
The higher energy is obtained from X and Energi yang lebih besar diperoleh dari sinar X
gamma rays with a high frequency and short dan gamma yang memiliki frekuensi tinggi dan
wavelength. panjang gelombang yang pendek.
It is important to note that X and gamma rays of Perlu dicatat bahwa sinar-sinar X dan gamma
the same frequency and wavelength have dengan frekuensi dan panjang gelombang yang
identical properties. sama akan memiliki sifat yang serupa.
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Also important in using X and gamma rays is Sinar X dan gamma memiliki sifat merambat dalam
the characteristic of traveling in a straight line. garis lurus.
The radiation produces the image of a Radiasi menghasilkan citra spesimen – seperti
specimen – just as a shadow picture of an halnya gambar bayangan dari sebuah benda yang
object can be produced with a strong light and disinari oleh cahaya terang dan akan tampak pada
a screen: layar:
X and gamma rays can expose photographic Sinar X dan gamma dapat mengekspos film radio-
film because of their ability to ionize materials. grafi karena kemampuannya mengionisasi
material.
When the radiation penetrates the film, the film Saat radiasi menembus film, film terekspos karena
is exposed because the rays ionize the tiny sinar mengionisasi butiran-butiran kecil perak
silver bromide grains in the film emulsion. bromida di dalam emulsi film.
When the ray passes through the silver Ketika sinar tersebut melalui lapisan perak
bromide layer, it breaks the electron bond bromida, ia memecah ikatan elektron antara
between the silver and bromine, creating perak dan brom, menghasilkan ion-ion perak
silver ions and bromine ions. dan brom.
The presence of the silver ion in the Terbentuknya ion perak di dalam emulsi
emulsion is the LATENT IMAGE. menghasilkan CITRA LATEN (TERSEMBUNYI).
Later development (will be discussed in Proses selanjutnya (akan didiskusikan pada
Chapter 9) removes the bromine ion and Bab 9) menghilangkan ion brom dan menam-
adds an electron to the silver ion, leaving bahkan elektron pada ion perak, menghasilkan
metallic silver to darken the film where the logam perak untuk menggelapkan film pada
ray has passed. daerah lewatnya sinar.
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The specimen itself is an important considera- Karakteristik spesimen merupakan faktor penting
tion in making a radiograph. yang perlu dipertimbangkan dalam radiografi.
Enough rays must penetrate the objective to Intensitas sinar yang cukup harus menembus
form an image but too many rays will obyek untuk menghasilkan citra, namun
overexpose the film. intensitas sinar yang terlalu tinggi akan
mengekspose film secara berlebihan.
“ABSORPTION” is the ability of the “PENYERAPAN” adalah kemampuan spesimen
specimen to block the passage of X-rays untuk menghalangi jalannya sinar X saat
through the material. menembus material.
When the film is developed, the exposed Saat film diproses, bagian yang terekspos berubah
portion turns dark while the unexposed portion menjadi gelap sedangkan bagian yang tidak
will be clear. terekspos akan bersih.
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The formation of an image on the film depends Pembentukan citra pada film tergantung pada
upon the amount of radiation received by banyaknya radiasi yang diterima oleh bagian-
different sections of the film. bagian yang berbeda pada film.
As shown below, a discontinuity such as a void Seperti ditunjukkan di bawah ini, sebuah diskonti-
represents a thickness difference in the nuitas seperti rongga menghasilkan perbedaan
specimen and will appear as a dark spot on the ketebalan pada spesimen dan akan tampak
developed film. sebagai bintik hitam pada film yang telah diproses.
If the discontinuity shown above had been an Jika diskontinuitas di atas merupakan sebuah
inclusion that was more dense than the inklusi yang lebih padat dibandingkan material
specimen material, then the image on the film spesimen, maka citra pada film akan lebih terang
would have been lighter at that spot. pada titik tersebut.
The X-rays would have been absorbed by Sinar X akan diserap oleh inklusi yang lebih
the dense inclusion. padat tersebut.
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CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW
_______ 1. The “latent image”' refers to an image on the radiograph that cannot be seen
without the aid a high intensity viewer.
_______ 2. Visible light has a longer wavelength than X and gamma rays.
_______ 4. The higher the “amplitude” of an electromagnetic wave, the higher the energy.
_______ 5. High frequency and short wavelength rays are best able to penetrate opaque
materials.
_______ 6. X-rays have a higher frequency than visible light and therefore have a higher
velocity.
_______ 7. Because an X-ray travels in a straight line, it has the ability to penetrate objects
and form a similar image on photographic film.
_______ 8. The term “absorption” refers to the ability of a material to permit X-rays to
penetrate without loss of energy.
_______ 9. When X-ray film is developed, the portion that was exposed to radiation turns
dark.
_______ 10. The wavelength of a typical X-ray is usually considered to be several miles long.
_______ 11. Wavelength is usually described as the distance between two angstrom units.
_______ 12. Frequency is usually described as the number of electromagnetic waves that
pass a given point in one second.
_______ 13. If the discontinuity in an object was less dense than the specimen, then it would
appear on the film as a dark spot.
_______ 14. Angstrom units are used to measure the wavelength of X and gamma rays.
_______ 15. A “cycle”' is considered to be one complete wave either from peak to peak or
trough to trough.
_______ 16. The “frequency” of an X or gamma ray is measured in cycles per second.
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CHAPTER THREE
RADIOGRAPHIC SENSITIVITY SENSITIVITAS RADIOGRAFI
Before a radiograph can be of any use as a Sebelum film radiografi dipakai sebagai alat uji
nondestructive testing tool, we must have some tanpa merusak, kita harus mengetahui seberapa
idea how accurate the tool is. akurat alat tersebut.
This measure of accuracy is called the Ukuran keakuratan ini dinamakan “SENSITIVITAS”
“SENSITIVITY” of the radiograph. film radiografi.
SENSITIVITY in a radiograph is a function of the SENSITIVITAS film radiografi adalah fungsi dari
“CONTRAST” and the “DEFINITION” of the “KONTRAS” dan “DEFINISI” dari film radiografi
radiograph. tersebut.
CONTRAST is the comparison between film KONTRAS adalah perbandingan densitas di
densities for different areas of the daerah yang berbeda pada film radiografi
radiograph as shown below. seperti diperlihatkan di bawah ini.
Film “A” shows HIGHER CONTRAST than Film “A” memperlihatkan KONTRAS YANG
film “B”. LEBIH BESAR ketimbang film “B”.
DEFINITION is the line of demarcation DEFINISI adalah garis batas antara daerah-
between areas of different densities. daerah yang densitasnya berbeda.
If the image is clear and sharp the Jika citranya bersih dan tajam, film radiografi
radiograph is said to have GOOD dikatakan memiliki DEFINISI YANG BAGUS
DEFINITION as shown below. seperti dalam gambar di bawah.
Film “B” shows BETTER DEFINITION than Film “B” memperligatkan DEFINISI YANG LEBIH
film “A”. BAIK ketimbang film “A”.
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INHERENT UNSHARPNESS is caused by free KETIDAKTAJAMAN BAWAAN disebabkan oleh
electrons that are generated by the elektron bebas yang dihasilkan oleh sinar
radiographic ray as it passes through the film. radiografi saat melewati film.
This scattering of free electrons (shown Hamburan elektron bebas di dalam film
below) through the film causes the film to be mengakibatkan film menjadi terekspos pada
exposed wherever the electrons travel. daerah lewatnya elektron.
The scattering causes some degree of Hamburan ini mengakibatkan “ketidaktajaman”
“fuzzy” edges on the image that cannot be sisi-sisi citra yang tak dapat dihindari.
avoided.
On the left is a radiograph that would be Gambar sebelah kiri adalah film radiografi
obtained if there was no internal scatter. yang diperoleh jika tidak ada hamburan
On the right is shown a loss of definition dalam. Gambar sebelah kanan memperli-
caused by the internal scatter. hatkan hilangnya definisi akibat hamburan
dalam.
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2. SIDE SCATTER originates from walls or 2. HAMBURAN SISI berasal dari dinding atau
any other objects nearby that are in the obyek lainnya yang berdekatan dengan
path of the primary ray, approaches the lintasan sinar utama, mendekati film dan
specimen and film from the side. spesimen dari sisi.
Side scatter causes a blurring of the Hamburan sisi menyebabkan pengaburan
edge of the image. This effect is called sisi citra. Efek ini dinamakan “edge cutting”
“edge cutting” or “undercutting”. atau “undercutting”.
On the left is a radiograph that would be Gambar sebelah kiri adalah film yang
obtained if there was no side scatter. diperoleh tanpa hamburan sisi. Gambar
On the right is shown a loss of definition sebelah kanan memperlihatkan hilangnya
caused by the side scatter. definisi film akibat adanya hamburan sisi.
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3. BACK SCATTER originates from any 3. HAMBURAN BELAKANG berasal dari
material: wall, floor, table top, or sembarang material: dinding, lantai, atas
cassette that is located in back of the meja, atau kaset yang letaknya di belakang
film. film.
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Penumbra cannot be completely eliminated Penumbra tidak dapat sepenuhnya dihilangkan
because a point source cannot be obtained in karena sumber berupa titik tidak mungkin
radiographic equipment. diperoleh dari peralatan radiografi.
Penumbra can be reduced when the source-to- Penumbra dapat dikurangi apabila jarak sumber ke
specimen distance is increased. spesimen diperbesar.
Another very important technique to reduce Teknik lain yang sangat penting untuk mengurangi
penumbra is to keep the film as close to the penumbra adalah menjaga jarak film terhadap
specimen as possible. spesimen sedekat mungkin.
Whenever penumbra can be reduced it will also Apabila penumbra dapat dikurangi, maka definisi
improve the definition of the radiographic citra radiografi juga dapat bertambah.
image.
Optimum geometrical sharpness is obtained Ketajaman geometris optimum akan diperoleh
when: apabila:
1. The radiation source is small. 1. Sumber radiasi berukuran kecil.
2. The distance from the source to 2. Jarak dari sumber ke spesimen relatif
specimen is relatively great. besar/jauh.
3. The distance from the specimen to film is 3. Jarak dari spesimen ke film dekat.
small.
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Whenever possible, the rays from the source Apabila memungkinkan, sinar dari sumber radiasi
should be directed perpendicularly to the film harus diarahkan tegak lurus ke film untuk
to prevent a distorted image. mencegah distorsi citra.
The film should lie in a plane that is parallel to Film harus terletak pada bidang yang sejajar
the plane of the specimen. When the film and dengan bidang spesimen. Apabila bidang film dan
the specimen are not in parallel planes, spesimen tidak sejajar, akan terjadi distorsi citra
distortion of the specimen image results. spesimen.
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As shown below, a distorted image could affect Seperti diperlihatkan di bawah, citra yang
the film interpretation. terdistorsi dapat mempengaruhi interpretasi film.
The angled leg of the specimen has been Sisi miring spesimen akan muncul lebih pendek
shortened on the radiographic image. pada citra radiografi.
SPECIMEN SHAPE is another geometrical BENTUK SPESIMEN adalah faktor geometris lain
factor that affects the definition seen on the yang mempengaruhi definisi yang tampak pada
radiograph. film radiografi.
The image of an inclusion could be almost Citra inklusi akan hampir tidak tampak akibat
invisible because of a very gradual change perubahan yang berangsur-angsur pada
in photographic density. densitas film radiografi.
Specimen “A” below will have the BEST Spesimen “A” di bawah akan meiliki DEFINISI
DEFINITION because of the abrupt TERBAIK karena perubahan ketebalan yang
thickness change. terjadi seketika.
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FILM GRAININESS also affect the definition of BUTIRAN FILM juga mempengaruhi definisi film
the radiograph. radiografi.
While LARGE GRAIN FILMS (FAST FILM) FILM BERBUTIR BESAR (FILM CEPAT)
are often used to reduced exposure time, seringkali dipakai untuk mengurangi waktu
the SMALL GRAIN FILMS (SLOW FILM) eksposur, sedangkan FILM BERBUTIR KECIL
provide the best definition. (FILM LAMBAT) menghasilkan definisi terbaik.
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Here are the factors affecting radiographic Berikut ini adalah faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi
sensitivity that we have discussed so far. sensitivitas film radiografi yang telah didiskusikan.
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CHAPTER THREE
REVIEW
_______ 1. Sensitivity in a radiograph is usually considered to be a function of contrast and
definition.
_______ 2. Inherent unsharpness causes poor definition but can be eliminated by using a
longer source-to-film distance.
_______ 3. Scattered radiation and an excessive specimen-to-film distance will both cause a
loss of definition.
_______ 4. Geometric unsharpnes can be improved by keeping the film as close as possible
to the specimen during an exposure.
_______ 5. Rays from the X-ray source should be perpendicular to the film to help prevent
"penumbra''.
_______ 6. Gradual changes in specimen thickness produce radiographs that show excellent
definition.
_______ 8. Internal scatter is caused by X-ray energy that has taken a new direction within
the specimen being radiographed.
_______ 10. A distorted image on the radiograph can be caused when the specimen is not
parallel with the film.
_______ 11. Film graininess greatly affects the amount of penumbra on a radiograph.
_______ 12. Back scattered radiation is often caused by low energy X-rays whose electron
path was changed within the film.
_______ 13. Almost all scattered radiation can be classified under the general category of
“inherent unsharpness”.
_______ 15. Contrast is considered to be the comparison between film densities on adjacent
areas of the radiograph.
_______ 17. If back scatter is suspected as causing a loss of definition, a lead letter can be
placed between the film and the specimen to indicate possible scattered
radiation.
_______ 18. The best radiographic sensitivity is obtained when the radiograph has a “high
contrast”'.
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CHAPTER FOUR
STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM STRUKTUR ATOM
ALL ATOMS are composed of three basic SEMUA ATOM tersusun dari tiga partikel-partikel
particles: dasar:
1. PROTON – has a POSITIVE CHARGE 1. PROTON – memiliki satu MUATAN POSITIP
and its relatively heavy. dan relatip berat.
2. NEUTRON – about the same size and 2. NEUTRON – ukuran dan beratnya hampir
weight as the proton but has NO sama seperti proton, namun TIDAK MEMILIKI
ELECTRICAL CHARGE. MUATAN LISTRIK.
3. ELECTRON – very light particle, about 3. ELEKTRON – partikel sangat ringan, sekitar
1/1840 of the weight of a proton. It has a 1/1840 berat proton. Elektron memiliki satu
NEGATIVE CHARGE. MUATAN NEGATIP.
The protons and neutrons are packed together Proton dan neutron mengumpul bersama DI
IN THE CENTER of the atom. This forms the PUSAT ATOM. Mereka membentuk INTI ATOM.
NUCLEUS.
The Helium atom has two protons and two Atom Helium memiliki dua proton dan dua neutron
neutrons in the nucleus. di dalam intinya.
The neutron are neutral so this gives the Neutron adalah netral sehingga menimbulkan
nucleus a plus 2 electrical charge. muatan listrik pada inti atom sebesar positip 2.
To be complete, the atom must be neutral. Sebuah atom harus netral. Oleh karena itu 2
Therefore 2 electrons with negative charges elektron dengan muatan negatip 2 akan
orbit the nucleus. mengorbit inti atom.
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A COMPLETE ATOM must have an EQUAL SEBUAH ATOM YANG LENGKAP harus memiliki
NUMBER OF PROTONS AND ELECTRONS. JUMLAH PROTON DAN ELEKTRON YANG SAMA.
Example of two complete atoms (electrically Contoh dua buah atom yang lengkap (tidak
neutral) are shown below. bermuatan listrik) diperlihatkan di bawah.
The number of ELECTRONS and PROTONS Pada sebuah atom, jumlah ELEKTRON dan
must be the SAME, however. PROTON harus SAMA.
The number of neutrons may be quite different. Sedangkan jumlah neutron bisa berbeda.
The number of PROTONS in an atom Jumlah PROTON di dalam sebuah atom
determines the kind of atom or element. menentukan jenis atom atau elemen.
All atom that contain 2 PROTONS are Semua atom yang memiliki 2 PROTON adalah
HELIUM atoms. atom HELIUM.
All atom that contain 4 PROTONS are Semua atom yang memiliki 4 PROTON adalah
BERYLLIUM atoms. atom BERILIUM.
All atom that contain 8 PROTONS are Semua atom yang memiliki 8 PROTON adalah
OXYGEN atoms. atom OKSIGEN.
All atom that contain 26 PROTON are Semua atom yang memiliki 26 PROTON adalah
IRON atoms. atom BESI.
Etc. Dll.
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IDENTIFICATION OF ELEMENTS IDENTIFIKASI ELEMEN-ELEMEN
ATOMIC NUMBER or “Z” NUMBER is the NOMOR ATOM atau “Z” adalah JUMLAH PROTON
NUMBER OF PROTONS in the nucleus of the di dalam inti atom dan digunakan untuk
atom and is used for IDENTIFYING BASIC MENGIDENTIFIKASI ELEMEN-ELEMEN DASAR.
ELEMENTS.
Therefore, an ATOM OF BERYLLIUM with 4 Oleh karena itu, sebuah ATOM BERILIUM
protons would have a “Z” NUMBER OF 4. dengan 4 proton akan memiliki NOMOR ATOM
“Z” = 4.
Basic elements may also be identified by their Elemen-elemen dasar dapat juga diidentifikasi
weight. melalui beratnya.
MASS NUMBER or “A” NUMBER is a NOMOR MASSA atau “A” ADALAH KOMBINASI
COMBINATION OF PROTONS AND NEUTRON JUMLAH PROTON DAN NEUTRON (bagian
(heavy parts of the atom). terberat dari atom).
Each atom is then assigned a number equal Masing-masing atom kemudian diidentifikasi
to the total number of protons and neutrons dengan angka yang menunjukkan jumlah total
in the nucleus. proton dan neutron di dalam inti atom.
As shown below, the BERYLLIUM ATOM has Seperti diperlihatkan di bawah, ATOM
a “Z” NUMBER OF 4 and an “A” NUMBER BERILIUM memiliki NOMER ATOM “Z” = 4 dan
OF 9. NOMER MASSA “A” = 9.
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RADIOACTIVE MATERIALS MATERIAL RADIOAKTIP
Elements with a common “Z” number and Elemen-elemen dengan nomer atom “Z” yang
different “A” numbers are called “ISOTOPES” sama dan nomer massa “A” berbeda dinamakan
of that element. “ISOTOP” dari elemen tersebut.
As there are different breeds of dogs and Seperti halnya jenis anjing dan kucing yang
cats, so are there isotopes of different berbeda, terdapat juga isotop-isotop dari
elements. elemen yang berbeda.
Isotopes of different elements are identified Isotop-isotop dari elemen yang berbeda diiden-
by showing the mass number “A” after the tifikasi dengan menyebutkan nomer massa “A”
name of the element. (e.g. Cobalt-60) setelah nama elemennya. (mis. Cobalt-60)
For example: hydrogen has a “Z”' Sebagai contoh: hydrogen memiliki nomer
number of 1, but adding a neutron gives atom “Z” = 1, namun penambahan sebuah
it an “A” number of 2. neutron memberinya nomor massa “A” = 2.
Below are two atoms of Helium. They are Di bawah ini adalah dua atom Helium. Mereka
DIFFERENT ISOTOPES of Helium because adalah ISOTOP HELIUM YANG BERBEDA karena
they have the same “Z” number, but different memiliki nomor atom “Z” sama namun nomor
“'A”' numbers. massa “A” berbeda.
The Helium atoms below are referred to as Atom-atom Helium di bawah ini dinamai
He-4 and He-5. sebagai He-4 dan He-5.
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Many isotopes of the various elements occur in Banyak isotop dari berbagai elemen terjadi secara
nature, but artificial isotopes now very alami, namun isotop buatan saat ini sudah umum
common. dijumpai.
ARTIFICIAL ISOTOPES are created by ISOTOP BUATAN dihasilkan dengan cara mem-
bombarding an element with an excess bombardir sebuah elemen dengan banyak
neutrons. This is done in a NUCLEAR neutron. Proses ini dilakukan di dalam sebuah
REACTOR where the atomics fission process REAKTOR NUKLIR dimana reaksi fisi atom meng-
gives off large numbers of free neutrons. hasilkan neutron bebas dalam jumlah sangat
besar.
After being exposed in the nuclear reactor, Setelah terekspos di dalam reaktor nuklir,
the basic element absorbs some of the free elemen-elemen dasar menyerap sebagian dari
neutrons. neutron bebas.
This increases the element’s “A” Hal tersebut akan meningkatkan NOMOR
NUMBER or mass. MASSA “A” dari elemen tersebut.
When these excess neutrons DO NOT UPSET Apabila neutron berlebih tersebut TIDAK MENG-
the balance of the nucleus, then this new GANGGU keseimbangan inti atom, isotop baru ini
isotope is said to be “STABLE”. dikatakan dalam kondisi “STABIL”.
When these excess neutrons DO UPSET the Apabila neutron berlebih MENGGANGGU keseim-
balance of the nucleus, the isotope is bangan inti atom, isotop menjadi TIDAK STABIL
UNSTABLE and will disintegrate or DECAY into dan akan MELURUH menjadi suatu bentuk yang
a more stable form. lebih stabil.
Unstable atoms are said to be Atom-atom yang tidak stabil dikatakan sebagai
RADIOACTIVE. RADIOAKTIP.
Some radioactive isotopes are found in nature, Beberapa isotop radioaktip yang terdapat di alam,
such as RADIUM and URANIUM. seperti RADIUM dan URANIUM.
Isotopes commonly used in radiography, such Isotop yang umum dipakai dalam radiografi seperti
as IRIDIUM-192 and COBALT-60 are artificial. IRIDIUM-192 dan COBALT-60 adalah buatan.
When an element is made radioactive in the Apabila sebuah elemen dibuat menjadi radioaktip
nuclear reactor, this process is known as di dalam reaktor nuklir, prosesnya dinamakan
“ACTIVATION”. “AKTIVASI”.
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When an unstable isotope is DECAYING or Apabila sebuah isotop yang tidak stabil
DISINTEGRATING, tiny particles traveling at MELURUH, partikel-partikel kecil berkecepatan
high speeds are emitted and/or energy in the tinggi dan/atau energi akan dipancarkan dalam
form of waves is given off. bentuk gelombang.
All radiation comes from the nucleus of the Semua radiasi berasal dari inti atom.
atoms.
The following particles and energies are Partikel-partikel dan energi berikut ini dipancar-
released from the radioactive atom. kan dari sebuah atom radioaktip.
No two radioactive isotopes have exactly the Tidak ada dua isotop radioaktip yang memiliki pola
same decay pattern. peluruhan yang benar-benar sama.
A radioactive isotope can decay by any one of Sebuah isotop radioaktip dapat meluruh melalui
the following: salah satu dari yang berikut ini:
1. ALPHA emission only. 1. Hanya memancarkan partikel ALFA.
2. BETA emission only. 2. Hanya memancarkan partikel BETA.
3. ALPHA emission with associated 3. Memancarkan partikel ALFA disertai SINAR
GAMMA RAY emission. GAMMA.
4. BETA emission with associated GAMMA 4. Memancarkan partikel BETA dengan disertai
RAY emission. SINAR GAMMA.
We are not too concerned with alpha and beta Kita tidak terlalu peduli dengan partikel alfa dan
particles because alpha particles can travel beta karena partikel alfa hanya bergerak sejauh
only a few inches in air and beta particles only beberapa inci di udara sedangkan partikel beta
a few feet. hanya beberapa kaki.
Only gamma rays are of use to the Hanya sinar gamma yang dipakai oleh para
radiographer. radiografer.
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MEASUREMENT OF RADIOACTIVITY PENGUKURAN RADIOAKTIVITAS
The basic unit of quantity for radioactive Satuan dasar banyaknya material radioaktip adalah
material is the “CURIE (Ci)”. “CURIE (Ci)”.
When radioactive material decays it is said to Apabila material radioaktip meluruh, ia dikatakan
have an “ACTIVITY” of ONE CURIE when 37 memiliki “AKTIVITAS” SATU CURIE apabila 37
billion of its atoms disintegrate in one second. miliar atomnya meluruh dalam satu detik.
This is written 37 x 109 disintegrations per Dalam bahasa matematisnya: 37 x 109
second. peluruhan per detik.
What is the activity of a radioactive source Berapakah aktivitas sumber radioaktip yang
that has 148 billion disintiegrations per memiliki peluruhan sebanyak 148 miliar
second? peluruhan per detik?
(answer: activity = 4 curies) (jawab: aktivitas = 4 curie)
The new unit beginning to replace the curie is Satuan baru yang mulai menggantikan curie
the BECQUEREL (Bq), which is one adalah BECQUEREL (Bq), yaitu satu peluruhan
disintegrating atom per second. Then 1 Ci = atom per detik. Sehingga 1 Ci = 37 x 109 Bq.
37 x 109 Bq.
However, when comparing two sources, just Namun demikian saat membandingkan dua buah
because one has a higher activity does not sumber, hanya karena salah satunya memiliki
mean it is always producing more radiation. aktivitas lebih tinggi, bukan berarti ia selalu
menghasilkan lebih banyak radiasi.
Example: when a Cobalt-60 atom decays Contoh: saat atom Cobalt-60 meluruh, ia me-
it emits ONE BETA particle and mancarkan SATU PARTIKEL BETA
TWO GAMMA rays. dan DUA SINAR GAMMA.
When a Thulium-170 atom Saat atom Thulium-170 meluruh, ¼
decays, ¼ OF THE ATOM emit a ATOMNYA memancarkan SATU
BETA PARTICLE and ONE PARTIKEL BETA dan SATU SINAR
GAMMA RAY, and ¾ OF THE GAMMA, dan ¾ ATOMNYA
ATOMS emit BETA PARTICLES memancarkan PARTIKEL BETA
with NO GAMMA RAYS. TANPA SINAR GAMMA.
SPECIFIC ACTIVITY of any radioactive source AKTIVITAS SPESIFIK dari sembarang sumber
is the ACTIVITY IN CURIES PER GRAM. radioaktip adalah besarnya AKTIVITAS DALAM
CURIE PER GRAM.
Example: if 4 grams of Cobalt-60 has an Contoh: jika 4 gram Cobalt-60 memiliki
activity of 100 curies, then the aktivitas sebesar 100 curie, maka
specific activity would be 25 aktivitas spesifiknya adalah 25 curie
curies per gram. per gram.
What are the specific activities of the following? Berapakah aktivitas spesifik berikut ini?
3 grams of an isotope with an activity of 3 gram isotop dengan aktivitas sebesar 2000
2000 curies? curie?
(answer: specific gravity = 667 Ci/gram) (jawab: aktivitas spesifik = 667 Ci/gram)
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THE HALF-LIFE of an isotope is the time it WAKTU PARUH dari sebuah isotop adalah waktu
takes for ½ of the atoms to decay or yang diperlukan sebuah atom untuk meluruh
disintegrate. setengahnya.
Some isotopes DECAY RAPIDLY (short half- Beberapa isotop MELURUH DENGAN CEPAT
life) therefore they have a HIGH SPECIFIC (waktu paruh pendek) oleh karenanya mereka
ACTIVITY. memiliki AKTIVITAS SPESIFIK YANG TINGGI.
Other isotopes DECAY SLOWLY (long half- Isotop-isotop lainnya MELURUH DENGAN
life) and have a LOW SPECIFIC ACTIVITY. LAMBAT (waktu paruh panjang) dan memiliki
AKTIVITAS SPESIFIK YANG RENDAH.
Every isotope has its own peculiar half-life Tiap isotop memiliki waktu paruh yang khas, mulai
ranging from microseconds to years. dari microseconds sampai tahunan.
Example: Cesium-137 has a half-life of 30 Contoh: Cesium-137 memiliki waktu paruh 30
years. tahun.
Whether you started with 1 gram Apakah anda mulai dengan 1 gram
or 10 pounds at the end of 30 atau 10 pounds di akhir masa 30
years, you would only have ½ tahun, anda hanya akan memiliki sisa
remaining. separonya.
After 120 years, what fraction of Setelah 120 tahun, berapakah sisa
the original amount would you yang anda miliki dari jumlah awalnya?
have left?
(answer: 1/16, remaining) (jawab: sisa 1/16 nya)
Half-lives of some common Radioisotopes are Waktu paruh dari beberapa radioisotop yang
as follows: umum adalah sebagai berikut:
Radium-226 (Ra-226) 1620 years Radium-226 (Ra-226) 1620 tahun
Cesium-137 (Cs-137) 30 years Cesium-137 (Cs-137) 30 tahun
Cobalt-60 (Co-60) 5.3 years Cobalt-60 (Co-60) 5.3 tahun
Thulium-170 (Tm-170) 130 days Thulium-170 (Tm-170) 130 hari
Iridium-192 (Ir-192) 75 days Iridium-192 (Ir-192) 75 hari
What will be the activity of 150 curies of Ir- Berapakah aktivitas dari 150 Ci Ir-192 setelah 75
192 after 75 days? hari?
What will be the activity of 50 curies of Ir-192 Berapakah aktivitas 50 Ci Ir-192 setelah 225
after 225 days? hari?
(answer: 75 curies & 6 ¼ curies). (jawab: 75 Ci & 6 ¼ Ci).
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CHAPTER FOUR
REVIEW
_______ 1. The “Z” numbers refer to the number of protons in the atoms.
_______ 2. Because protons make up the weight of an atom, all atoms of the same element
always weigh the same.
_______ 4. Atomic number and “Z” number both refer to the number of neutrons in the atom.
_______ 5. For an atom to be electrically neutral, it must have an equal number of protons
and electrons.
_______ 6. When the number of neutrons in an atom change, it becomes a different element.
_______ 7. The different elements can be identified by the number of protons in each atom.
_______ 8. To have an atom of “'oxygen” requires that there be a certain number of neutrons
and protons.
_______ 9. It is possible for an atom to lose a proton and still be the same type of element.
_______ 10. The basic unit of measuring the activity of radioactive material is the curie.
_______ 11. When an unstable isotope decays, it is said to be going through a process called
“activation”.
_______ 13. If the half-life of Cobalt-60 was 5.3 years, the activity of a 100 curies source will be
only 12.5 curies after 21.2 years.
_______ 14. Alpha and Beta particles are useful because of their high specific activity and
penetrating power.
_______ 15. Excess neutrons in an atom will always cause an unstable condition which results
in disintegration and radioactivity.
_______ 16. An activity of one curie is the result of 37 billion disintegrations of a material in one
second.
_______ 17. When an isotope has a high activity, the result will always be a high level of
radiation.
_______ 18. Elements with common atomic numbers but different mass numbers are called
isotopes.
_______ 19. Gamma rays are always given off during the decay or disintegration of an
unstable isotope.
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CHAPTER FIVE
The two kinds of radiation used in radiography Dua macam radiasi yang dipakai dalam radiografi
are GAMMA RAYS and X-RAYS. adalah RADIASI SINAR GAMMA dan SINAR X.
Except for their sources, gamma and X-rays Kecuali sumbernya, sinar X dan gamma adalah
are exactly the same kind of radiation. jenis radiasi yang sama persis.
X-rays and gamma rays are NOT BITS OF Sinar X dan gamma BUKAN MERUPAKAN
MATTER as are alpha and beta particles. PARTIKEL seperti halnya alfa dan beta.
X-rays and gamma rays have no mass or Sinar X dan gamma tidak memiliki massa atau
weight, and our normal senses cannot berat, dan indera normal kita tidak dapat
detect them. mendeteksinya.
ENERGY in a ray is determined by the ENERGI sebuah sinar ditentukan oleh PANJANG
WAVELENGTH or FREQUENCY of the ray and GELOMBANG atau FREKUENSINYA, dan ditunjuk-
is reflected in the PENETRATING ABILITY. kan oleh KEMAMPUAN PENEMBUSANNYA.
The ENERGY of X- and gamma rays is ENERGI sinar X dan sinar gamma diukur dalam
measured in: satuan:
Thousand Electron Volts (keV). Kilo elektron volt (keV).
Million Electron Volts (MeV) Juta elektron volt (MeV).
AN ELECTRON VOLT is an amount of energy SATU ELEKTRON VOLT adalah jumlah energi yang
equal to the energy gained by one electron sama dengan energi yang diperoleh satu elektron
when it is accelerated by one volt. saat dipercepat dengan tegangan satu volt.
Example: If one electron were accelerated Contoh: Jika satu elektron dipercepat dengan
by a potential of 100 thousand tegangan mesin sinar X sebesar 100
volt (100 kV) X-ray machine, the ribu volt (100 kV), elektron tersebut
electron would have an energy akan memiliki energi sebesar 100 ribu
of 100 thousand electron volts elektron volt (100 keV).
(100 keV).
When X-rays are produced, there is a wide Saat sinar X diproduksi, terdapat rentang energi
range of energies (wavelengths). Not all (panjang gelombang) yang lebar. Tidak semua
electrons are accelerated to the maximum elektron akan dipercepat hingga mencapai
voltage set on the X-ray machine. tegangan maksimum seperti yang diset pada
mesin sinar X.
However, every gamma producing isotope Namun demikian, tiap isotop yang menghasilkan
emits rays of one or more specific energies. sinar gamma akan memancarkan sinar dengan
satu atau lebih energi yang spesifik.
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ENERGIES ARE ALWAYS THE SAME FOR ANY ENERGI SELALU SAMA BESARNYA UNTUK
ONE ISOTOPE. SEMBARANG ISOTOP.
Example: Cobalt-60 emits two “hard” Contoh: Cobalt-60 memancarkan dua sinar
gamma rays. gamma “keras”.
One of these rays is equivalent Salah satu dari sinar ini sepadan
to the “hardest” ray that can be dengan sinar “terkeras” yang dapat
produced by a 1.33 MeV X-ray diproduksi oleh mesin X-ray sebesar
machine. 1.33 MeV.
ACTIVITY of a radioactive source relates to the AKTIVITAS dari sebuah sumber radioaktip
number of atoms that decay in one second. berhubungan dengan jumlah atom yang meluruh
Activity is measured in Curies. tiap detiknya. Aktivitas diukur dalam Curie.
Regardless of the Curie strength (activity) or Tanpa melihat besarnya Curie (aktivitas) atau
size of an isotope, the energy of individual rays ukuran dari sebuah isotop, energi dari masing-
remains the same. (see below) masing sinar besarnya tetap sama. (lihat di bawah
ini)
Let’s take a look at some of the gamma ray Mari kita lihat beberapa energi sinar gamma yang
energies that are emitted by the common dipancarkan oleh isotop radioaktip yang umum:
radioactive isotopes:
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Gamma ray ENERGIES are determined by the ENERGI sinar gamma ditentukan oleh JENIS
TYPE OF SOURCE. SUMBERNYA.
Gamma ray INTENSITY (number of rays) is INTENSITAS sinar gamma (banyaknya sinar)
determined by the ACTIVITY, or curie strength ditentukan oleh AKTIVITAS, atau besarnya curie
of the isotope. dari isotop tersebut.
X-ray ENERGIES are determined by the ENERGI sinar X ditentukan oleh TEGANGAN yang
VOLTAGE applied to the X-ray tube. diberikan pada tabung sinar X.
X-ray INTENSITY is determined by the INTENSITAS sinar X ditentukan oleh ARUS
CURRENT (MILLIAMPS) applied to the X-ray (MILIAMPER) yang diberikan pada filamen tabung
tube filament. sinar X.
X-rays and gamma rays include a wide range Sinar X dan gamma memiliki rentang energi yang
of energies; therefore, they vary in their lebar, sehingga kemampuan penembusannya juga
penetrating abilities. bervariasi.
LOW ENERGY, or “SOFT”, X-rays CANNOT Sinar X “LUNAK” atau ENERGI RENDAH TIDAK
PENETRATE AS DEEPLY AS HIGH ENERGY DAPAT MENEMBUS SEDALAM sinar X
“HARD” X-rays. “KERAS” atau ENERGI TINGGI.
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UNDERSTANDING ABSORPTION AND PENGERTIAN PENYERAPAN DAN HAMBURAN
SCATTERING
X-rays penetrate light materials better than they Daya tembus sinar X pada material ringan lebih
penetrate dense materials. baik ketimbang menembus material padat.
The heavier, MORE DENSE material offer Makin berat, MAKIN PADAT sebuah material
GREATER RESISTANCE to X-ray penetra- mengakibatkan HAMBATAN YANG LEBIH
tion. BESAR bagi penembusan sinar X.
X-rays, or X-RAY PHOTONS, are little PACKETS Sinar X atau FOTON SINAR X adalah PAKET
OF ENERGY moving at the speed of light. ENERGI yang bergerak dengan kecepatan cahaya.
When X-ray photons COLLIDES with an orbiting Saat foton sinar X MENABRAK elektron pada orbit
electron in the penetrated material, it dari material yang ditembus, ia memindahkan
TRANSFERS SOME OR ALL OF ITS ENERGY SEJUMLAH ATAU SEMUA ENERGINYA ke elektron
to the electron and knocks it out of its atom. tersebut dan melontarkannya keluar dari atom.
The PHOTON’S ENERGY DOESN’T JUST ENERGI FOTON TIDAK BEGITU SAJA HILANG,
DISAPPEAR; it has to be TRANSFORMED in namun akan DIPINDAHKAN melalui proses
a process known as “IONIZATION”. yang dinamakan “IONISASI”.
One of the BASIC LAWS OF NATURE is that HUKUM KEKEKALAN ENERGI menyatakan
energy can neither be created nor destroyed. bahwa energi tidak dapat diciptakan atau
But it can be converted into different forms of dimusnahkan, namun dapat diubah dari satu
energy. bentuk ke bentuk energi lainnya.
An “ION” is a CHARGED ATOM, group of Sebuah “ION” adalah atom, sekelompok atom,
atoms, or atomic particle of EITHER A atau partikel atom yang bermuatan POSITIP atau
POSITIVE or NEGATIVE sign. NEGATIP.
If you remove an electron from an atom, it Jika anda menghilangkan satu elektron dari
has a “'plus one” charge, therefore it is a sebuah atom, maka ia akan memiliki muatan
POSITIVE ION. listrik “plus satu” dan disebut ION POSITIP.
Ions occur when a photon (X-ray) COLLIDES Ion terjadi saat sebuah foton (sinar X) MENABRAK
WITH AN ELECTRON in the penetrated SEBUAH ELEKTRON dari material yang ditembus.
material.
The photon knocks the electron out of its Foton melontarkan elektron tersebut keluar dari
atom and transfers some or all of its energy atomnya dan memindahkan sejumlah atau
to the electron. This results in “IONIZATION” semua energinya kepada elektron. Proses ini
and CREATES A POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE disebut “IONISASI” dan MENGHASILKAN ION
ION. POSITIP DAN NEGATIP.
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ELECTRONS produced by this ionization ELEKTRON yang dihasilkan melalui proses ionisasi
ABSORB some of the energy from the photon ini MENYERAP sejumlah energi dari foton dan
and move with different velocities in different bergerak dengan kecepatan dan arah yang
directions. berbeda.
Since X-rays are generated whenever free Karena sinar X dihasilkan apabila ada tabrakan
electrons collide with matter, it follows that antara elektron bebas dengan benda, maka
low energy “SECONDARY” or SCATTERED efek sampingnya akan diperoleh energi tingkat
RADIATION will be produced. rendah “SEKUNDER” atau RADIASI HAMBU-
RAN.
Ionization of atoms by X-rays takes place in Ionisasi atom-atom oleh sinar X berlangsung
THREE DIFFERENT WAYS: melalui TIGA CARA YANG BERBEDA:
1. PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT occurs 1. EFEK FOTOLISTRIK terjadi utamanya
primarily with low-energy X-ray photons diakibatkan oleh foton sinar X berenergi
(up to 0.3 MeV). rendah (sampai dengan 0.3 MeV).
In the photoelectric effect, the electron Pada efek fotolistrik, elektron MENYERAP
ABSORBS ALL OF THE PHOTON’S SEMUA ENERGI FOTON.
ENERGY.
2. COMPTON EFFECT occurs with 2. EFEK KOMPTON terjadi diakibatkan oleh
medium-energy X-ray photon (about 0.3 foton sinar X berenergi sedang (0.3 sampai
to 3.0 MeV) interact with high atomic 3.0 MeV) yang berinteraksi dengan material-
number materials. material bernomor atom tinggi.
The PHOTON IS WEAKENED in this ENERGI FOTON DIPERLEMAH dalam
process as SOME OF ITS ENERGY IS proses ini karena SEJUMLAH ENERGINYA
ABSORBED in removing an electron, and DISERAP untuk melontarkan elektron, dan
a LOWER-ENERGY SCATTERED dihasilkan FOTON HAMBURAN BENERGI
PHOTON is resulted. LEBIH RENDAH.
3. PAIR PRODUCTION occurs only with 3. PRODUKSI PASANGAN terjadi hanya
high-energy photons of 3.0 MeV or more. dengan foton berenergi tinggi, sebesar 3.0
MeV atau lebih.
When the photon approaches the Saat foton mendekati inti atom bernomor
nucleus of an atom of high-atomic atom tinggi, ia berubah dari bentuk energi
number, it changes from energy to an menjadi PASANGAN ELEKTRON-
ELECTRON-POSITRON PAIR. POSITRON.
POSITRONS carry a POSITIVE CHARGE, POSITRON membawa MUATAN POSITIP,
have the same mass as electrons, and memiliki masa yang sama dengan elektron,
are extremely short lived. dan memiliki usia yang singkat.
They COMBINE at the end of their path Positron BERGABUNG di akhir lintasannya
with electrons to emits two 0.51 MeV dengan elektron untuk memancarkan dua
photons subject to Compton and buah foton berenergi 0.51 MeV yang akan
photoelectric effects. mengalami efek kompton dan fotolistrik.
Since PAIR PRODUCTION involve photon Karena PRODUKSI PASANGAN melibatkan energi
energies outside the limits that the foton di luar batas yang umumnya digunakan oleh
radiographer will normally use, so only radiografer, sehingga hanya EFEK FOTOLISTRIK
PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT and COMPTON dan HAMBURAN COMPTON yang akan
SCATTERING will be discussed. didiskusikan.
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The PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT involves EFEK FOTOLISTRIK melibatkan PENYERAPAN
COMPLETE ABSORPTION OF THE PHOTON ENERGI FOTON SECARA MENYELURUH selama
during process of knocking an electron out of proses pelontaran sebuah elektron keluar dari
orbit. orbit.
PART OF THE ENERGY is expended in SEBAGIAN ENERGI foton dikeluarkan untuk
EJECTING THE ELECTRON from its orbit MELONTARKAN ELEKTRON dari orbitnya, dan
and the REMAINDER imparts VELOCITY SISA ENERGINYA dipakai untuk memberi
(KINETIC ENERGY) to the electron. KECEPATAN (ENERGI KINETIK) kepada
elektron.
Here’s is another example of photoelectric Di bawah ini adalah contoh lain dari efek fotolistrik:
effect.
Remember that a photon is not a particle Ingat bahwa foton bukan partikel meskipun ia bisa
although it may act like one. When the menyerupai partikel. Apabila energi foton telah
photon’s energy is used, there is nothing left. digunakan semuanya, maka tak ada yang tersisa.
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The COMPTON EFFECT (or SCATTERING) is a EFEK KOMPTON (atau HAMBURAN KOMPTON)
logical extension of the photoelectric effect adalah kelanjutan dari efek fotolistrik, dengan
except that the PHOTON ENERGIES are pengecualian bahwa ENERGI FOTONNYA
usually HIGHER. biasanya LEBIH BESAR.
In the Compton effect all of the photon’s Pada efek kompton semua energi foton tidak
energy cannot be absorbed in removing the diserap untuk melontarkan elektron, sehingga
electron, and there is energy left over. ada sebagian energi yang tersisa.
The excess energy takes the form of a NEW Energi yang tersisa tersebut membentuk FOTON
PHOTON that has a LONGER WAVELENGTH. BARU yang memiliki PANJANG GELOMBANG
The new photon moves off in a new path. LEBIH BESAR dan bergerak di lintasan baru.
In the example below, assume that the photon Dalam contoh berikut, asumsikan bahwa foton
has an energy of 450 keV. Also assume that it memiliki energi sebesar 450 keV. Asumsikan juga
removes an electron that had a binding force of bahwa foton melontarkan elektron yang memiliki
12 keV and gives it a BOOST of 80 keV. gaya ikat sebesar 12 keV dan memberikan energi
kinetik pada elektron sebesar 80 keV.
What is the energy of the new photon? Berapakah besar energi foton baru?
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We now have a new, photon of reduced Kita sekarang memiliki foton baru dengan energi
energy. Logically, what would be the next step? lebih rendah. Secara logika, apa yang akan terjadi
berikutnya?
The SCATTERED PHOTON will go through FOTON HAMBURAN akan mengalami
several Compton effects before it is beberapa kali efek kompton sebelum seluruh
completely absorbed in a last photoelectric energinya diserap oleh efek fotolistrik terakhir.
effect.
The illustration below shows a possible cycle of Gambar di bawah ini memperlihatkan rangkaian
a Compton scatter. yang mungkin terjadi dari hamburan kompton.
High energy photons scatter very little, but low Foton berenergi tinggi sedikit sekali mengalami
energy photons may even scatter backwards. hamburan, namun foton berenergi rendah
menghambur sangat banyak.
Radiation that is part of the ORIGINAL BEAM is Radiasi adalah bagian dari BERKAS AWAL yang
called “PRIMARY”. dinamakan “BERKAS UTAMA”.
SCATTERED RADIATION is a general term RADIASI HAMBURAN adalah istilah umum yang
referring to radiation resulting from primary mengacu pada radiasi akibat berkas utama, yang
beam, properly called "SECONDARY lebih sesuai disebut sebagai “RADIASI
RADIATION". SEKUNDER”.
COMPTON SCATTERING is a specific type of HAMBURAN KOMPTON adalah bentuk khusus
secondary radiation. dari radiasi sekunder.
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HIGH- SPEED ELECTRONS ELEKTRON BERKECEPATAN TINGGI
Up to this point we have not discussed what Hingga saat ini kita belum mendiskusikan apa
happens to the high speed electrons produced yang terjadi pada elektron berkecepatan tinggi
in the Compton and photoelectric effects. yang dihasilkan oleh efek fotolistrik dan kompton.
Every X-ray photon that is absorbed results in Setiap foton sinar X yang diserap menghasilkan
at least one and probably many more high- paling sedikit satu dan mungkin lebih banyak
speed electrons that have been ejected from elektron berkecepatan tinggi yang dilontarkan dari
atoms. atom.
The kinetic energy (energy of motion) of these Energi kinetik (energi gerak) dari elektron berkece-
high-speed electrons is absorbed in two ways: patan tinggi ini diserap melalui dua cara:
1. ION PAIR PRODUCTION 1. PRODUKSI PASANGAN ION
A high-speed electron collides with an Elektron berkecepatan tinggi menabrak
electron in another atom and knock it out elektron di atom lain dan melontarkannya
of orbit, thus creating an additional ion. keluar orbit, menghasilkan ion tambahan.
The energy from the first electron has Energi dari elektron pertama dipakai
been shared with the second electron bersama dengan elektron kedua sehingga
and is now reduced. berkurang.
This process continues until there is very Proses ini berlanjut hingga terdapat sedikit
little energy in any one electron. sekali energi pada elektron berikutnya.
This low energy is then given off as Energi tingkat rendah ini selanjutnya
ultraviolet rays, light or heat. dilepaskan dalam bentuk sinar ultraviolet,
cahaya, atau panas.
2. BREMSSTRAHLUNG PROCESS 2. PROSES BREMSSTRAHLUNG
Bremsstrahlung or “braking rays” slows Bremsstrahlung atau “sinar yang direm”
down or completely stops the high-speed memperlambat atau menghentikan elektron
electron due to the positive force field of berkecepatan tinggi seluruhnya akibat
the atomic nucleus. medan gaya bermuatan positip dari inti
atom.
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As the fast-moving, 400 keV electron shown Saat elektron 400 keV yang bergerak cepat
above approaches the nucleus, it interact with mendekati inti, ia berinteraksi dengan medan gaya
the force field of the nucleus and is slowed positip dari inti atom dan kemudian akan
down. diperlambat.
It leaves the atom at a slower speed and Elektron meninggalkan atom pada kecepatan
with less energy. In the case illustrated, it dan energi yang lebih rendah. Pada kasus di
loses half of its energy and becomes a 200 atas, elektron kehilangan separo energinya
keV electron. sehingga menjadi hanya 200 keV.
The energy that is absorbed by the nucleus is Energi yang diserap oleh inti atom besarnya
in excess to the atom’s need and this energy is melebihi kebutuhan atom, dan energi ini
immediately radiated as an X-ray of equal or dipancarkan sebagai sinar X yang besar energinya
lower energy. sama atau lebih rendah.
If the electron were completely stopped, as Jika elektron tersebut berhenti sepenuhnya,
may occur when it reacts with very large and sebagaimana terjadi jika bereaksi dengan inti atom
heavy nuclei, the radiated X-ray has an energy yang besar dan berat, sinar X yang dipancarkan
equal to the total kinetic energy of the electron. memiliki energi yang sama dengan energi kinetik
elektron total.
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HALF-VALUE LAYER LAPIS PARUH HARGA
As X-Ray penetrates a material the energy is Saat sinar X menembus sebuah material,
absorbed by the photoelectric and compton energinya diserap melalui efek fotolistrik dan
effect. kompton.
At some place below the surface there is a Pada suatu lokasi di bawah permukaan,
level at which the number of rays (intensity) terdapat tingkatan dimana jumlah/intensitas
of the radiation is ½ of the intensity at the sinar radiasi besarnya separo dari intensitas
surface. pada permukaannya.
This depth is the HALF VALUE LAYER (HVL), Kedalaman ini dinamakan LAPIS PARUH
for that particular beam in that particular HARGA (HVL) untuk berkas dan material
material. tertentu.
The radiation is reduced by ONE HALF for Radiasi akan berkurang SETENGAHNYA untuk
each HVL it passes through. tiap-tiap HVL yang dilaluinya.
Figure below shows that half the original Gambar di bawah memperlihatkan bahwa separo
radiation passed through the first HVL, and only radiasi mula-mula melewati HVL pertama, dan
half of the remaining radiation passed through hanya separo radiasi sisanya yang melewati HVL
the second HVL. kedua.
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PARTICULATE RADIATION RADIASI PARTIKEL
There are THREE TYPES of PARTICULATE Ada TIGA MACAM RADIASI PARTIKEL dan mereka
RADIATION and they are of little concern to the tidak begitu penting bagi para radiografer pada
average radiographer. umumnya.
Particulate radiation is DIFFERENT from X and Radiasi partikel BERBEDA dengan sinar X dan
gamma rays as they HAVE MASS and DO NOT gamma karena mereka MEMILIKI MASSA dan
TRAVEL AT THE SPEED OF LIGHT. TIDAK MERAMBAT PADA KECEPATAN CAHAYA.
However, particulate radiation WILL Namun demikian, radiasi partikel AKAN
PENETRATE MATTER, WILL CAUSE MENEMBUS BENDA, AKAN MENYEBABKAN
IONIZATION and CANNOT BE DETECTED by IONISASI dan TIDAK TERDETEKSI oleh indera
human senses. manusia.
Table below show diffrerentiation and similarity Tabel di bawah ini memperlihatkan perbedaan dan
between electromagnetic and particulate kesamaan antara radiasi eketromagnetik dan
radiation. partikel.
1. ALPHA PARTICLES as discussed in Chapter 1. PARTIKEL ALFA seperti telah didiskusikan pada
4 has a positive charge and is slow and Bab 4 memiliki sebuah muatan positip, lambat
heavy. dan berat.
The alpha particles ionize atoms by Partikel alfa mengionisasi atom yang dilewatinya
removing electrons as they pass. dengan melepaskan elektronnya.
The alpha particles travels only a few Partikel alfa merambat hanya sekian centimeter
centimeters in a gas only a few micrometers dalam gas, atau hanya sekian mikrometer
in a solid (less than the thickness of a sheet dalam benda padat (kurang dari ketebalan
of paper). selembar kertas).
2. BETA PARTICLES (high speed electrons) 2. PARTIKEL BETA (elektron berkecepatan tinggi)
have a negative charge and because they memiliki sebuah muatan negatip dan karena
are lightweight they are not as ionizing as mereka ringan, daya ionisasinya tidak sebesar
alpha particles. partikel alfa.
The beta particles will penetrate several Partikel beta akan menembus beberapa
centimeters of air or thin layers of plastic or sentimeter di udara atau lapisan plastik atau
aluminum. aluminium tipis.
Beta decay precedes gamma emission in Ir- Peluruhan beta mendahului pancaran sinar
192, Cs-137, and Co-60. gamma pada isotop Ir-192, Cs-137, dan Co-60.
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3. NEUTRON PARTICLES has peculiar 3. PARTIKEL NEUTRON memiliki kualitas
penetrating qualities. It penetrates many penembusan yang aneh. Ia menembus banyak
heavy elements with ease and is absorbed elemen-elemen berat dengan mudah, namun
readily by many lighter elements, particularly mudah diserap oleh banyak elemen-elemen
hydrogen. ringan, terutama hidrogen.
This quality is just the reverse of X and Kualitas penembusannya berlawanan
gamma rays. dengan sinar X dan gamma.
The neutron source is usually collimated and Sumber neutron biasanya diarahkan dan
passes through the specimen to activate a menembus spesimen untuk mengaktipkan
conversion screen. sebuah layar konversi.
When the activated conversion screen is Saat layar konversi yang diaktipkan tadi
exposed to X-ray film or some other image diekspos ke sinar X atau perekam citra lainnya,
recorder, the image is transferred by the citra tersebut akan dipindahkan melalui radiasi
ionizing radiation from the conversion ionisasi dari layar pengkonversi tersebut.
screen.
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CHAPTER FIVE
REVIEW
_______ 1. A “hard” X-ray travels faster than a “soft” X-ray, and that is why the “hard” X-rays
have more energy.
_______ 2. X and gamma rays rays differ in that the gamma ray is actually a particle of
matter that has both mass and weight.
_______ 3. The intensity of an X-ray beam is dependent upon the amount of electrons striking
the tungsten target.
_______ 4. An isotope, such as Cobalt-60 always emits rays that have a specific energy.
_______ 5. Increasing the activity of an isotope source will increase the energy of the
individual rays.
_______ 6. An “ion”' is a charged part of an atom that can have either a positive or negative
charge.
_______ 7. Photons are tiny particles of matter traveling at the speed of light.
_______ 8. “Ion production” can occur when a photon collides with an electron and knocks
the electron out of the atom.
_______ 10. When a photon goes through a “Compton” effect, secondary radiation is often
produced.
_______ 11. The photoelectric effect and Compton effect both produce high speed electrons
which can in turn produce additional low energy X-rays.
_______ 12. The “Bremsstrahlung” process involves the production f ion pairs when one
electron collides with another.
_______ 13. If a 500 keV photon enters an atom that has a binding force of 50 keV and
removes an electron by giving it an energy of 50 keV, then the new photon would
have an energy of 400 keV.
_______ 14. “Primary” radiation is considered to be any radiation that has not gone through a
photoelectric effect.
_______ 15. The Bremsstrahlung process may cause energy to be converted through
additional Compton and photoelectric effects.
_______ 17. The energy of a photon cannot be destroyed, but it can be converted into other
forms by the photoelectric and Compton effects.
_______ 18. When the energy form an X-ray tube has penetrated through 3 half-value layers,
only ¾ of the original energy remains.
_______ 19. Neutron radiography involves the use of particulate radiation and has the ability to
easily penetrate materials such as lead and copper.
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CHAPTER SIX
X-RAY EQUIPMENT PERALATAN SINAR X
X-Ray generation requirements include: Persyaratan pembangkitan sinar X yaitu:
1. Having a source of electrons. 1. Memiliki sumber elektron.
2. Having a means of accelerating the 2. Memiliki cara untuk mempercepat elektron
electrons to a high velocity. hingga berkecepatan tinggi.
3. Having a target to receive the impact of 3. Memiliki sasaran untuk menerima tumbukan
the electrons. elektron.
X-ray are generated when a free high speed Sinar X dihasilkan apabila elektron bebas berkece-
electron gives up some of its ENERGY during patan tinggi memberikan sejumlah ENERGINYA
interaction with the orbital electrons or nucleus selama berinteraksi dengan elektron di orbit atau
of the atom. inti atom.
The higher the velocity of the electrons, the Makin tinggi kecepatan elektron-elektron bebas
higher the energy of the X-rays that are tersebut, makin besar energi sinar X yang
produced. dihasilkannya.
As shown above, a heated wire filament will Seperti dalam gambar di atas, filamen akan
serve as the SOURCE OF THE ELECTRONS. bertindak sebagai SUMBER ELEKTRON.
To get these traveling at a HIGH SPEED, simply Untuk membuat elektron bergerak dengan KECE-
place a high positive charge on the anode. PATAN TINGGI, anoda dibuat bermuatan positip.
A SPECIAL TARGET (usually TUNGSTEN) is Sebuah SASARAN KHUSUS (biasanya TUNGS-
embedded into the anode to receive the impact TEN) ditanamkan ke dalam anoda untuk menerima
of the electrons. tumbukan elektron.
The X-ray tube consist of a sealed-off glass Tabung sinar X terdiri dari tabung kaca tertutup
envelope, evacuated to the highest attainable dan udara di dalamnya dikosongkan hingga
vacuum. hampa.
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X-rays are produced regardless of the material Sinar X akan dihasilkan tanpa memandang jenis
bombarded. The target material may be solid, material yang ditumbuk. Material sasaran dapat
liquid, or gas. berupa benda padat, cair, atau gas.
It is essential to use a material with the Adalah penting untuk menggunakan material
following principal properties: sasaran dengan sifat sebagai berikut:
• High atomic number. • Nomor atom tinggi.
The HIGHER the ATOMIC NUMBER, the MAKIN TINGGI NOMER ATOM sebuah
GREATER the DENSITY of the metal. logam, MAKIN BESAR DENSITASNYA.
The GREATER the DENSITY of the metal, MAKIN BESAR KERAPATAN sebuah logam,
the GREATER the NUMBER OF MAKIN BANYAK JUMLAH PROTON dalam
PROTONS in the nucleus and the inti atom dan MAKIN BESAR GAYA TARIK
GREATER the ATTRACTION FORCE untuk MENGHENTIKAN ELEKTRON;
which BRAKES THE ELECTRON; thus sehingga MAKIN BESAR ENERGI SINAR X
the GREATER the X-RAY ENERGY. yang dihasilkan.
• High melting point. • Titik leleh yang tinggi.
It is essential for the material to have a Penting bagi material sasaran untuk memiliki
high melting point because of the titik leleh yang tinggi karena banyaknya
substantial amount of heat generated panas yang dihasilkan saat sinar X
when X-ray are produced. diproduksi.
Only a fraction of the electron energy Hanya sedikit energi elektron yang
stiking the target produces X-ray menumbuk target dan menghasilkan radiasi
radiaton. MOST OF THE ENERGY IS sinar X. SEBAGIAN BESAR ENERGI AKAN
DISSIPATED AS HEAT IN TARGET HILANG SEBAGAI PANAS PADA MATERIAL
MATERIAL as below: SASARAN:
99.9% heat, 0.1% X-rays at 50 kV. 99.9% panas, 0.1% sinar X pada 50 kV.
97% heat, 3.0% X-rays at 300 kV. 97% panas, 3.0% sinar X pada 300 kV.
60% heat, 40% X-rays at 40 MeV. 60% panas, 40% sinar X pada 40 MeV
This heat must be removed by proper Panas ini harus dipindahkan dengan
cooling and observing the duty cycle of pendinginan yang memadai dan pengama-
the unit. tan terhadap siklus kerja peralatan.
• High thermal conductivity. • Daya hantar panas tinggi.
Thermal conductivity is the ability of the Daya hantar panas adalah kemampuan
target material to remove heat from its material sasaran untuk memindahkan panas
surface. dari permukaannya.
• Low vapor pressure. • Tekanan uap rendah.
Low vapor pressure reduces the amount Tekanan uap yang rendah mengurangi
of metal vaporized onto the tube wall. banyaknya logam yang menguap ke dalam
dinding tabung.
If the target has a high vapor pressure, at Jika sasaran memiliki tekanan uap tinggi,
very high temperatures the target material maka pada suhu yang sangat tinggi, material
will have a tendency to vaporize or turn sasaran akan memiliki kecenderungan untuk
into a gas. menguap atau berubah menjadi gas.
This gas will collect on the tube walls and Gas ini akan mengumpul pada dinding
seriously impair the efficiency of the X-ray tabung dan sangat mengurangi efisiensi
tube. tabung sinar X.
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X-RAYS SPECTRUM SPEKTRUM SINAR X
CONTINUOUS AND CHARACTERISTIC X- SINAR X MENERUS DAN KARAKTERISTIK
RAYS are both produced as a result of high dihasilkan sebagai akibat dari elektron berkece-
speed electrons striking the target material in patan tinggi yang menumbuk material sasaran di
the X-ray tube. dalam tabung sinar X.
CHARACTERISTIC X-RAY occurs when a high- SINAR X KARAKTERISTIK terjadi apabila elektron
speed electron from the heated filamen collides berkecepatan tinggi dari filamen menumbuk
with an ORBITAL ELECTRON in the target ELEKTRON ORBIT pada material sasaran,
material, so that narrow bands of higher sehingga terbentuk pita sempit dengan intensitas
intensities are generated. lebih tinggi.
It is called characteristic because its energy Dinamakan karakteristik karena energinya
is determined by the characteristic ditentukan oleh komposisi karakteristik dari
composition of the disturbed atom. atom yang terganggu.
CONTINUOUS X-RAYS occur when a high- SINAR X MENERUS terjadi apabila elektron
speed electron from the heated filamen berkecepatan tinggi dari filamen berinteraksi
interacts with the NUCLEI OF ATOMS in the dengan INTI ATOM dari material sasaran.
target material.
This is referred to as the “Bremsstrahlung” Ini merujuk pada proses “Bremsstrahlung” dan
process and the nucleus immediately inti atom dengan segera melepaskan energi
releases the electrons energy in the form of elektron dalam bentuk sinar X berenergi tinggi.
a high energy X-ray.
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Remember that the ENERGY of a Ingat bahwa ENERGI dari SINAR X MENERUS
CONTINUOUS X-RAY is related to the berhubungan dengan TEGANGAN yang diberikan
VOLTAGE impressed across the X-ray tube. pada tabung sinar X.
Figure below illustrates the effect of a change Gambar di bawah ini memperlihatkan pengaruh
in applied voltage on the X-ray beam. perubahan tegangan terhadap berkas sinar X.
An INCREASE IN APPLIED VOLTAGE PENINGKATAN TEGANGAN akan MENINGKAT-
INCREASES THE INTENSITY (quantity of X- KAN INTENSITAS (jumlah sinar X) seperti
rays) as shown, but of more importance to diperlihatkan, namun yang lebih penting bagi
the radiographer is the generation of the radiografer adalah dihasilkannya sinar-sinar
higher-energy rays with GREATER berenergi tinggi dengan DAYA PENEMBUSAN
PENETRATING POWER. LEBIH BESAR.
Remember also that the intensity of the X-ray Ingat juga bahwa intensitas berkas sinar X berhu-
beam is related to the number of rays striking a bungan dengan banyaknya sinar yang menumbuk
unit area in a given length of time. satuan luasan dalam jangka waktu tertentu.
Intensity of the X-ray beam is changed when Intensitas berkas sinar X akan berubah apabila
either the voltage on the anode or the tegangan pada anoda maupun arus pada
current on the filament is changed. filamen diubah.
Figure below illustrates the effect of a change Gambar di bawah memperlihatkan pengaruh
in tube current on an X-ray beam (same kVP). perubahan arus tabung terhadap berkas sinar X
(untuk kVP sama).
Variation in tube current varies the intensity Variasi pada arus tabung akan menimbulkan
of the beam, but the spectrum of variasi pada intensitas berkas, namun spektrum
wavelengths produced remain unchanged. dari panjang gelombang akan tetap sama.
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Table below shows the intensity relationship to Tabel di bawah ini memperlihatkan hubungan
vatiation in tube current and applied voltage. antara intensitas terhadap arus dan tegangan.
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The SHARPNESS of a radiographic film image KETAJAMAN citra film radiografi sebagian
is partly determined by size of the radiation ditentukan oleh ukuran sumber radiasi atau “TITIK
source or “FOCAL SPOT”. FOKUS”.
Usually the target is set at an angle and the Biasanya, sasaran diatur membentuk sudut
projected size of the bombarded area is sehingga ukuran proyeksi luasan yang ditumbuk
smaller than the actual focal spot. akan lebih kecil daripada titik fokus sebenarnya.
The SIZE of the focal spot is LIMITED BY THE UKURAN titik fokus DIBATASI OLEH PANAS YANG
HEAT GENERATED in the target bombard- DIHASILKAN pada sasaran yang ditumbuk.
ment.
X-ray can be generated that will radiate in Sinar X yang dihasilkan dapat dipancarkan pada
almost ANY DIRECTION. hampir SEMUA ARAH.
The direction is determined by the target Arah pancaran sinar X ditentukan oleh posisi
positioning in the anode and the placement sasaran pada anoda dan peletakan perisai
of lead shielding about the tube. timbal pada tabung.
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TRANSFORMER TRANSFORMER
The majority of X-ray equipment used in Sebagian besar peralatan sinar X yang dipakai
industrial radiography uses iron core dalam radiografi industri menggunakan
transformers to produce required high voltage. transformer berinti besi untuk menghasilkan
tegangan tinggi yang diperlukan.
Usually THREE TRANSFORMERS are Biasanya diperlukan TIGA buah transformer:
required: (schematic below) (lihat gambar skema di bawah)
1. AUTOTRANSFORMER which will 1. AUTOTRANSFORMER yang akan
furnish 110 volts to the filament and menyediakan tegangan 110 V untuk filamen
high voltage transformer. dan transformer tegangan tinggi.
2. STEP-UP TRANSFORMER (high- 2. STEP-UP TRANSFORMER (transformer
voltage transformer). tegangan tinggi).
3. STEP-DOWN TRANSFORMER 3. STEP-DOWN TRANSFORMER (transformer
(filament transformer). untuk filamen).
Iron core transformers are used to produce Transformer berinti besi dipakai untuk
voltages up to about 400 keV. menghasilkan tegangan hingga 400 keV.
Higher voltage X-ray units usually use either Mesin sinar X bertegangan yang lebih tinggi
a resonant transformer or an electrostatic biasanya menggunakan transformer resonansi
generator. atau pembangkit listrik statis.
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RECTIFICATION AND DIRECT CURRENT PENYEARAHAN DAN ARUS SEARAH
In X-ray generation there are two main methods Dalam pembangkitan sinar X, ada dua cara utama
of rectification of alternating current: untuk menyearahkan arus bolak-balik.
1. SELF-RECTIFICATION 1. PENYEARAHAN SENDIRI
2. THE RECTIFYING TUBE. 2. TABUNG PENYEARAH
The SELF-RECTIFICATION is the simplest PENYEARAHAN SENDIRI adalah metoda penyea-
method of rectification and can be used with X- rahan arus paling sederhana dan dapat diaplikasi-
ray tubes having an anode that is much cooler kan pada tabung sinar X yang memiliki anoda yang
than the cathode. jauh lebih dingin daripada katodanya.
As shown below, electrons will be Seperti diperlihatkan di bawah ini, elektron akan
accelerated from the hot cathode during the dipercepat dari katoda kawat pijar selama
half cycle when the current on the anode is setengah siklus pada saat arus pada anoda
positive. bermuatan positip.
During the other half cycle when the Selama setengah siklus yang lain, pada saat
anode is negative, no electrons are anoda bermuatan negatip, tidak ada elektron
emitted; therefore, X-rays are produced yang dipancarkan; oleh karena itu, sinar X
only half of the time. hanya dihasilkan pada setengah siklus.
SELF-RECTIFIED X-RAY TUBES are usually the Mesin TABUNG SINAR X PENYEARAH SENDIRI
tank-type units similar to the one shown below. biasanya berbentuk tangki yang serupa dengan
gambar di bawah:
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The RECTIFYING TUBE utilizes either HALF- TABUNG PENYEARAH menggunakan PENYEA-
WAVE rectification or FULL-WAVE rectification. RAH SETENGAH GELOMBANG atau PENYEARAH
GELOMBANG PENUH.
HALF-WAVE RECTIFICATION, as shown PENYEARAH SETENGAH GELOMBANG,
below, is more efficient than self- seperti diperlihatkan di bawah ini lebih efisien
rectification, but still has the disadvantage of ketimbang penyearah sendiri, namun masih
the current flowing only half of the time. memiliki kelemahan yaitu arus hanya mengalir
setengah siklus.
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X-RAY MACHINE CONTROL PANEL PANEL KONTROL MESIN SINAR X
A typical X-ray control panel will usually consist Panel kontrol mesin sinar X biasanya terdiri dari
of the following control: (see sketch below) tombol untuk mengontrol fungsi berikut ini:
1. FILAMENT CURRENT CONTROL AND 1. KONTROL DAN METER ARUS FILAMEN –
METER – usually calibrated in biasanya dikalibrasi dalam satuan miliamper
miliamperes to control filament current. untuk mengontrol arus filamen.
2. HIGH VOLTAGE CONTROL AND METER 2. KONTROL DAN METER TEGANGAN TINGGI
– calibrated in kilovolts and permits – dikalibrasi dalam satuan kilovolt dan
adjusting voltage between cathode and memungkinkan pengaturan tegangan antara
anode. katoda dan anoda.
3. EXPOSURE TIMER – usually calibrated in 3. TIMER EKSPOSUR – biasanya dinyatakan
minutes and controls the length of dalam satuan menit dan untuk mengontrol
exposure. lama eksposur.
4. POWER ON-OFF SWITCH – controls 4. TOMBOL ON-OFF – mengontrol sumber
application of power to X-ray unit. tenaga yang diberikan pada mesin sinar X.
5. INDICATOR LAMP – usually indicates 5. LAMPU INDIKATOR – akan berkedip saat
when the equipment is energized and X- peralatan menyala dan sedang dihasilkan
rays are being produced. sinar X.
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SPECIAL ELECTRON ACCELERATORS PEMERCEPAT ELEKTRON KHUSUS
SPECIAL ELECTRON ACCELERATORS have PEMERCEPAT ELEKTRON KHUSUS telah diran-
been designed to provide very high energy X- cang untuk menghasilkan sinar X berenergi sangat
rays to penetrate thick specimens. tinggi untuk menembus spesimen-spesimen tebal.
These various high-voltage electron Berbagai macam pemercepat elektron bertega-
accelerators range in voltage from 2 to 25 ngan tinggi ini beroperasi pada rentang tega-
MeV. ngan 2 sampai dengan 25 MeV.
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LINEAR ACCELERATORS use a high frequency PEMERCEPAT LINIER menggunakan sebuah
wave and wave guide to accelerate electrons gelombang berfrekuensi tinggi dan pemandu
toward the target. gelombang untuk mempercepat elektron sebelum
menumbuk sasaran.
The equipment contains an ELECTRON Peralatannya terdiri dari PENEMBAK ELEK-
GUN (filament), a source of radio-frequency TRON (filamen), sumber pemercepat elektron
power accelerator, and a length of copper- bertenaga frekuensi radio, dan pipa tembaga
pipe that serves as the waveguide. panjang sebagai pemandu gelombang.
The electrons are accelerated along the Elektron dipercepat sepanjang pipa tembaga
waveguide by an electrical field. oleh medan listrik.
The range in energy is from about 5 to 25 Rentang energinya dari 5 sampai dengan 25
MeV and can penetrate up to 40 cm of steel. MeV dan dapat menembus baja hingga
ketebalan 40 cm.
ELECTRON BEAM FOCUSING differs from the PEMFOKUS BERKAS ELEKTRON berbeda dengan
linear accelerator in that it ONLY GUIDES THE pemercepat linier karena fungsinya HANYA
ELECTRONS along the distance to the target MEMANDU ELEKTRON menuju ke sasaran,
where the LINEAR ACCELERATOR actually sedangkan PEMERCEPAT LINIER berfungsi
ACCELERATES the electron to the target. MEMPERCEPAT elektron menuju ke sasaran.
The electron beam spread during long Penyebaran berkas elektron saat menempuh
distance travel may be reduced by the jarak jauh dapat dikurangi melalui medan listrik
electrostatic field between the electrodes of statis di antara elektroda-elektroda yang saling
succeeding sections. berurutan.
MAGNETIC FOCUSING permits the size of PEMFOKUS MAGNETIS memungkinkan untuk
the beam to be controlled. mengontrol ukuran berkas elektron.
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BETATRON ACCELERATORS is a magnetic PEMERCEPAT BETATRON adalah sebuah
induction electron accelerator. pemercepat elektron induksi magnetis.
The X-ray tube is “DOUGHNUT” shaped Tabung sinar X berbentuk “DONAT” dan
and is located between the poles of a large dipasang di antara kutub-kutub sebuah magnet
magnet. berkekuatan tinggi.
The electrons are injected into the tube and Elektron diinjeksikan ke dalam tabung dan
are caused to CIRCLE AROUND WITHIN digerakkan oleh medan magnet MENGELILINGI
THE TUBE by a magnetic field. BAGIAN DALAM TABUNG.
Voltage is increased as the electrons orbit Saat bergerak melingkar, tegangan dinaikkan
until a high energy is reached. hingga elektron mencapai energi tinggi.
The electrons are then guided from their Selanjutnya elektron dipandu dari lintasan
circular path and made to strike the target melingkarnya dan ditumbukkan pada sasaran
and produce X-rays. hingga menghasilkan sinar X.
This principle of X-ray generation is most Pembangkitan sinar X dengan cara ini
applicable in the range above 10 MeV and is menghasilkan energi di atas 10 MeV dan
capable of radiographing steel in the range mampu meradiografi baja pada rentang
of 4 – 41 cm. ketebalan 4 – 41 cm.
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ELECTROSTATIC (VAN DE GRAAFF) GENE- GENERATOR LISTRIK STATIS (VAN DE GRAAFF)
RATOR consists of a RAPIDLY MOVING BELT terdiri dari sebuah SABUK YANG BERPUTAR
that accumulates electrical charges and carries CEPAT untuk mengumpulkan muatan listrik dan
them to the high-voltage terminal. memba-wanya ke terminal tegangan tinggi.
The electrical charges build up to a high Muatan listrik statis bertegangan tinggi yang
electrostatic charge that is used to terkumpul akan digunakan untuk mempercepat
accelerate the electrons through the tube to elektron melalui tabung pemercepat sebelum
the target. akhirnya menumbuk sasaran.
The Van de Graaff system is designed to Sistem Van de Graaff tersebut dirancang untuk
radiograph up to 30 cm of steel at energy meradiografi baja hingga ketebalan 30 cm pada
levels up to 3.5 MeV. tingkatan energi hingga 3.5 MeV.
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CHAPTER SIX
REVIEW
_______ 1. Continuous X-rays are produced when a high speed electron gives up its energy
during an interaction with the nucleus of an atom in the target material.
_______ 2. The higher the velocity of electrons, the higher the energy of the resulting X-ray.
_______ 3. The velocity of electrons in a X-ray tube is directly related to the voltage applied
between, the cathode and anode.
_______ 4. Characteristic X-rays usually have a high energy and are produced when a high
speed electron collides with the nucleus of an atom.
_______ 5. The focal spot size has a definite effect on the sharpness and definition of the
image on the X-ray film.
_______ 6. The focal spot size should be kept as small as possible to prevent overheating of
the target material.
_______ 9. The “'bremsstrahlung”' process involves the collision of electrons from the heated
filament with orbital electrons in the target material.
_______ 10. The energy of a continuous X-ray is directly related to the current applied to the
filament.
_______ 11. The generation of X-rays is a very efficient process and nearly every electron
striking the target will produce a continuous X-ray.
_______ 12. The duty cycle of an X-ray unit refers to the percentage of the time the unit can
actually be used to produce X-rays.
_______ 14. The betatron and linear accelerator are both special electron accelerators
capable of producing X-ray energies above 5 million electron volts.
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CHAPTER SEVEN
GAMMA RAY SOURCES SUMBER-SUMBER SINAR GAMMA
There are two radioactive isotopes that are in Ada dua macam isotop radioaktip yang umum
general use in industrial radiography. digunakan dalam radiografi industri.
1. COBALT-60 is an artificial isotopes with a 1. COBALT-60 merupakan isotop buatan
half life of 5.3 years. dengan waktu paruh 5.3 tahun.
2. IRIDIUM-192 is an artificial isotopes with 2. IRIDIUM-192 merupakan isotop buatan
a half life of 75 days. dengan waktu paruh 75 hari.
Other isotopes which are sometimes used Isotop-isotop lainnya yang kadangkala digunakan
include: yaitu:
1. RADIUM-226 is a natural isotopes with a 1. RADIUM-226 merupakan isotop alami
half life of 1,600 years. dengan waktu paruh 1600 tahun.
2. CESIUM-137 a by-product of fission 2. CESIUM-137 merupakan hasil proses fisi,
process, a half-life 30 years. memiliki waktu paruh 30 tahun.
3. THULIUM-170 is an artificial isotopes with 3. THULIUM-170 merupakan isotop buatan
a half-life of 130 days. dengan waktu paruh 130 hari.
Isotopes are a source of gamma rays. Isotop adalah sumber sinar gamma. Namun
However, it should be remembered that X and demikian harus diingat bahwa sinar X dan gamma
gamma rays of the same energy are exactly a dengan energi yang sama adalah benar-benar
like. serupa.
If we had two rays, one X-ray and one gamma Jika kita memiliki dua macam sinar, satu sinar X
ray, it would be impossible to tell them apart to dan satunya sinar gamma, maka adalah mustahil
determine which was which. untuk membedakannya.
Essentially the only difference between the rays Pada dasarnya perbedaan antara kedua sinar
is their origin. The X-ray comes from an X-ray tersebut adalah asalnya. Sinar X berasal dari
tube, while gamma ray comes from a tabung sinar X sedangkan sinar gamma berasal
radioactive isotope. dari sebuah isotop radioaktip.
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The following is a list of the commonly Berikut ini adalah KEUNTUNGAN menggunakan
accepted ADVANTAGES of using isotopes. isotop radioaktip.
1. The COST of equipment and source IS 1. BIAYA peralatan dan sumber JAUH LEBIH
MUCH LESS than that of X-ray machines MURAH dibandingkan mesin sinar X dengan
of comparable kilovolt range. range energi yang sama.
2. Isotope equipment is more EASILY 2. Peralatan isotop lebih MUDAH DIPINDAH-
TRANSPORTED than X-ray equipment. PINDAHKAN daripada peralatan sinar X.
3. The isotope source is small enough to 3. Sumber isotop BERUKURAN CUKUP KECIL
PASS THROUGH SMALL (one-inch) untuk melalui CELAH SEMPIT (selebar satu
OPENINGS. inchi).
4. NO EXTERNAL POWER SUPPLY is 4. TIDAK PERLU SUMBER DAYA DARI LUAR
necessary, permitting use in remote sehingga memungkinkan penggunaan di
areas. daerah yang terpencil.
5. Both PANORAMIC and DIRECTIONAL 5. Dapat dibuat eksposur PANORAMIC dan
EXPOSURES can be made. TERARAH.
6. The equipment is RUGGED and SIMPLE 6. Peralatannya TAHAN BANTING dan MUDAH
TO OPERATE. DIOPERASIKAN.
7. Their SIZE IS SMALL, making them 7. UKURANNYA KECIL, sehingga cocok
specially suited to circumstances where a dipakai pada kondisi yang mensyaratkan
short source-to-film distance is jarak sumber ke film yang pendek.
necessary.
8. Some isotopes have a VERY HIGH 8. Beberapa isotop memiliki DAYA TEMBUS
PENETRATING POWER, permitting SANGAT BESAR sehingga dapat dipakai
radiography of very thick materials. meradiografi material yang sangat tebal.
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ENERGY AND EQUIVALENT ENERGY ENERGI DAN ENERGI EKIVALEN
When talking about the ENERGY of radiation Jika berbicara mengenai ENERGI radiasi yang
given off by a RADIOACTIVE SOURCE, we walk dilepaskan oleh SUMBER RADIOAKTIP, kita masuk
in term of AVERAGE KILOVOLTAGE. dalam istilah TEGANGAN RATA-RATA.
Example: Cobalt emits rays with energies Contoh: Cobalt memancarkan sinar-sinar
of 1.17 MeV and 1.33 MeV, dengan enargi sebesar 1.17 MeV dan
which give an average of 1.25 1.33 MeV, yang rata-ratanya sebesar
MeV. 1.25 MeV.
Radium 1.22 MeV average. Radium rata-rata 1.22 MeV.
Cesium 0.66 MeV average. Cesium rata-rata 0.66 MeV.
Iridium 0.35 MeV average. Iridium rata-rata 0.35 MeV.
Thulium 0.072 MeV average Thulium rata-rata 0.072 MeV.
The above is a little confusing because X-RAY Pernyataan di atas sedikit membingungkan karena
MACHINES are rated in term of PEAK MESIN SINAR X dinilai menurut TEGANGAN
VOLTAGES (see below) and NOT AVERAGES PUNCAK (lihat bawah) dan BUKAN RATA-
as are isotopes. RATANYA sebagaimana halnya isotop.
Since isotopes are rated according to their Karena isotop dinilai berdasarkan tegangan rata-
average voltage and X-rays are rated according ratanya dan sinar X dinilai berdasarkan tegangan
to their peak voltage, the power of an isotopes puncaknya, daya seduah isotop ditentukan oleh
is determined by how many peak keV or MeV seberapa banyak puncak keV atau MeV sebuah
an X-ray machine would need to do the same mesin sinar X yang diperlukan untuk melakukan
job. pekerjaan yang sama dengan sebuah isotop.
This is called the EQUIVALENT ENERGY of the Ini dinamakan ENERGI EKIVALEN dari sebuah
isotope. isotop.
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The reason that X-RAY MACHINES must be Alasan mengapa mesin sinar X harus dinilai
rated by their PEAK VOLTAGE and not their berdasarkan TEGANGAN PUNCAK dan bukan
average voltage like isotopes, is that tegangan rata-rata seperti halnya isotop adalah
DIFFERENT X-RAY MACHINES HAVE karena TIAP-TIAP MESIN SINAR X MEMILIKI
DIFFERENT WAVE FORMS depending on the BENTUK GELOMBANG YANG BERBEDA,
type of rectification. tergantung pada jenis penyearah tangangannya.
The AVERAGE VOLTAGE from a HALF- TEGANGAN RATA-RATA dari sebuah mesin
WAVE RECTIFIED X-ray machine may have sinar X BERPENYEARAH SEPARO GELOM-
an average as shown below: BANG memiliki rata-rata seperti di bawah ini:
The average from a FULLY RECTIFIED X-ray Tegangan rata-rata dari sebuah mesin sinar X
machine may have an average that is BERPENYEARAH PENUH dapat memiliki rata-
MUCH HIGHER. rata yang jauh LEBIH TINGGI.
REMEMBER: INGAT:
When choosing ISOTOPE, use X-ray Saat memilih jenis ISOTOP, gunakan nilai ENERGI
EQUIVALENT ENERGY ratings. EKIVALEN yang setara dengan mesin sinar X.
When choosing as X-RAY MACHINE, use PEAK Saat memilih MESIN SINAR X, gunakan nilai
VOLTAGE ratings. TEGANGAN PUNCAK.
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To produce a high quality radiograph using Untuk menghasilkan film radiografi berkualitas
isotopes, the following considerations provide a tinggi dengan memakai isotop, hal berikut perlu
basis for choosing the correct source: dipertimbangkan dalam memilih isotop yang tepat:
1. ACTIVITY – the activity of a source is, in 1. AKTIVITAS – aktivitas sebuah sumber
part, a measure of the number of gamma adalah, salah satunya, ukuran banyaknya
rays that are being produced from the sinar gamma yang dihasilkan oleh isotop
isotope. tersebut.
2. EQUIVALENT ENERGY – an ideal radio- 2. ENERGI EKIVALEN – sebuah sumber
graphic source would emit exactly the radiografi yang ideal akan memancarkan
right monochromatic beam that would berkas sinar monokromatik yang akan akan
give the correct amount of exposure. menghasilkan jumlah eksposure yang tepat.
X-rays are much more flexible in that the Sinar X jauh lebih fleksibel karena energinya
energy of the X-ray may be controlled by dapat dikendalikan oleh radiografer.
the radiographer.
3. HALF-LIFE - as isotopes decay, their 3. WAKTU PARUH – saat isotop meluruh,
intensity decreases and therefore the intensitasnya akan berkurang dan oleh
exposure time must be increased. karena itu waktu eksposur harus ditambah.
A typical decay rate of Cobalt-60 is shown Laju peluruhan dari isotop Cobalt-60 adalah
below. sebagai berikut:
What would be the activity of a 100 curie source Berapakah aktivitas dari 100 Curie Cobalt-60
of cobalt 60 after a period of 21.2 years? (see setelah jangka waktu 21.2 tahun? (lihat tabel di
below) bawah)
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The table below gives some of the important Tabel di bawah memperlihatkan beberapa sifat
characteristics of RADIOISOTOPES. penting dari ISOTOP RADIOAKTIP.
Other factors that are helpful in SELECTING AN Faktor-faktor lain yang membantu dalam MEMILIH
ISOTOPE are listed below. SEBUAH ISOTOP adalah sebagai berikut:
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ISOTOPES EQUIPMENT PERANGKAT ISOTOP
Isotope sources present a severe radiation Sumber isotop menimbulkan bahaya radiasi yang
hazard and when not in actual use these tinggi dan apabila tidak digunakan sumber ini
sources must be handled carefully and stored harus ditangani secara hati-hati dan disimpan serta
and locked in shielded containers. dikunci dalam sebuah wadah berpelindung.
Remote handling falls into two areas. Penanganan jarak jauh dibagi menjadi dua.
1. Moving the source from the center to the 1. Memindahkan sumber dari dalam ke
surface of a shielded container. permukaan wadah berpelindung.
2. Moving the source from the center to a 2. Memindahkan sumber dari dalam wadah ke
point some distance away. suatu titik yang lokasinya jauh.
Radioisotopes are readily available from Isotop-isotop radioaktip dapat dibeli di pasaran.
commercial suppliers.
MANUFACTURERS usually rate an isotope first PABRIK ISOTOP biasanya menilai sebuah isotop,
by its PENETRATING POWER (X-ray pertama dari DAYA TEMBUSNYA (ekivalen sinar
equivalent), then by the HALF-LIFE and finally X), kemudian dari WAKTU PARUHNYA, dan
by its ACTIVITY (usually expressed in curies, terakhir dari AKTIVITASNYA (biasanya dinyatakan
e.g. 10 curies, 50 curies). dalam curie, misalnya 10 curie, 50 curie).
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The diagram below shows one type of isotope Gambar berikut memperlihatkan salah satu jenis
equipment and is often referred to as a perangkat isotop dan seringkali dinamai sebagai
“CAMERA” or “PROJECTOR”. “KAMERA” atau “PROYEKTOR”.
The following shows the operation of a typical Gambar di bawah memperlihatkan pengoperasian
isotope camera. sebuah kamera isotop.
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CHAPTER SEVEN
REVIEW
_______ 1. The isotopes commonly used in industrial radiography are usually natural
isotopes.
_______ 3. Since the peak voltage of an X-ray machine could be misleading, X-ray machines
are rated by their average voltage.
_______ 4. The average voltage of a half-wave rectified X-ray unit would be lower than the
average voltage of a full-wave rectified unit.
_______ 5. The power of an isotope may be determined by establishing what the necessary
keV or MeV from a X-ray would be to accomplish the same job.
_______ 6. “X-Ray Equivalent Energy” of an isotope is usually higher than the “average
energy” of the same isotope.
_______ 7. If an isotope had an activity of 100 curies and an average energy of 1.25 MeV,
you would expect the average energy to remain the same even after four half-
lives.
_______ 8. When selecting the proper isotope to use for a specific application, it is not
important to consider its average energy as long as the isotope has enough:
energy to penetrate the material.
_______ 9. The proper use of an isotope does not present a safety hazard until the source is
fully extended into the source tube because the source tube provides adequate
shielding during crank out.
_______ 11. The advantage of using a proper container or “shield pig” is that if the source is
properly stored, the decay process can be greatly reduced.
_______ 12. The Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) and/or various state agencies have
strict regulations regulating the use of industrial isotopes.
_______ 13. Panoramic or 360 degree radiographs cannot be made with the conventional
industrial isotope equipment.
_______ 14. Even though the resultant beam is identical, gamma rays are considered to come
from isotopes and X-Rays are considered to come from an electrical device that
uses high voltage to accelerate electrons.
_______ 15. As compared to Cobalt- 60, Iridium-192 has both a shorter half-life and a lower
X-ray equivalent energy.
_______ 16. Isotope equipment is usually considered to be rugged and simple to operate.
_______ 17. Whenever possible, an isotope source is preferred over an X-ray unit because of
the greater contrast and definition.
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CHAPTER EIGHT
SUBJECT AND FILM CONTRAST SUBYEK DAN FILM KONTRAS
Remember that we have said that CONTRAST Ingat bahwa KONTRAS adalah perbandingan
is a comparison between film densities for antara densitas film pada daerah-daerah yang
different areas of the radiograph. berbeda pada film radiografi.
CONTRAST is a combination of “SUBJECT” Kontras adalah kombinasi dari subyek kontras dan
contrast and “FILM” contrast. film kontras.
Those FACTORS IN THE SPECIMEN that FAKTOR-FAKTOR DI DALAM SPESIMEN yang
affect contrast are referred to as “SUBJECT mempengaruhi kontras dinamakan “SUBYEK
CONTRAST”. KONTRAS”.
Those FACTORS IN THE FILM that affect FAKTOR-FAKTOR DI DALAM FILM yang
contrast are referred to as “FILM mempengaruhi kontras dinamakan “FILM
CONTRAST” KONTRAS”.
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RADIATION ENERGY ENERGI RADIASI
SUBJECT CONTRAST is affected by the SUBYEK KONTRAS dipengaruhi oleh ENERGI
ENERGY OF RADIATION. RADIASI.
The BEST possible SUBJECT CONTRAST is SUBYEK KONTRAS TERBAIK diperoleh dengan
achieved by utilizing rays produced by the penggunaan sinar yang dihasilkan oleh
LOWEST KILOVOLTAGE (soft radiation) that TEGANGAN TERENDAH (radiasi lunak) yang
will penetrate the specimen. akan menembus spesimen.
For example, lets assume that the half-value Sebagai contoh, asumsikan bahwa lapis paruh
layer of the specimen at the left is equal to “d”. harga dari spesimen sebelah kiri adalah “d”.
In the THICK SECTION the radiation will Pada BAGIAN YANG TEBAL, radiasi harus
have to penetrate through 4 HALF-VALUE menembus melalui 4 LAPIS PARUH HARGA
LAYERS and will emerge at 1/16 THE dan akan muncul sebesar 1/16 HARGA
ORIGINAL VALUE. AWALNYA.
In the THIN SECTION the radiation will only Pada BAGIAN YANG TIPIS, radiasi hanya akan
have to penetrate through 2 HALF-VALUE menembus melalui 2 LAPIS PARUH HARGA
LAYERS and will emerge at ¼ THE dan akan muncul sebesar ¼ DARI HARGA
ORIGINAL VALUE. AWALNYA.
However, in the SPECIMEN ON THE RIGHT the Pada SPESIMEN DI SEBELAH KANAN, radiasi
radiation will only have to PENETRATE 2 HALF- hanya akan MENEMBUS 2 LAPIS PARUH HARGA
VALUE LAYERS in the THICK SECTION and will di bagian yang tebal, dan akan muncul sebesar ¼
emerge at ¼ ORIGINAL VALUE. DARI HARGA AWALNYA.
In the THIN SECTION the ray will only have Di BAGIAN YANG TIPIS, sinar akan MENEMBUS
to PENETRATE 1 HALF-VALUE LAYER and 1 LAPIS PARUH HARGA dan akan muncul
will emerge at ½ THE ORIGINAL VALUE. sebesar ½ HARGA AWALNYA.
The COMPARISON OF THE TRANSMITTED DENSITAS SINAR YANG DITERUSKAN dapat
DENSITIES can be shown as a “ratio” and will diperlihatkan sebagai sebuah “PERBANDINGAN”
be discussed on the next page. dan akan didiskusikan di halaman berikut.
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To take a “RATIO” of two numbers, you Untuk menghitung “PERBANDINGAN” dari dua
compare them by DIVIDING THE NUMBER OF angka, anda membandingkannya dengan
THE SMALLER THICKNES INTO THE LARGER MEMBAGI KETEBALAN TERKECIL DENGAN
THICKNESS. KETEBALAN TERBESAR.
The RATIO of intensities emerging from the PERBANDINGAN intensitas sinar yang muncul dari
specimen on the LEFT below is: spesimen di sebelah KIRI adalah:
The RATIO of intensities emerging from the PERBANDINGAN intensitas sinar yang muncul dari
specimen on the RIGHT above is: spesimen di sebelah KANAN adalah:
Because of the larger difference between the Karena perbedaan yang besar antara intensitas
intensities emerging from the specimen on the sinar yang muncul dari spesimen di sebelah kiri
left (ratio = 4), it is apparent that the SUBJECT (perbandingan = 4), maka nampak bahwa
CONTRAST is also THE BEST. SUBYEK KONTRASNYA juga yang TERTINGGI.
As shown in the specimen on the right, Seperti diperlihatkan pada spesimen di sebelah
INCREASING THE ENERGY of the ray kanan, PENAMBAHAN ENERGI sinar akan
DECREASES THE SUBJECT CONTRAST. MENURUNKAN SUBYEK KONTRAS.
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Increasing and decreasing PENETRATING Menambah dan mengurangi DAYA TEMBUS
POWER (ENERGY OF THE RADIATION) (ENERGI RADIASI) jelas akan MEMPENGARUHI
obviously AFFECTS SUBJECT CONTRAST, but SUBYEK KONTRAS, namun ADA BATASAN
THERE ARE LIMITS to how far the kilovoltage seberapa besar tegangan dapat diubah.
can be changed.
As shown below on the LEFT, a VERY LOW KV Seperti diperlihatkan di gambar KIRI bawah, KV
results in ZERO PENETRATION on the yang SANGAT RENDAH TIDAK MENGHASILKAN
THICKEST SECTION and a high density in the PENEMBUSAN pada BAGIAN TERTEBAL dan
thinnest. menghasilkan densitas tertinggi pada bagian tipis.
This results in a VERY HIGH CONTRAST, Ini menghasilkan KONTRAS YANG SANGAT
but MAY BE IMPRACTICAL since TINGGI namun TAK DAPAT DIPAKAI SECARA
discontinuities that might lie in the thickest PRAKTIS karena diskontinuitas yang mungkin
section could not appear on the film. terletak pada bagian tertebal tidak akan tampak
pada film.
As shown on the RIGHT, a KV is selected that Seperti diperlihatkan pada gambar sebelah
is SO HIGH that it penetrates all sections KANAN, KV dipilih SANGAT TINGGI hingga
almost equally and results in equal density with menembus hampir sama pada semua bagian dan
NO SUBJECT CONTRAST. menghasilkan densitas yang sama TANPA
SUBYEK KONTRAS.
Let’s summarize what we know about Berikut adalah ringkasan mengenai SUBYEK
SUBJECT CONTRAST. KONTRAS.
SUBJECT CONTRAST is affected by: SUBYEK KONTRAS dipengaruhi oleh:
• Thickness differences in the specimen. • Perbedaan ketebalan pada spesimen.
• Density differences in the specimen. • Perbedaan densitas pada spesimen.
• Radiation energy (keV) used. • Energi radiasi (keV) yang digunakan.
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FILM CONTRAST FILM KONTRAS
FILM CONTRAST is defined as the inherent FILM KONTRAS didefinisikan sebagai kemampuan
ability of a film to show a DENSITY bawaan dari sebuah film untuk memperlihatkan
DIFFERENCE FOR A GIVEN CHANGE IN FILM PERBEDAAN DENSITAS AKIBAT PERUBAHAN
EXPOSURE. EKSPOSUR yang diberikan.
All film manufacturers produce SEVERAL Semua pabrik film memproduksi JENIS-JENIS
DIFFERENT TYPES OF FILM and SOME types FILM YANG BERBEDA dan beberapa jenis film
have the ability to SHOW MORE “FILM memiliki kemampuan MEMPERLIHATKAN “FILM
CONTRAST” than others. KONTRAS” yang lebih baik ketimbang lainnya.
As shown above, BOTH FILM TYPES received Seperti diperlihatkan di atas, KEDUA JENIS FILM
the SAME AMOUNT OF RADIATION in a single menerima JUMLAH RADIASI YANG SAMA dalam
exposure. satu eksposur.
However, the FILM ON THE TOP has the Namun demikian, FILM SEBELAH ATAS
ability to show BETTER “FILM CONTRAST”. memiliki kemampuan untuk memperlihatkan
“FILM KONTRAS” LEBIH BAIK.
FILM CONTRAST VALUES of any particular film BESARNYA KONTRAS dari sebuah film biasanya
are usually expressed as a RELATIONSHIP dinyatakan sebagai HUBUNGAN ANTARA
BETWEEN FILM EXPOSURE AND RESULTING EKSPOSUR FILM DAN DENSITAS YANG
DENSITY. DIHASILKANNYA.
The relationship is expressed in the form of Hubungan tersebut dinyatakan dalam bentuk
FILM CHARACTERISTIC CURVES which will KURVA KARAKTERISTIK FILM yang akan
be discussed later in this chapter. didiskusikan selanjutnya dalam bab ini.
TOTAL RADIOGRAPHIC CONTRAST is defined KONTRAS RADIOGRAFI TOTAL didefinisikan
as the combination of “SUBJECT CONTRAST” sebagai kombinasi dari “SUBYEK KONTRAS” dan
and “FILM CONTRAST” and depends upon “FILM KONTRAS”, dan tergantung pada radiasi
radiation applied, film type, exposure, film yang diberikan, jenis film, eksposure, pemrosesan
processing, specimen, scattered radiation, and film, spesimen, radiasi hamburan, dan jenis screen
kind of screens used. yang dipakai.
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H & D (HURTER & DRIFFIELD) CURVES KURVA H & D (HURTER & DRIFFIELD)
It is difficult for the human eye to readily Sulit bagi mata manusia untuk dengan cepat
distinguish between small density difference in membedakan perbedaan densitas yang kecil dari
a radiographic film. sebuah film radiografi.
THE H & D CURVES or commonly known as KURVA H & D atau yang lebih umum dikenal
characteristic curves make it apparent that as sebagai kurva karakteristik memperlihatkan secara
exposure and density increase, film contrast lebih gamblang bahwa apabila eksposur dan den-
also increases. sitas ditambah, film kontras juga akan bertambah.
EXPOSURE is defined as the product of the EKSPOSUR didefinisikan sebagai hasil kali antara
intensity of the radiation reaching the film and intensitas radiasi yang mencapai film dengan
the radiation-exposure time. jangka waktu eksposur radiasi.
For X-ray equipment: Untuk perangkat sinar X:
Exposure = intensity (mA) x time Eksposur = intensitas (mA) x waktu
Example: Contoh:
50 mA minutes = 5 mA x 10 minutes, or 50 mA menit = 5 mA x 10 menit, atau
= 10 mA x 5 minutes, or = 10 mA x 5 menit, atau
= 2 mA x 25 minutes, etc. = 2 mA x 25 menit, dll.
For gamma ray source: Untuk sumber sinar gamma:
Exposure = intensity (Curie) x time Eksposur = intensitas (Curie) x waktu
Example: Contoh:
6 curie hours = 6 curies x 1 hour, or 6 curie jam = 6 curie x 1 jam, atau
= 3 curies x 2 hours, or = 3 curie x 2 jam, atau
= 12 curies x ½ hour, etc. = 12 curie x ½ jam, dll.
Note that the exposures do not state specific Perhatikan bahwa eksposur tidak menyatakan
values of tube current or source strength and besaran arus tabung atau kuat sumber dan waktu
time. For this reason, relative exposure is used secara khusus. Oleh karena itu, eksposur relatip
as one axis in plotting the H & D curve. digunakan sebagai salah satu sumbu untuk
mengeplot kurva H & D.
Film density, the second axis is a quantitative Sumbu kedua, yaitu densitas film, adalah ukuran
measure of film darkening. Film density is besarnya penggelapan film. Densitas film
defined by: didefinisikan sebagai:
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On the above H & D curve, it is obvious that Pada kurva H & D di atas, terlihat jelas bahwa
film exposure EA is less than EB. eksposur film EA lebih kecil dari EB.
For a low exposure E1, the difference in Untuk eksposur E1 yang rendah, perbedaan
density between EA and EB is relatively small, densitas antara EA dan EB relatip kecil, dan
and probably not discernible by the eye. mungkin tak nampak oleh mata.
By increasing the exposure to the value Dengan menambah eksposur hingga pada
represented by E2, not only the overall harga yang diwakili oleh E2, tidak hanya kese-
density of the radiograph is increased, but luruhan densitas film radiografi yang mening-
the density difference (radiographic kat, namun perbedaan densitas (kontras film
contrast) between EA and EB is greatly radiografi) antara EA dan EB juga meningkat
increased. The resulting contrast is easily tajam sehingga kontras yang dihasilkan akan
detectable by the eye. mudah dibedakan oleh mata kita.
In industrial radiography, films should always Di dalam radiografi industri, film selalu diekspos
be exposed for a density of at least 1.5. untuk menghasilkan densitas paling kecil 1.5.
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FILM SPEED is measured by the exposure KECEPATAN FILM diukur berdasarkan eksposur
required to obtain a desired film density. HIGH- yang disyaratkan untuk memperoleh densitas film
SPEED FILM needs only LOW EXPOSURE yang diinginkan. FILM CEPAT hanya memerlukan
while SLOW-SPEED FILM requires MORE WAKTU EKSPOSUR YANG SINGKAT sedangkan
EXPOSURE to attain the SAME FILM FILM LAMBAT memerlukan EKSPOSUR YANG
DENSITY. LEBIH LAMA untuk menghasilkan DENSITAS FILM
YANG SAMA.
Figure below illustrates H & D curves for three Gambar di bawah memperlihatkan kurva-kurva H &
different speed films. D untuk tiga macam kecepatan film yang berbeda.
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A practical example is shown below to Di bawah ini adalah contoh praktis untuk
demonstrate the (film characteristic curve) H & mendemonstrasikan fungsi kurva H & D (kurva
D curve. karakteristik film).
Two similar specimens are shown that differ Dua spesimen yang serupa hanya berbeda
only in their thickness. Note that the change pada ketebalannya saja. Perhatikan bahwa
in thickness (a) is the same. perubahan ketebalannya (a) adalah sama.
If both specimens receive the same exposure Jika kedua spesimen tersebut menerima eksposur
on the same type of film, the one on the right yang sama, dengan jenis film yang sama,
would show the most contrast. spesimen di sebelah kanan akan memperlihatkan
kontras yang paling besar.
Obviously, FILM A above is going to receive Terlihat jelas bahwa FILM A di atas akan menerima
LESS RADIATION and be LESS DENSE and LEBIH SEDIKIT RADIASI sehingga DENSITAS
therefore have LESS CONTRAST than film B. FILMNYA AKAN LEBIH RENDAH ketimbang film B.
The FILM CHARACTERISTIC CURVE BELOW KURVA KARAKTERISTIK FILM di bawah memperli-
shows that where FILM B received a HIGHER hatkan bahwa jika FILM B menerima tingkat
RADIATION level (E3 to E4) it would be MORE RADIASI YANG LEBIH TINGGI (E3 ke E4), maka
DENSE and show MORE CONTRAST (D3 to DENSITASNYA AKAN LEBIH TINGGI dan
D4). KONTRASNYA akan lebih besar (D3 ke D4).
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An important consideration to remember is the Pertimbangan penting untuk diingat adalah
effect of low kilovoltage relating to increased pemakaian tegangan rendah meningkatkan
scattered radiation. terjadinya radiasi hamburan.
While it is desirable to attain GOOD Sementara, diinginkan untuk memperoleh KON-
CONTRAST by using a LOW RADIATION TRAS YANG BAIK menggunakan tingkat RADIA-
level. The lower radiation will also produce SI RENDAH. Radiasi yang lebih rendah juga
more scatter. akan menghasilkan lebih banyak hamburan.
SCATTER from low energy radiation will HAMBURAN dari radiasi berenergi rendah akan
cause “FUZZINESS” in the image. mengakibatkan “KEKABURAN” citra pada film.
As the VOLTAGE across a X-ray tube is Saat TEGANGAN tabung sinar X DINAIKKAN,
INCREASED some CONTRAST IS LOST, but KONTRAS AKAN HILANG, namun hamburan
also LESS SCATTER is produced to fog the yang mengakibatkan ketidaktajaman dan
film and cause fuzzy images. pengkabutan pada film juga akan berkurang.
COMPARE the FILM DENSITY for step 0.110 on BANDINGKAN DENSITAS FILM untuk step 0.110 di
each radiograph. Note that the ONE on the tiap film radiografi. Perhatikan bahwa FILM yang di
RIGHT is LESS DENSE. Now compare the film KANAN LEBIH TERANG. Sekarang bandingkan
density for step 0.040 in each radiograph. Note densitas film untuk step 0.040 di tiap film radio-
that the ONE on the RIGHT is DENSER. grafi. Perhatikan bahwa yang di kanan lebih gelap.
Since the RADIOGRAPH ON THE RIGHT Karena FILM RADIOGRAFI DI SEBELAH KANAN
shows one area that is LESS DENSE and memperlihatkan daerah yang LEBIH TERANG dan
another area that is DENSER than lainnya LEBIH GELAP, daripada daerah yang sama
corresponding areas on the left radiograph, the pada film di sebelah kiri, film sebelah kanan
right radiograph has MORE CONTRAST than memiliki KONTRAS YANG LEBIH TINGGI daripada
the left radiograph. film radiografi di sebelah kiri.
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CHAPTER EIGHT
REVIEW
_______ 1. The use of an excessively high kilovoltage can result in a very high subject
contrast in the radiographic film.
_______ 2. “Film contrast” and “subject contrast” both refer to density differences caused by
changes in thickness in the specimen being radiographed.
_______ 3. “Subject contrast” can be defined as a “'ratio” of the intensities being transmitted
through two different sections of the specimen.
_______ 4. The best possible subject contrast is achieved by using the lowest kilovoltage that
will adequately penetrate the specimen.
_______ 5. As described in our lesson, an intensity ratio of “4” provides a better subject
contrast than an intensity ratio of “2”.
_______ 6. The larger the difference between intensities of two adjacent sections of the same
specimen, the higher the subject contrast.
_______ 7. Regardless of the size and configuration of the specimen, it is always best to use
the lowest kilo voltage that will penetrate the thinnest section.
_______ 8. The type or speed of the X-ray film used has little effect on the radiographic
contrast of the image.
_______ 9. The “H & D curve” and the “film characteristic curve” refer to the same type of
chart that plots density as it relates to film exposure.
_______ 10. If it is necessary to radiograph a specimen in a single shot, despite its wide range
of thicknesses, the best procedure world be to use the lowest kilo voltage
possible that would still penetrate the thinnest section.
_______ 11. In the above diagrams. it is obvious that film B has the best radiographic contrast
because of the distance between D3 and D4.
_______ 12. Based on the H & D curve shown above, it can be shown that film A will receive
the higher level of radiation and consequently be more dense.
_______ 13 Film A above would have a lower intensity ratio than would film B.
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CHAPTER NINE
RADIOGRAPHIC FILM AND PROCESSING FILM RADIOGRAFI DAN TEKNIK-TEKNIK
TECHNIQUES PEMROSESAN
DARK ROOM RUANG GELAP
There are many sizes and designs of Ada banyak ukuran dan disain ruang gelap, namun
darkrooms, but they are usually divided in two mereka biasanya dibagi menjadi dua bagian:
areas: a WET SIDE and a DRY SIDE. BAGIAN BASAH dan BAGIAN KERING.
SAFELIGHT SAFELIGHT
Safelight provide a FILTERED LIGHT which Safelight menghasilkan CAHAYA TERSARING yang
LESSENS THE DANGER of exposing the MENGURANGI BAHAYA terbakarnya film
radiographic film. radiografi.
EXTRA CAUTION should be observed when PERHATIAN EKSTRA harus diberikan saat film
film is being loaded or unload (dry side). dimasukkan atau dikeluarkan (daerah kering).
A TEST STRIP can be used to insure that STRIP UJI dapat digunakan untuk menjamin
“fogging” is at a minimum. Simply COVER A kecilnya “pengkabutan” yang terjadi. Caranya
TEST STRIP of film with an OPAQUE MATERIAL dengan MENUTUP STRIP UJI dengan KERTAS
and EXPOSE CERTAIN PORTIONS AT PUTIH dan MENGEKSPOS BAGIAN TERTENTU
DIFFERENT TIME INTERVALS in the location pada INTERVAL WAKTU YANG BERBEDA di lokasi
where a problem is suspected. dimana masalah diperkirakan timbul.
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RADIOGRAPHIC FILM FILM RADIOGRAFI
A TRANSPARENT POLYESTER or CELLULOSE PLASTIK TRANSPARAN atau SELULOSA ASETAT
ACETATE is used as THE BASE of radiographic dipakai sebagai BAHAN DASAR pembuatan film
film. radiografi.
Most radiographic film has a SENSITIVE Sebagian besar film radiografi memiliki EMULSI
EMULSION ON BOTH SIDES of the acetate YANG SENSITIP pada KEDUA SISI plastik
base. transparan.
The OUTER LAYER of the film is a layer of LAPISAN TERLUAR dari film adalah lapisan
GELATIN which protects the emulsion layer GELATIN yang melindungi lapisan emulsi dari
from scratches. goresan.
The SOFT EMULSION LAYER (IMAGE LAYER)
has suspended in it MICROSCOPIC GRAINS Di dalam LAPISAN EMULSI LUNAK (lapisan
OF SILVER BROMIDE. penghasil citra) terdapat suspensi BUTIRAN
These silver bromide grains WHEN PERAK BROMIDA berukuran MIKROSKOPIS.
EXPOSED to light or radiation would Butir-butir perak bromida apabila terekspos ke
become visible and TURN THE FILM cahaya atau radiasi akan menjadi terlihat dan
BLACK. MENGUBAH FILM MENJADI HITAM.
However, the IMAGE IS “LATENT” and no Namun demikian, CITRA yang terbentuk pada
visible change in film would be noticeable film adalah LATEN, dan baru tampak oleh mata
UNTIL AFTER DEVELOPMENT. kita setelah dilakukan development.
A LATENT IMAGE IS FORMED on the film CITRA LATEN TERBENTUK pada film APABILA
WHEN some of the SILVER BROMIDE GRAINS sejumlah BUTIRAN PERAK BROMIDA TERIONI-
ARE IONIZED by the X-ray, gamma ray, or light. SASI oleh sinar X, sinar gamma, atau cahaya.
The LATENT IMAGE IS MADE VISIBLE by CITRA LATEN AKAN NAMPAK setelah proses
developing the film where the ionized development, dimana BUTIRAN PERAK
SILVER BROMIDE GRAINS are REDUCED BROMIDA yang terionisasi akan TEREDUKSI
TO BLACK METALLIC SILVER. MENJADI LOGAM PERAK BERWARNA HITAM.
Each Individual grain that has been exposed Tiap-tiap butir yang telah terekspos, selanjutnya
then helps form the image on the film. membantu pembentukan citra pada film.
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THERE IS NO PARTIAL EXPOSURE OF A BUTIRAN PERAK TIDAK DAPAT MENGALAMI
SILVER GRAIN. EKSPOSUR SEBAGIAN.
Areas on the film of light and dark simply Daerah-daerah berwarna terang dan gelap
represents the number of grains exposed in pada film menyatakan banyaknya butir yang
that area. terekspos di daerah tersebut.
MORE EXPOSED GRAINS gives a SEMAKIN BANYAK BUTIRAN YANG
DARKER IMAGE. TEREKSPOS akan menimbulkan CITRA
YANG LEBIH GELAP.
The DIFFERENCE in radiographic films is PERBEDAAN di dalam film radiografi terutama
mainly DUE TO the various in GRAIN SIZES. DIAKIBATKAN OLEH macam-macam UKURAN
(even the largest of which are microscopic) BUTIR (meskipun ukurannya besar, namun tetap
mikroskopis).
Because “GRAININESS” (visible clumps of Karena “UKURAN BUTIR” (kelompok butiran)
grains) is present in all film, THE LARGER terdapat pada semua film, MAKIN BESAR
THE GRAIN THE LESS SHARP THE IMAGE. UKURAN butir, MAKIN KURANG TAJAM CITRA
YANG DIHASILKAN.
The LARGER GRAINED FILMS expose more FILM-FILM DENGAN BUTIRAN BESAR mengeks-
silver to the rays per grain, therefore, the pos lebih banyak perak terhadap sinar per
IMAGE IS EXPOSED MORE QUICKLY. butirnya, sehingga, citra TEREKSPOS LEBIH
CEPAT.
The fine DETAIL however is LACKING with Namun demikian, DETIL yang halus TIDAK
coarse–grained film. MAMPU DIHASILKAN oleh film berbutir kasar.
Which of the above would be THE FASTEST Manakah gambar di atas yang MERUPAKAN FILM
FILM? (answer “B”) TERCEPAT? (jawab “B”)
Which of the above would give the SHARPEST Manakah gambar di atas yang memberikan DETIL
DETAIL? (answer “A”) PALING TAJAM? (jawab “A”)
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TANK PROCESSING TANGKI PEMROSESAN
Once a radiographic exposure has been made, Saat eksposur selesai dilakukan, selanjutnya film
the film is processed so that the “LATENT” diproses sehingga CITRA “LATEN” yang dihasilkan
IMAGE produced by the radiation is MADE oleh radiasi akan MENJADI NAMPAK.
VISIBLE.
There are essentially THREE PROCESSING Pada dasarnya terdapat TIGA LARUTAN
SOLUTIONS that are used in turn to convert an PEMROSES yang dipakai untuk mengubah sebuah
exposed film into a useful radiograph. film yang telah terekspos menjadi film radiografi.
(1) DEVELOPER (2) STOP BATH (3) FIXER (1) DEVELOPER (2) STOP BATH (3) FIXER
Another chemical in the developer is the Zat kimia lainnya di dalam developer adalah
“REDUCER” which can be either METOL or “REDUCER” yang terbuat dari METOL atau
HYDROQUINONE. Its function is to HYDROQUINONE. Fungsinya adalah untuk
REDUCE THE EXPOSED SILVER BROMIDE MEREDUKSI BUTIRAN PERAK BROMIDA yang
GRAINS TO BLACK METALLIC SILVER. terekspos menjadi LOGAM PERAK BERWARNA
HITAM.
The entire film does not turn black because the Seluruh bagian film tidak berubah menjadi hitam
REDUCER can distinguish between exposed karena REDUCER dapat membedakan antara
and unexposed grains. butiran yang terekspos dan yang tidak terekspos.
However, if the film remains in the developer Namun demikian, jika film dibiarkan terendam
solution too long, the reducer will begin to dalam larutan developer terlalu lama, reducer
act on unexposed grains and fogging akan bereaksi dengan butiran yang tak
occurs. terekspos dan terjadi pengkabutan.
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Time and temperature are important factors in Waktu dan suhu adalah faktor-faktor penting di
development. dalam proses development.
Typically, a temperature of 20°C is used with Pada proses development biasanya digunakan
a development time of between 5 and 8 suhu 20oC dengan waktu celup antara 5 sampai
minutes. However this should always be 8 menit. Namun demikian, hal tersebut harus
verified with the procedure or specification selalu diverifikasi dengan prosedur atau
being used. spesifikasi yang digunakan.
AS THE TEMPERATURE of the solution IS JIKA SUHU LARUTAN DINAIKKAN, KECEPATAN
INCREASED, the SPEED at which the alkali penembusan larutan basa JUGA AKAN BERTAM-
penetrates is ALSO INCREASED. BAH besar.
Therefore, a film developed at 20°C for six Oleh karena itu, sebuah film yang didevelop
minutes would be more dense than a film pada suhu 20oC selama 6 menit akan lebih
developed at 15.5°C also for six minutes. gelap daripada sebuah film yang didevelop
pada suhu 15.5oC dengan waktu yang sama.
The DENSITY (degree of blackness) is DENSITAS (tingkat kegelapan) DITENTUKAN
DETERMINED BY the NUMBER OF SILVER OLEH JUMLAH BUTIRAN PERAK BROMIDA
BROMIDE GRAINS REDUCED by the YANG DIREDUKSI oleh developer.
developer.
DEVELOPING SOLUTIONS CAN BECOME LARUTAN DEVELOPER DAPAT RUSAK.
EXHAUSTED.
CHEMICAL DEPLETION of the developer is HABISNYA ZAT KIMIA pada developer adalah
PROPORTIONAL to the NUMBER AND SEBANDING dengan JUMLAH dan DENSITAS film
DENSITY of the films developed. yang didevelop.
The film on the left below shows the results Film di sebelah kiri bawah memperlihatkan
of a weakened developer solution. pemrosesan yang dilakukan dengan larutan
developer yang lemah.
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REPLENISHMENT of the developer is often REPLENISHMENT developer seringkali ditentukan
determined by the use of a CONTROL STRIP oleh penggunaan sebuah STRIP PENGONTROL
and involves the following steps: dan caranya adalah sebagai berikut:
1. SEVERAL FILMS are exposed using a 1. BEBERAPA FILM diekspos menggunakan
STEP WEDGE to get a full range of sebuah STEP WEDGE untuk memperoleh
densities. rentang densitas.
2. After exposure, the film is CUT INTO 2. Setelah eksposur, film-film tadi DIPOTONG-
STRIPS and all but one strip is stored in a POTONG MENJADI STRIP-STRIP dan semua
light tight box. strip disimpan di wadah yang kedap cahaya.
3. The SINGLE STRIP is developed in 3. SATU BUAH STRIP didevelop dalam
FRESH SOLUTION and becomes the LARUTAN YANG MASIH BARU, dan dijadi-
“CONTROL STRIP”. kan sebagai “STRIP PENGONTROL”.
4. To determine when replenishment is 4. Untuk menentukan apakah diperlukan
necessary, the REMAINING STRIPS are replenishment, STRIP-STRIP SISANYA
PERIODICALLY PROCESSED and DIPROSES SECARA BERKALA dan
COMPARED to the control strip. DIBANDINGKAN dengan strip pengontrol.
When added replenisher is equal to about Apabila replenishment terhadap larutan
TWO TO THREE TIMES that of the original developer semula sudah dilakukan sebanyak
developer, the ENTIRE SOLUTION should DUA SAMPAI TIGA KALI, maka seluruh larutan
be CHANGED. HARUS DIBUANG.
The NEXT TWO STEPS in tank processing DUA TAHAPAN BERIKUTNYA di dalam tangki
radiographic films includes the “STOP BATH” pemrosesan film radiografi adalah “STOP BATH”
and “FIXER” as shown below (discussed on the dan “FIXER” seperti diperlihatkan di bawah ini
next page). (didiskusikan pada halaman berikutnya).
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STOP BATH (ACID) STOP BATH (ASAM)
When a film is removed from the developer, a Apabila sebuah film dikeluarkan dari dalam larutan
small quantity of alkaline solution remains on developer, maka sejumlah kecil larutan basa akan
the film. tertinggal di film tersebut.
The STOP BATH serves TWO FUNCTIONS: STOP BATH memiliki DUA FUNGSI:
1. STOPS DEVELOPING ACTION by 1. MENGHENTIKAN AKSI DEVELOPING
neutralizing the alkaline developer. dengan cara menetralkan zat basa developer
(alkalis and acids neutralize each other). (basa dan asam saling menetralkan).
2. Neutralizes the alkaline developer before 2. Menetralkan zat basa developer sebelum film
the film is put into the fixer, thus dimasukkan ke dalam cairan fixer, sehingga
EXTENDING THE FIXER LIFE. MEMPERPANJANG USIA FIXER.
The CHEMICAL USED in the stop bath is ZAT KIMIA YANG DIGUNAKAN di dalam stop bath
usually “GLACIAL ACETIC ACID”. biasanya adalah “ASAM ASETAT GLACIAL”.
Acetic acid MAY CAUSE SEVERE BURNS. Asam asetat DAPAT MENGAKIBATKAN LUKA
BAKAR.
Use caution when mixing – always add acid Hati-hati sat pencampuran – selalu tambahkan
to water. asam pada air.
FIXER FIXER
Fixer permanently FIXES THE IMAGE on the Fixer secara permanen MENGEFIXKAN CITRA
film. pada film.
In the developer, the silver bromide grains were Di dalam developer, butiran perak bromida
reduced to metallic silver. direduksi menjadi logam perak.
However, the UNEXPOSED SILVER Namun demikian, BUTIRAN PERAK BROMIDA
BROMIDE GRAINS ARE STILL IN THE YANG TAK TEREKSPOS MASIH TERTINGGAL
EMULSION and appear milky-yellow on the DI DALAM EMULSI dan nampak berwarna
film. kuning susu pada film.
The FIXER REMOVES ALL UNEXPOSED FIXER MENGHILANGKAN SEMUA BUTIRAN
SILVER GRAINS from the film. PERAK YANG TIDAK TEREKSPOS dari dalam film.
There are TWO separate STAGES in the FIXING Di dalam proses fixing, terdapat DUA TAHAPAN
PROCESS. yang terpisah.
1. CLEARING TIME – this REMOVES all 1. WAKTU PEMBERSIHAN – ini
UNEXPOSED SILVER GRAINS and the MENGHILANGKAN semua BUTIRAN PERAK
clouded film starts to appear clear. YANG TAK TEREKSPOS dan kabut pada film
berangsur-angsur hilang.
However, THE TOTAL TIME IN THE Namun demikian, WAKTU TOTAL FILM DI
FIXER should be TWICE the time it takes DALAM FIXER sebaiknya DUA KALI waktu
to clear the film. yang diperlukan untuk membersihkan film.
2. HARDENING – the fixer also HARDENS 2. PENGERASAN – fixer juga MENGERASKAN
THE EMULSION GELATIN which helps EMULSI GELATIN yang membantu mence-
prevent scratching during handling. gah timbulnya goresan selama penanganan.
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After chemical processing, the film is washed Setelah pemrosesan dengan zat kimia, film dicuci
and dried as shown in the flowchart below. dan dikeringkan seperti dalam diagram di bawah.
Where hard water is a problem, the film is Jika “air keras” menjadi masalah, film kadang-
sometimes placed in a solution to prevent kala dicelupkan ke dalam suatu larutan untuk
“WATER SPOTS” on the film. mencegah timbulnya “BINTIK-BINTIK AIR”.
This solution makes the water “wetter” Larutan ini membuat air mudah membasahi
and provides more even drying. film dan menghasilkan pengeringan merata.
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Film must always be handled with CARE and Film harus ditangani dangan HATI-HATI dan
CLEANLINESS. BERSIH.
DUST and IMPROPER HANDLING of the film DEBU dan PENANGANAN FILM YANG SALAH
will cause “ARTIFACTS”. akan mengakibatkan terjadinya “ARTEFAK”.
An ARTIFACT is ANY FILM IMPERFECTION ARTEFAK adalah KETIDAKSEMPURNAAN
which results from LACK OF CARE OR PADA FILM akibat dari KEKURANGHATI-
CLEANLINESS. HATIAN ATAU KEKURANGBERSIHAN.
A common artifact is simply DUST. The Artifak yang umum berasal dari DEBU.
tanks, benches and floor must be kept Tangki-tangki, meja dan lantai harus dijaga
clean. kebersihannya.
SPILLED CHEMICALS evaporate and Uap dari TUMPAHAN ZAT KIMIA dapat
leave a “CHEMICAL DUST” that can meninggalkan “DEBU KIMIA” yang dapat
CAUSE ARTIFACTS. MENGAKIBATKAN ARTEFAK.
As shown below, PRESSURE MARKS, CRIMP Seperti diperlihatkan di bawah, BEKAS
MARKS and STATIC MARKS can also CAUSE PENEKANAN, BEKAS LIPATAN dan BEKAS
ARTIFACTS. LISTRIK STATIS juga dapat mengakibatkan
ARTEFAK.
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CHAPTER NINE
REVIEW
_______ 1. The developer solution transforms the silver crystals to metallic silver causing the
film to turn black.
_______ 2. “Clearing Time” refers to the time the film is in the stop bath.
_______ 3. “Water spots” are usually caused by leaving the film in the rinse tank for an
excess time.
_______ 4. If large areas of the film are exposed to radiation, this will cause the developer to
become exhausted faster.
_______ 5. When safelights are used in the darkroom, there is no danger of the X-ray film
being “fogged”.
_______ 6. The basic difference between types of X-ray film is due to the size of the grains of
silver bromide.
_______ 7. Because of the faster exposure time, the larger grain X-Ray film will have the
sharpest image.
_______ 8. Artifacts are often caused by improper use of safelights in the darkroom.
_______ 9. Excessive voltage across the X-ray tube will cause static marks on the
radiographic film.
_______ 10. Oxidation can occur when the developer solution is left uncovered and this will
weaken the solution.
_______ 11. A control strip that has been exposed under a step wedge and processed after
each replenishment is also used to check excess fogging caused by safelights.
_______ 12. Most radiographic film uses clear acetate or polyester base, with emulsion on
both sides.
_______ 13. Coarse-grain films are advantageous because they require considerably less time
in the developer, stop bath and fixer solutions.
_______ 14. The developer is an alkaline solution which requires an acetic acid solution in the
stop bath to neutralize.
_______ 15. Replenishment of the developer is necessary when the densities on the control
strip start to become darker.
_______ 16. The fixer solution serves to both remove unexposed silver bromide grains and to
harden the emulsion layer.
_______ 17. Water spots, crimp marks and static marks are all considered to be “artifacts”
when they appear on the film.
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CHAPTER TEN
RADIATION CAN BE A HAZARD TO THE RADIASI DAPAT MEMBAHAYAKAN TUBUH
HUMAN BODY MANUSIA
X-ray machines and radioactive materials are Mesin sinar X dan material-material radioaktip
not the only sources of radiation. bukan merupakan satu-satunya sumber radiasi.
“COSMIC RADIATION” from space reaches “RADIASI KOSMIS” dari luar angkasa mencapai
our planet and IT IS IMPOSSIBLE FOR bumi dan TIDAK MUNGKIN BAGI MANUSIA
HUMANS to avoid all radiation. untuk menghindarinya.
However, one fact must be remembered: Namun demikian, satu hal yang harus diingat:
IONIZING RADIATION has the ability to RADIASI IONISASI memiliki kemampuan untuk
DAMAGE HUMAN BODY TISSUE. MERUSAK JARINGAN TUBUH MANUSIA.
The main process by which DAMAGE TO Proses utama yang mengakibatkan KERUSAKAN
TISSUE occurs is known as IONIZATION. JARINGAN dikenal sebagai IONISASI.
As shown above, the photon knocked an Seperti ditunjukkan di atas, foton menumbuk
electron out of orbit, there by creating an sebuah elektron hingga keluar orbit, sehingga
ION PAIR (ionization). menciptakan sebuah PASANGAN ION
(ionisasi).
When the X-ray or gamma ray source is Apabila sumber sinar X atau sinar gamma
removed, the specimen ceases to be affected dihentikan, spesimen berhenti dipengaruhi oleh
by radiation. THE SPECIMEN DOES NOT radiasi. SPESIMEN TIDAK AKAN MENJADI
BECOME RADIOACTIVE. RADIOAKTIP.
A person who has suffered radiation Seseorang yang terluka akibat radiasi tidak
damage could not spread radiation damage dapat menularkan lukanya itu kepada orang
to other humans. lain.
The nucleus of an atom must be Inti dari sebuah atom harus dibombardir
bombarded with neutrons to become dengan neutron untuk membuatnya menjadi
radioactive. radioaktip.
“DOSE RATE” is the TIME RATE at which a “LAJU DOSIS” adalah LAMANYA WAKTU dimana
RADIATION DOSE IS RECEIVED. DOSIS RADIASI diterima.
The expression “REMS PER HOUR” is the Pernyataan “REMS PER JAM” adalah laju dosis
biological dose rate. biologis.
With X and gamma rays, the exposure rate Untuk sinar X dan gamma, laju eksposur dalam
in ROENTGENS PER HOUR is the SAME AS ROENTGEN PER JAM adalah SAMA DENGAN
dose rate in REMS. laju dosis dalam REMS.
However, with alpha rays, the RBE factor of Namun demikian, dengan sinar alpha, faktor
20 must be considered. RBE sebesar 20 harus dipertimbangkan.
An exposure of 0.008 Roentgens of X or gamma rays in one hour could be stated as 8 mR/hr.
The 8 mR/hr would be equal to a dose in REMS of 0.008 REMS.
Problem #1 —
If you were standing in an X-ray area for three hours that showed a survey meter reading of 200
mR/hr, what would be your dose in REMS?
(show your calculations)
Problem #2 —
If your body received 0.02 RADS per hour of alpha radiation over a period of 4 hours, what would
be your dose in REMS?
(shorn your calculations)
Problem #3 —
If you received a dose of 0.008 Roentgens of gamma radiation over a period of one half hour
every day for 10 days, what would be your dose in REMS?
(show your calculations)
_______ 2. Because of their penetrating power, X-rays are more damaging to humans than
gamma rays.
_______ 3. Person who has suffered radiation damage as a result of exposure to a gamma
ray source should be confined to an isolated room so that the contamination will
not spread.
_______ 4. When the gamma source has been removed, it is safe to immediately touch the
specimen being radiographed without fear of contamination.
_______ 5. The two types of radiation that typically cause external radiation hazards to
industrial radiographers are alpha and beta rays.
_______ 17. If you were standing in an X-ray area for 6 hours that showed a survey meter
reading of 150 mR/hr, what would be your dose in RFMS?
(2 points) show calculation
REVIEW TINJAUAN
The six variables which influence the effect Keenam variabel yang efek dosis radiasinya
radiation doses have on an individual are: berpengaruh terhadap individu adalah:
1. The amount of the body exposed. 1. Banyaknya anggota tubuh yang terkspos.
2. The part of the body exposed. 2. Bagian tubuh yang terekspos.
3. The time span over which dose is 3. Jangka waktu penerimaan dosis radiasi.
received.
4. The age of the individual exposed. 4. Usia individu yang terekspos.
5. The biological difference among 5. Perbedaan biologis antar individu.
individuals.
6. The radiation level. 6. Tingkat radiasi.
The above form shows the typical information Isian di atas memperlihatkan informasi-informasi
that is found on “OCCUPATIONAL EXPO- tertentu yang dijumpai pada formulir “OCCUPA-
SURE” forms. TIONAL EXPOSURE”.
Item 5 - requests information on the part of Item 5 - mensyaratkan informasi bagian tubuh
the body exposed. Industrial mana yang terekspos. Radiografi
radiography usually involves the industri biasanya melibatkan seluruh
whole body. tubuh.
Item 6 - the dose entered here is from item Item 6 - dosis yang dimasukkan di sini berasal
18 on last form. This form must be dari item 18 pada bagian akhir formulir.
filled out at least each quarter. Formulir ini harus diisi tiap kuartal.
Item 7-13 are self-explanatory, with dose Item 7-13 diisi berdasarkan kenyataan, dengan
always in REMS. dosis selalu dalam REMS.
SAMPLE PROBLEM – what is the permissible CONTOH SOAL – berapakah dosis yang diijinkan di
dose in the table below? dalam tabel berikut?
When the total accumulated dose = 78 REMS Jika dosis terakumulasi total = 78 REMS dan dosis
and the permissible accumulated dose = 75 terakumulasi yang diijinkan = 75 REMS, maka
REMS, the permissible dose is -3 REMS. dosis yang diijinkan adalah -3 REMS.
This means that at a point in that person’s Ini berarti bahwa orang tersebut telah terekspos
lifetime he has been exposed to more than melebihi dosis radiasi yang diijinkan.
the allowable radiation dose.
It SHOULD BE REMEMBERED that the LIMITS PERLU DIINGAT bahwa batasan yang diberikan di
given in this test are SUBJECT TO CHANGE at atas DAPAT DIUBAH SEWAKTU-WAKTU oleh
any time by the NRC. NRC.
In fact, the NRC is currently STUDYING NRC saat ini sedang mempelajari adanya
ALTERNATIVES to the”BANKING CONCEPT” ALTERNATIP terhadap “KONSEP BANK RADIASI”
and other occupational exposure limits. dan batasan eksposur lainnya.
1. This worksheet will involve the assumption that you received the following radiation exposures
during a one year period using a film badge to monitor.
2. Your task is to fill out the attached “OCCUPATIONAL EXPOSURE” forms assuming that you just
started as a radiation worker on 11 January 1980 and:
A. Your birthday is 25 April 1958, you have turned 22 years old.
B. The radiation received was whole body from a gamma ray source.
3. Fill out the attached forms, using one form for each calendar quarter.
4. Complete all the entries on the form and compute all necessary data to find your unused part of
“PERMISSIBLE ACCUMULATED DOSE” and “PERMISSIBLE DOSE” (items 17 to 18) at the
bottom of the form.
REMEMBER:
A. During the quarter that your birthday falls, add the proper amount to your “RADIATION
BANK ACCOUNT”.
B. You can put REMS in the bank account at the rata of 5 per year, but you can take them
out at the rate of 12 per year up to the maximum 5 (N-18).
C. The permissible dose at the beginning of each quarter (item 6) can never exceed 3
REMS.
D. Your age at the start of your work in radiography was 21.
5. What is the “PERMISSIBLE DOSE” (item 18) at the end of the last exposure period as shown on
the attached Occupational Exposure Form?
_______ 2. The “Radiation Banking Concept” is important because even the lowest levels of
radiation will cause permanent damage because the body has no way of
repairing radiation damaged tissue.
_______ 3. Some parts of the human body, such as arms and feet can receive a higher
radiation dose.
_______ 4. A given amount of radiation dose will have less effect on the body if the exposure
occurs gradually over a long period of time.
_______ 6. The current NRC regulations permit a person to receive 12 REMS per year if there
is a sufficient reserve in the individual's radiation ''bank account."
_______ 7. A new drug has been developed by the medical profession that will prevent
radiation damage if taken prior to the exposure.
_______ 8. Federal regulations state that no person under the age of 21 can work in an area
where radiographic inspections are being performed.
_______ 9. the “Occupational Exposure” form must be filled out daily and sent to the NRC.
_______ 12. If a person started to work in a radiation area on his 21st birthday, what would be
his “Radiation Bank Account” balance? (2 points) (show work)
If a person received 4 mR/hr of X-radiation for 40 hours per week for one quarter,
and up to the beginning of the quarter had a lifetime accumulated dose of 109
REMS:
_______ 13. If this person is 41 years old, is he within, NRC limits? (2 points)
_______ 14. What is his lifetime accumulated dose to the end of this quarter? (2 points)
All of the above devices are designed to Semua perangkat di atas dirancang untuk
measure X-AND GAMMA radiation exposure in mengukur exposur radiasi SINAR X DAN GAMMA
ROENTGENS. dalam satuan ROENTGENS.
All of the above devices work on the principle Semua perangkat di atas bekerja berdasarkan
of “IONIZATION”. prinsip “IONISASI”.
The ionization chamber is an air-filled enclosure Chamber ionisasi merupakan ruangan tertutup
for collecting ions formed by high energy berisi udara untuk mengumpulkan ion-ion yang
radiation. dihasilkan oleh radiasi berenergi tinggi.
Each time BEFORE THE DOSIMETER IS USED, Tiap kali SEBELUM DIPAKAI, dosimeter harus
it is placed in a charging device which places a dicharge dimana alat charge tersebut mengisi
like electrical charge on each quartz fiber. serat quartz dengan muatan listrik yang sama.
The hinged movable fiber separates from the Serat yang memiliki engsel dan dapat bergerak
fixed fiber because both are charged with a like akan menjauh dari serat tetap akibat pengaruh
electrical charge. muatan listrik yang sama.
When ionization occurs in the chamber, due to Saat ionisasi terjadi di dalam chamber, akibat
X or gamma rays passing through, the air in the lewatnya sinar X atau gamma, udara di dalam
chamber becomes a conductor of electricity. chamber menjadi penghantar listrik.
The negative particles are then attracted to the Partikel-partikel bermuatan negatip akan tertarik ke
positive charge of the quartz fiber, and this serat quartz bermuatan positip, dan
NEUTRALIZES the amount of positive charge MENETRALKAN sejumlah muatan positip pada
on the fibers. serat.
The movable fiber then moves toward the Serat yang dapat bergerak akan mendekat ke
fixed fiber as it loses its charge and this serat tetap karena hilangnya muatan positip,
movement is directly related to the amount dan pergerakan ini langsung berhubungan
of radiation present. dengan besarnya radiasi yang ada.
The dosimeter reading indicates a cumulative Pembacaan dosimeter menunjukkan eksposur
exposure received since it was last charged. kumulatip yang diterima sejak terakhir dicharge.
The INSTANTANEOUS READING is an PEMBACAAN SEKETIKA adalah KEUNTUNGAN
IMPORTANT ADVANTAGE of the dosimeter. UTAMA dari dosimeter.
The RANGE of the dosimeter is usually 0-200 Pembacaan dosimeter biasanya memiliki REN-
mR, with an ACCURACY of plus or minus 10%. TANG 0-200 mR dengan KEAKURATAN ±10%.
The ION CHAMBER consist of TWO CHAMBER ION tersebut memiliki dua buah
ELECTRODES which are insulated from each elektroda yang diisolasi satu sama lainnya dan
other and have OPPOSITE CHARGES. memiliki MUATAN YANG BERLAWANAN.
When ionizing radiation enters the chamber, Saat radiasi pengionisasi memasuki chamber,
ion pairs are created. The positive ions flow maka terbentuklah pasangan ion. Ion-ion positip
to the negative electrode and the negative mengalir ke arah elektroda negatip, dan ion-ion
ions flow to the positive electrode. negatip mengalir ke arah elektroda positip.
The electrodes are kept charged by a Elektroda-elektroda tersebut tetap dijaga
battery. muatan listriknya dengan memakai baterei.
A CURRENT FLOW IS CREATED through ALIRAN ARUS YANG DITIMBULKAN di dalam
the circuit which is MEASURED BY A rangkaian DIUKUR BESARNYA OLEH SEBUAH
METER which gives RADIATION RATE in METERAN yang menunjukkan LAJU RADIASI
ROENTGENS OR MILLIROENTGENS PER dalam satuan ROENTGENS ATAU MILI-
HOUR. ROENTGENS PER JAM.
The IONIZATION CHAMBER is commonly used CHAMBER IONISASI paling banyak digunakan
because it is rugged and has a relatively WIDE karena tahan banting dan memiliki RENTANG
RANGE (0-50 R/HR). UKUR yang relatip LEBAR (0-50 R/HR).
_______ 2. Body cells that are easily damaged by radiation are called “latent” cells.
_______ 3. “Somatic” effects refer to the effects that can be passed on to the next
generation.
_______ 5. The period of time between exposure and the appearance of symptoms is called
the "radiosensitivity period".
_______ 6. Survey meters and pocket dosimeters are both considered to be “personnel
monitoring devices”.
_______ 7. Ionization chamber and Geiger-Mueller tube both refer to the commonly used
survey meters which measure radiation rate.
_______ 8. Because it is very sensitive to low levels of radiation, the Geiger-Mueller is the
most common survey meter used in field radiography.
_______ 9. Film badges, survey meters and pocket dosimeters all are designed to measure
radiation in roentgens or milliroentgens.
_______ 10. The film badge and the pocket dosimeter both work on the principle of ionization.
_______ 11. The advantage of the Geiger-Mueller counter over the ion chamber survey meter
is that the g-m counter provides a permanent record of radiation exposure.
_______ 12. If a radiation worker suspects that he is in a high radiation area, the first course of
action should check his dosimeter and determine if the exposure is increasing.
_______ 13. Your film badge should be turned in after each shift so that your exposure can be
evaluated by your supervisor.
_______ 14. A properly calibrated survey meter is considered to be the most reliable personnel
monitoring device and should be used in establishing an individual’s permanent
record.
_______ 15. In a dosimeter, two quartz fibers are positively charged and when exposed to
radiation, they lose their charge causing one of the fibers to move.
_______ 16. The range of accuracy of a pocket dosimeter is usually plus or minus 10%.
What would be the intensity at one foot if you Berapakah intensitas pada jarak satu foot jika anda
had a 1 curie source of co-60? (answer: 14.5 memiliki 1 Ci sumber Co-60? (jawab: 14.5 R/hr)
R/hr)
For Co-60, the intensities are multiples of 14.5 Untuk Co-60, intensitasnya dikalikan dengan 14.5
R/hr/Curie at one foot. R/hr/Ci pada jarak 1 foot.
What would be the intensity of an Ir-192 source Berapakah intensitas sebuah sumber Ir-192 dengan
with an activity of 10 curies? (answer: 59 R/hr/1 aktivitas 10 Ci? (jawab: 59 R/hr/1 foot)
foot)
There are THREE BASIC MEANS OF Ada TIGA CARA DASAR UNTUK MEMBERIKAN
PROVIDING PROTECTION from radiation: PERLINDUNGAN dari bahaya radiasi:
1. TIME – controlling the length of time a 1. WAKTU – mengendalikan jangka waktu
person is exposed to radiation dimana seseorang terekspos radiasi.
2. DISTANCE – controlling the distance 2. JARAK – mengendalikan jarak antara
between personnel and the source. personil dan sumber radiasi.
3. SHIELDING – placing absorbing 3. PERISAI – meletakkan material penyerap
materials between personnel and source. radiasi antara personil dan sumber.
The above three factors must always be Ketiga faktor di atas harus selalu diingat saat
remembered when working in radiography and bekerja di bidang radiografi dan akan didiskusikan
will be discussed in this lesson. di dalam bab ini.
TIME WAKTU
TIME refers to the duration of RADIATION WAKTU mengacu pada lamanya EKSPOSUR
EXPOSURE. TERHADAP RADIASI.
The relationship of time to exposure is Hubungan antara waktu terhadap eksposur
DIRECTLY PROPORTIONAL. THE LONGER adalah BERBANDING LURUS. MAKIN LAMA
YOU STAY in a radiation area, THE MORE ANDA BERADA di daerah radiasi, MAKIN
radiation exposure YOU RECEIVE. BANYAK eksposur radiasi yang ANDA TERIMA.
(a person receiving 100 mR in one hour (seseorang yang menerima 100 mR dalam satu
would receive 800 mR in 8 hours) jam akan menerima 800 mR dalam 8 jam)
In the diagram above, assume that the second Di dalam diagram di atas, asumsikan bahwa
series of squares is TWICE the distance from rangkaian kotak kedua jaraknya DUA KALI dari
the source as the first series. sumber dibandingkan rangkaian kotak pertama.
This demonstrates that each of the 16 Hal ini mendemonstrasikan bahwa masing-
squares in the second series is receiving ¼ masing dari 16 kotak dalam rangkaian kedua
OF THE AMOUNT as each of the four menerima ¼ JUMLAH dari masing-masing
squares in the first series. kotak pada rangkaian pertama.
Of course, the same considerations apply if Tentu saja, pertimbangan yang sama juga berlaku
you are getting nearer the source instead of jika anda berada pada jarak yang lebih dekat dari
further away. sumber ketimbang pada jarak yang jauh.
The INVERSE SQUARE FORMULA is shown RUMUS INVERSE SQUARE diperlihatkan di bawah
below: ini:
A. At 4 feet from a radiation source, radiation intensity is 600 R/hr. what would the intensity be at 10
feet from this source?
C. At four feet from the source, the intensity is 150 R/hr. What is the intensity at 1 foot?
D. Intensity at 3 feet is 500 R/hr. At what distance would the intensity be reduced to below 40 R/hr?
SHIELDING PERISAI
SHIELDING is the third means of providing PERISAI atau PELINDUNG adalah cara ketiga
personnel safety. untuk memberikan perlindungan kepada personil.
The damaging effects of radiation come from Pengaruh radiasi yang bersifat merusak berasal
the fact that RADIATION KNOCKS ELEC- dari kenyataan bahwa RADIASI MENABRAK
TRONS in atoms OUT OF ORBIT. ELEKTRON di dalam atom hingga KELUAR DARI
ORBITNYA.
The same principle allows us to use solid Prinsip yang sama juga kita pakai dalam
materials as shields. The SHIELDING menggunakan benda padat sebagai perisai.
MATERIAL ABSORBS THE RADIATION MATERIAL PERISAI MENYERAP ENERGI
ENERGY when the rays collide with RADIASI saat sinar radiasi menabrak elektron di
electrons in the material. dalam material
The MORE DENSE the material, the MAKIN PADAT material perisai, maka MAKIN
BETTER IT SHIELDS against radiation as BAIK PERLINDUNGANNYA terhadap radiasi
shown below: seperti ditunjukkan di bawah ini:
In practical applications, LEAD AND Dalam aplikasi praktisnya, TIMBAL DAN BETON
CONCRETE (or combinations) are the MOST (atau kombinasi keduanya) merupakan material
COMMON shielding materials. pelindung yang PALING BANYAK DIPAKAI.
It is OFTEN NECESSARY TO CALCULATE THE SERINGKALI DIPERLUKAN PERHITUNGAN
SHIELDING for a certain location, therefore the KETEBALAN PELINDUNG untuk lokasi tertentu,
term “HALF-VALUE LAYER” will be more fully oleh karenanya istilah “LAPIS PARUH HARGA”
explained on the next page. akan lebih banyak dijelaskan pada halaman
berikut.
THE TENTH-VALUE LAYER – (TVL) is another LAPIS SEPERSEPULUH HARGA – (TVL) adalah
standard THAT WILL REDUCE THE RADIATION standard lain yang AKAN MENGURANGI RADIASI
passing through that material to ONE-TENTH yang melalui material sebesar SEPERSEPULUH
the original intensity. intensitas awalnya.
The problems on the next page will provide a Permasalahan pada halaman berikutnya akan
better understanding of the half- and tenth- memberikan pengertian lebih dalam pada konsep
value layer concept. lapis paruh dan sepersepuluh harga.
A. A 250 kVP X-ray machine is positioned so that the primary radiation produces a dose rate of 630
mR/hr in an occupied area. What amount of concrete would be necessary to reduce the dose
rate to below 10 mR/hr?
B. If the Cobalt-60 intensity on the outside of a lead wall is 1.25 R/hr, how much concrete would
need to be added to reduce the intensity to below 20 mR/hr?
1. If a person 23 years old with a lifetime accumulated dose of 20 REMS were working in a radiation
area using 50 Ci of Ir-192, what would be the radiation intensity at the following distances from
the source?
2. At what distance from the above source would the radiation intensity be below 10 mR/hr?
3. How much shielding would be necessary to shield the above person to a level below 12 mR/hr at
a distance of 10 feet?
Inches of concrete____________
Inches of lead________________
4. The intensity of a Co-60 source is 75 R/hr at a distance of 4 feet. At what distance would the
intensity be reduced to below 80 mR/hr?
_______ 2. A person will receive 0.16 REMS if he stands in a 40 MR/HR area ICR a period of
4 hours.
_______ 3. The thickness of a material that will stop nine-tenths of the radiation is called the
tenth-value layer.
_______ 4. The three basic means of providing radiation protection refer to “time”, “distance”
and “shielding”.
_______ 5. If the radiation intensity at 10 feet was 200 R/hr, it would be reduced to 100 R/hr if
the distance were increased to 20 feet.
_______ 6. The “inverse square law” can be used to determine the radiation intensity at a
given distance if you know the intensity at a different distance.
_______ 7. One half-value layer of a material will effectively reduce the radiation to one-half
the original intensity.
_______ 8. Two half-value layers of a material will effectively stop all radiation from passing
through the material.
_______ 9. The half-value layer of lead would be thicker than a tenth-value layer with
reference to shielding from the same isotope.
_______ 10. Dense materials such as lead are measured in tenth-value layers, while less
dense materials such as concrete can only use half-value layers.
_______ 11. If a radiographic inspection is to be performed in an open area using a 100 curie
Ir-192 source, what would be the radiation intensity at 30 feet from the source? (Ir-
192 — 5.9 R/hr/Ci at 1 ft) (3 points) (show work)
_______ 12. If your survey meter showed an intensity of 90 mR/HR at 30 feet, how far would
you have to move back to be in an area with less than 10 mR/hr? (3 points) (show
work)
_______ 13. If an Ir-192 source had an intensity of 850 mR/hr through a concrete wall, how
much lead (0.19 HVL) would need to be added to reduce the intensity to below 15
mR/hr? (3 points) (show work)
The LEAD SCREEN IN THE FRONT serves two LEAD SCREEN DI SEBELAH DEPAN film memiliki
important purposes: dua tujuan penting:
1. FILTERS out the LOW ENERGY 1. MENYARING RADIASI BERENERGI
RADIATION. RENDAH.
2. INCREASES THE PHOTOGRAPHIC 2. MENINGKATKAN AKSI FOTOGRAFI pada
ACTION on the film (discussed on the film (didiskusikan pada halaman berikutnya).
next page).
The LEAD SCREEN IN THE BACK of the film, LEAD SCREEN DI SEBELAH BELAKANG film
often a thicker sheet (0.010”) serves to seringkali lebih tebal (0.25 mm) yang berfungsi
ABSORB the radiation BACK SCATTER. untuk MENYERAP radiasi HAMBURAN
BELAKANG.
BOTH the FRONT AND BACK lead screen ADD LEAD SCREEN DI DEPAN dan BELAKANG film
to the formation of the image on the film due to keduanya MENAMBAH pembentukan citra pada
the effect of the SCATTERED ELECTRONS. film karena efek HAMBURAN ELEKTRON.
However, any SPACE BETWEEN THE Namun demikian, jika ada RUANG ANTARA
SCREEN AND FILM allows room for the SCREEN DAN FILM, akan terjadi penyebaran
electrons to spread causing “FUZZY” elektron yang mengakibatkan CITRA yang
IMAGES. “TIDAK TAJAM”.
In some cases, a RIGID CASSETTE is used Pada beberapa kasus, dipakai KASET KAKU yang
which is constructed with SPRING CLAMPS on pada penutupnya terdapat KLEM PEGAS sehingga
the cover to hold the SCREEN AND FILM in antara SCREEN DAN FILM terjadi kontak yang
very close contact. baik.
The PRIMARY FUNCTION of any film holder or FUNGSI UTAMA dari film holder atau kaset adalah
cassette is to maintain a LIGHT-TIGHT untuk menciptakan LINGKUNGAN YANG KEDAP
ENVIRONMENT for the radiographic film. CAHAYA bagi film radiografi.
As shown above, THREE HOLES are drilled Seperti diperlihatkan di atas, TIGA BUAH LUBANG
into the penny; the diameter of which are dibuat pada penny; dengan diameter berturut-turut
respectively 4, 1, and 2 TIMES THE 4, 1, dan 2 KALI KETEBALAN PENETRAMETER.
THICKNESS OF THE PENETRAMETER.
As shown below, it is generally required that the Seperti diperlihatkan di bawah ini, umumnya
MATERIAL UNDER THE PENETRAMETER be disyaratkan bahwa ketebalan MATERIAL DI
EQUAL TO the thickness of the MATERIAL BAWAH PENETRAMETER harus SAMA DENGAN
BEING RADIOGRAPHED. ketebalan MATERIAL YANG DIRADIOGRAFI.
In some cases, a SHIM can be placed under Pada beberapa kasus, sebuah SHIM dapat
the penetrameter. diletakkan di bawah penetrameter.
Unless otherwise allowed, the penny should Kecuali ada persyaratan tertentu, penny harus
always be placed on the “SOURCE SIDE” of selalu diletakkan pada “SISI SUMBER” dari
the specimen. spesimen.
If it is IMPRACTICAL to place the penetrameter Jika secara praktis TIDAK MUNGKIN meletakkan
on the specimen, it may be placed on a penetrameter di atas spesimen, maka ia diletakkan
SEPARATE BLOCK of the SAME MATERIAL pada BLOK TERPISAH dengan JENIS MATERIAL
and THICKNESS as the specimen. dan KETEBALAN yang sama seperti spesimennya.
Here you want to radiograph a piece of Anda ingin meradiografi sebuah batang aluminium.
aluminum bar stock. You want to assure that the Anda ingin menjamin bahwa seluruh bagian batang
entire bar is free of any discontinuities that tersebut bebas dari diskontinuitas yang besarnya
would exceed 2% of its thickness. The melebihi 2% ketebalannya. Penetrameter diletakkan
penetrameter is to be placed on separate block pada material blok yang terpisah. Ketebalan total
of material. The total thickness of block and dari blok dan penetrameter adalah __________.
penetrameter is __________. (answer: 3.06 (jawab: 3.06 inchi)
inches)
A specimen of similar size and material is Ambil sebuah spesimen dengan ukuran dan
obtained and the proper size penetrameter (P1) material yang seragam. Penetrameter (P1) dengan
is placed on the source side. ukuran yang sesuai diletakkan pada sisi sumber.
THREE PENETRAMETERS (P2, P3, AND P4) TIGA PENETRAMETER lainnya (P2, P3, DAN
of varying sizes are placed on the FILM P4) dengan berbagai ukuran diletakkan pada
SIDE. SISI FILM.
A radiograph is then taken which must Lalu dibuat film radiografinya dimana harus
show the CORRECT QUALITY as memiliki KUALITAS YANG BENAR dengan
evidenced by the image of P1. From this dibuktikan munculnya citra P1. Dari film ini,
radiograph, we can select the kita dapat memilih citra penetrameter P2, P3,
penetrameter image P2, P3, or P4 that atau P4 yang akan berfungsi sebagai
will serve as the “film-side equivalent” sensitivitas “ekivalen sisi film” dari P1.
sensitivity of P1.
Figure below is the resulting images of the Gambar di bawah ini adalah citra penetrameter
penetrameters. yang dihasilkan.
From the above figures, which penetrameter Dari gambar di atas, penetrameter mana yang akan
woul you select as your film side penny, and anda pilih sebagai penny sisi film, dan lubang mana
which hole would you look for? (answer: 1.0, yang dicari? (jawab: 1.0, 1T)
1T)
The filter ABSORBS the SOFT RADIATION of Filter MENYERAP RADIASI SINAR X yang LUNAK
the beam and: dan:
1. REDUCES SUBJECT CONTRAS, 1. MENGURANGI SUBYEK KONTRAS,
permitting a wide range of specimen sehingga memungkinkan spesimen dengan
thicknesses to be recorded with one rentang ketebalan yang besar untuk direkam
exposure. dalam satu kali eksposur.
2. Helps to ELIMINATE SCATTER caused 2. Membantu MENGHILANGKAN HAMBURAN
by soft radiation. yang diakibatkan oleh radiasi lunak.
The filter ABSORBS THE LOW ENERGY Filter MENYERAP RADIASI BERENERGI RENDAH,
radiation LEAVING A HIGHER AVERAGE dan MEMBIARKAN BERKAS RADIASI BERENERGI
ENERGY BEAM to penetrate the specimen. TINGGI menembus spesimen.
As shown below, METALLIC SHOT can also be Seperti diperlihatkan di bawah, PELOR LOGAM
used effectively to REDUCE SCATTERED dapat juga digunakan secara efektip untuk
RADIATION. MENGURANGI RADIASI HAMBURAN.
Remember that KV AND SCATTER have a Ingat bahwa TEGANGAN dan HAMBURAN
direct relationship. LOWER ENERGY X-RAYS memiliki hubungan langsung. SINAR X
HAVE A LARGER SCATTER ANGLE than do BERENERGI RENDAH memiliki SUDUT
higher energy rays. HAMBURAN yang LEBIH BESAR ketimbang sinar
berenergi tinggi.
Because of this larger scatter angle, THE Akibat dari sudut hamburan yang lebih besar,
LOW ENERGY RAY causes a greater degree SINAR BERENERGI RENDAH mengakibatkan
of “FUZZYNESS” in the image. “KETIDAKTAJAMAN” citra.
_______ 2. The lead foil screen which is placed in back of the radiographic film is usually
thicker than the front screen t6 help prevent back scatter.
_______ 3. Lead foil screens act as intensifiers primarily because of the compton and
photoelectric effect.
_______ 4. Fluorescent intensifying screens actually produce a visible light which helps to
expose the film.
_______ 5. The intensification effect of lead screens is most effective below 150 KV.
_______ 6. Fluorometallic intensification screens can be used when you wish to penetrate a
relatively thick specimen with a limited kV.
_______ 7. Flexible film holders should be used with intensification screens because they
provide the best film-to-screen contact during exposure.
_______ 8. The primary use of the penetrameter is to compare with defects for acceptability.
_______ 9. The 1T hole in the penetrameter represents the thickness of the penetrameter.
_______ 10. The 2T hole in the penetrameter is usually 2% of the part thickness.
_______ 11. The identification number of “10” on an ASTM penetrameter represents the
thickness of the penetrameter in thousandths.
_______ 12. The sensitivity or quality level of 2-2T on a radiograph would indicate the 2T hole
must be visible in a penetrameter that is 2% of the part thickness.
_______ 13. The 4T hole represents a hole diameter that is four times the thickness of the
penetrameter.
_______ 14. Filters can be used to provide a greater latitude in recording specimen
thicknesses.
_______ 15. The filter is most effective when placed between the specimen and the film.
_______ 16. Masking with lead or metal shot is effective in increasing the energy of the X-ray
beam through intensification, thereby decreasing scatter.
_______ 17. Masking should not be used in making a critical radiograph because of the
“'fuzzyness” that may be caused in the edges of the specimen.
As shown above, the exposure is PLOTTED on Seperti ditunjukkan di atas, eksposur DIPLOT pada
a LOGARITHMIC SCALE to shorten the chart in SKALA LOGARITMA untuk memendekkan grafik
the vertical direction. pada arah vertikal.
The LEFT SIDE OF THE CHART SHOWN SISI SEBELAH KIRI GRAFIK MENUNJUKKAN
EXPOSURE in milliampere-minutes (mA-min) EKSPOSUR dalam satuan miliamper-menit (mA-
and THICKNESS OF THE MATERIAL AT THE min) dan KETEBALAN MATERIAL DITUNJUKKAN
BOTTOM. DI BAGIAN ABSIS.
To use this type of chart you enter the chart Untuk menggunakan grafik ini, masukkan kete-
at the thickness of the specimen, follow the balan spesimen, tarik garis vertikal untuk memi-
chart vertically to the selected kV and then lih kV yang sesuai dan tarik garis ke kiri untuk
horizontally to find the correct exposure. menentukan eksposur yang sesuai.
Example: ¾” of steel at 200 kV would require Contoh: pelat baja setebal ¾” dengan 200 kV
about 5.3 mA-min. akan memerlukan eksposur 5.3 mA-min.
The exposure factor would be 0.67 and Faktor eksposur besarnya 0.67 dan
the NEXT STEP would be to SOLVE FOR LANGKAH BERIKUTNYA adalah MENGHI-
TIME (T) as shown below: TUNG WAKTU (T) sebagai berikut:
What would be the activity of the above source Berapakah aktivitas sumber tersebut setelah jangka
after a period of 40 days? (answer: approx. 35 waktu 40 hari? (jawab: kurang lebih 35 Ci)
Ci)
If you wanted to X-ray 0.5 inches of copper at Jika anda ingin meradiografi pelat tembaga setebal
220 kV using an exposure chart for steel, what 0.5 inchi memakai sinar X pada tegangan 220 V
would be the equivalent thickness in steel? menggunakan grafik eksposur untuk baja, berapa-
kah ketebalan ekivalen untuk baja?
Answer – (0.7” steel) (multiplication factor Jawab – (baja 0.7”) (faktor pengali 1.4 dikali
1.4 times 0.5” copper = 0.7”) 0.5” tembaga = 0.7”)
DENSITY DENSITAS
FILM CONTRAST generally INCREASES as the FILM KONTRAS umumnya BERTAMBAH apabila
DENSITY of the film INCREASES. Essentially, DENSITAS film DITAMBAH. Pada dasarnya,
MAXIMUM DENSITY is limited by the AMOUNT DENSITAS MAKSIMUM dibatasi oleh JUMLAH
OF SILVER IN THE FILM EMULSION. PERAK DI DALAM EMULSI FILM.
For all films the light intensity produced by Untuk semua film, intensitas cahaya yang
the film viewer is the REAL LIMITING dihasilkan oleh viewer adalah faktor PEMBATAS
FACTOR. The radiograph must NOT BE SO YANG UTAMA. Film radiografi HARUS TIDAK
DENSE that the image WILL NOT PASS THE TERLALU GELAP sehingga citranya TIDAK
LIGHT from the viewer behind it. DAPAT DILALUI OLEH CAHAYA dari viewer di
belakangnya.
CONTRAST KONTRAS
CONTRAST of a film is determined from the Kontras sebuah film ditentukan oleh kemiringan
SLOPE OF THE CHARACTERISTIC CURVE of kurva karakteristik film tersebut. Makin curam
the film. The STEEPER the slope, the MORE kemiringannya, makin kontras filmnya.
CONTRAST available.
Selection of the film ON THE BASIS OF ITS Pemilihan film yang DIDASARKAN PADA
CONTRAST is DEPENDENT on the TYPE OF KONTRASNYA TERGANTUNG pada JENIS
DISCONTINUITIES ARE SOUGHT. If the DISKONTINUITAS YANG DICARI. Jika hanya
requirements are such that only ingin mencari DISKONTINUITAS BERUKURAN
comparatively LARGE DISCONTINUITIES BESAR, FILM DENGAN KONTRAS YANG
are sought, then A FILM WITH LESS RENDAH DAPAT DIPAKAI.
CONTRAST MAY BE USED.
As you can see, the CHOICE OF FILM is largely Seperti yang dapat anda lihat, PEMILIHAN FILM
based on the REQUIREMENTS OF THE sangat tergantung pada PERSYARATAN YANG
RADIOGRAPH. DIBERIKAN.
The following table was for instructional Tabel di bawah ini adalah untuk tujuan
purposes only, but similar tables are pembelajaran saja, namun tabel yang serupa
provided by all film manufacturers for all of dibuat oleh semua pabrik film untuk film
their current films. produksi mereka.
or
If WE REWRITE THE EQUATION, we could Jika PERSAMAAN DI ATAS KITA TULIS KEMBALI,
FIND THE SOURCE-TO-FILM DISTANCE by kita dapat MENGHITUNG JARAK SUMBER KE
the following: FILM sebagai berikut:
If you want an unsharpness at or below 0.020” Jika anda menginginkan ketidaktajaman yang
using a 0.125” source size to radiograph a 2“ besarnya sama atau di bawah 0.020” menggu-
thick specimen, what would be the required nakan sumber berukuran 0.125” untuk meradiografi
source-to-film distance? (answer: 14.5 inches) spesimen dengan tebal 2”, berapakah jarak sumber
ke film yang disyaratkan? (jawab: 14.5 inchi)
_______ 3. What is the identification of the. X-ray tube that must be used with this chart?
_______ 5. What should be the development time for film shot with this chart?
_______ 6. As a RULE OF THUMB, you should try to make your X-ray exposures between
300 -1000 mA-sec. Based on the attached chart, what kV would you use to
radiograph a 1-inch thick specimen?
_______ 7. What would be the milliampere-second exposure of the same 1” thick material?
_______ 8. If you were to use a 5 milliamp setting on the control panel of the X-ray unit, what
would be the time of the exposure on the same 1-inch thick specimen?
9. Find the the kilovoltage, milliamperage and exposure time for the following radiographic tasks
using the chart provided. (show your calculations)
A. Shoot 2.0” thick material with the lowest permissible kV range at 8 mA.
kV __________
mA-s __________
Time __________
B. Shoot 2.0” thick material with the highest permissible kV range at 5 mA.
kV __________
mA-s __________
Time __________
_______ 2. A X-ray exposure chart designed for steel could be used for brass if the proper
equivalent factor is considered.
_______ 3. To use a gamma exposure chart, the radiographer must know the activity of the
isotope at that specific time.
_______ 4. An isotope “decay chart” is based on the original activity of the source when it
was supplied to the user.
_______ 5. If the radiographer knows the activity in curies, he can find the source-to-film
distance by using the decay chart.
_______ 6. If the equivalence factor is known, a X-ray exposure chart can be used instead of
a gamma exposure chart to find the exposure factor.
_______ 7. The equivalence factor is simply a multiplication factor to find the equivalent
thickness of a material based on a standard material.
_______ 8. If you wanted to X-ray 1 inch of copper using 150 kV, and the equivalence factor
was 1.6, the equivalent thickness in steel would be 2.6 inches.
_______ 11. As a general rule of thumb, the X-Ray exposure should try to be between 300 and
1000 mA-s.
_______ 12. As a general rule, you should try to obtain the lowest contrast possible when
making a radiograph.
_______ 13. Unsharpness will increase as you increase the source to film distance.
_______ 14. The standard equivalence chart is always based on the use of steel as the
standard material for use in gamma radiography.
_______ 15. If the mA-s reading on the X-ray exposure chart was 645 and you used the
maximum 8 milliampere setting on the control panel, the timer would be set at
10.75.
_______ 16. The X-ray exposure chart is not effected by the use of lead foil screens
_______ 17. The “penumbra” effect on the film can be controlled by either raising or lowering
the kV, depending on if there is a negative or positive penumbra.
FLUOROSCOPY FLUOROSCOPY
This process enables us to display an IMAGE Proses ini memungkinkan kita untuk menampilkan
ON A SCREEN by CONVERSION OF X- CITRA PADA LAYAR melalui KONVERSI RADIASI
RADIATION INTO VISIBLE LIGHT. SINAR X MENJADI CAHAYA TAMPAK.
The FLUOROSCOPIC SCREEN functions in LAYAR FLUOROSCOPIC memiliki fungsi yang
a SIMILAR manner to the FLUORESCENT MIRIP dengan FLUORESCENT INTENSIFYING
INTENSIFICATION SCREENS. SCREENS.
As shown below, the image is projected Seperti diperlihatkan di bawah ini, citra benda
onto the fluoroscopic screen and usually is diproyeksikan ke layar fluoroscopic dan
viewed from the reverse side. biasanya ditampilkan pada sisi baliknya.
Show below is a X-RAY SENSITIVE VIDICON Di bawah ini adalah KAMERA VIDICON YANG
CAMERA with TV monitor. SENSITIP TERHADAP SINAR X, dan dilengkapi
monitor TV.
The X-ray sensitive vidicon system is similar Sistem vidicon yang sensitip terhadap sinar X
to the television monitor, except that its input serupa dengan monitor TV, hanya saja jendela
window is directly on the X-ray sensitive inputnya langsung pada kamera vidicon yang
vidicon camera. sensitip terhadap sinar X.
The input window is made of beryllium and Jendela inputnya dibuat dari beryllium dan
its target is selenium. anoda sasarannya adalah selenium.
If a PERMANENT RECORD is desired from the Jika diinginkan REKAMAN PERMANEN dari
xeroradiograph, an ELECTROSTATICALLY xeroradiografi, citra benda dipindahkan dari pelat
CHARGED PAPER or an ADHESIVE TYPE aluminium ke sebuah KERTAS YANG DIBERI
PAPER, the powder image is TRANSFERRED MUATAN LISTRIK STATIS atau KERTAS
from the plate to the paper. BERPEREKAT KHUSUS.
By applying heat, the powder is fused to the Dengan memanaskannya, serbuk akan menya-
paper for a permanent record. tu dengan kertas untuk rekaman permanen.
After the image has been transferred from Setelah citra dipindahkan ke kertas, pelat dapat
the plate to the paper, the plate can be DIBERSIHKAN DAN DIGUNAKAN KEMBALI.
CLEANED AND REUSE.
The DISTANCE THE TUBE IS MOVED, as JARAK PERGESERAN TABUNG SINAR X seperti
shown on the right above, must equal diperlihatkan di sebelah kanan atas kurang lebih
approximately the DISTANCE BETWEEN OUR harus sama dengan JARAK KEDUA BOLA MATA
EYES. KITA.
The PARALLAX technique involves TWO Teknik PARALLAX memakai DUA EKSPOSUR
EXPOSURES with the TUBE MOVED A dengan TABUNG YANG DIGESER PADA JARAK
PREDETERMINED DISTANCE between shots. TERTENTU.
LEAD MARKERS are attached to the FRONT MARKER DARI TIMBAL ditempelkan pada SISI
AND BACK SIDES of the specimen and the DEPAN DAN BELAKANG spesimen dan posisi
position of the defect can be determined by cacat dapat ditentukan dari pergeseran dalam
its shift in relationship to the markers. hubungannya dengan marker tersebut.
If the FLAW SHIFT is GREATER THAN HALF Jika PERGESERAN CACAT LEBIH BESAR DARI
the shift of the surface marker, then the SETENGAH pergeseran marker di permukaan
FLAW IS NEARER THE TOP of the atas, maka CACAT LEBIH DEKAT KE PERMU-
specimen, if LESS THAN HALF, the flaw is KAAN ATAS spesimen. Jika pergeserannya
NEARER THE BOTTOM surface. KURANG DARI SETENGAH, letak CACAT
LEBIH DEKAT KE PERMUKAAN BAWAH
spesimen.
_______ 3. The best image on a fluorescent screen is obtained with the highest possible
voltage as this provides the best contrast.
_______ 4. Fluoroscopy has the advantage of being more sensitive than conventional
radiography.
_______ 5. Xeroradiography involves the use of a special vidicon camera to image the
specimen and enlarge it on a tv monitor.
_______ 6. The stereoradiography technique permits the operator to estimate the depth of a
discontinuity below the surface of the specimen.
_______ 7. The parallax technique permits the operator to estimate the depth of a
discontinuity below the surface of the specimen.
_______ 8. Stereoradiography and flash radiography are two names for the same technique.
_______ 9. In-motion radiography involves a technique of moving the film slowly underneath
the specimen to obtain a continuous exposure of a relatively long specimen.
_______ 10. The parallax technique requires that a marker be placed on the front and back
surface of the specimen which can be used to estimate the depth of a
discontinuity below the surface.
During the manufacturing process, many Selama proses manufaktur, banyak diskontinuitas
discontinuities that were subsurface will be yang tadinya berada di bawah permukaan menjadi
made open to the surface by machining, membuka ke permukaan karena permesinan,
grinding, and the like. penggerindaan, dan sejenisnya.
REMEMBER that discontinuities are not INGAT selalu bahwa diskontinuitas itu belum tentu
necessarily defects. cacat.
Any indication that is found by the inspector Sembarang indikasi yang ditemukan oleh
is called a discontinuity until it can be inspektor dinamakan sebagai diskontinuitas
identified and evaluated as to the effect it hingga dikenali dan dievaluasi pengaruhnya
will have on the service of the part. terhadap pengoperasian komponen.
The “HOT TOP” is usually cropped off to Bagian “HOT TOP” biasanya dipotong untuk
remove most of the above discontinuities. menghilangkan sebagian besar diskontinuitas di
atas.
When the metal is poured, it hits the mold Saat logam cair dituangkan dan membentur
too hard and spatters small drops of metal. dinding cetakan terlalu keras akan terjadi
When these drops of metal hit higher up on percikan logam cair. Jika percikan ini mengenai
the mold, they stick and solidify. When the dinding cetakan, dia akan lengket dan
rising molten metal reaches and covers the membeku. Apabila logam cair menutupi
solidified drops of metal, a crack-like percikan beku tersebut, terbentuk diskontinuitas
discontinuity is formed. yang menyerupai retakan.
HOT TEARS (SHRINKAGE CRACKS) occurs SOBEK PANAS (RETAK SUSUT) terjadi apabila
when there is unequal shrinkage between light terjadi penyusutan yang tidak merata antara
and heavy sections as shown below. bagian ringan dan berat seperti dalam gambar.
In a casting having light and heavy sections, Pada benda cor, makin ringan suatu bagian
the light sections, being smaller, solidify maka makin cepat pembekuan dan penyusu-
faster; they shrink faster pulling the heavier tannya, yang akan menarik bagian berat yang
sections, which are hotter and not shrinking lebih panas dan lebih lambat penyusutannya
as fast, toward the light sections. dibandingkan bagian tipis.
GATE
(ENTRANCE FOR
MOLTEN METAL)
Shrinkage cavities can be eliminated, or the Rongga susut dapat dicegah atau dikurangi
possibility of shrinkage cavities can be kemungkinan terjadinya dengan menambahkan
greatly reduced, by adding a feeder head or corong pengisian seperti dalam gambar kanan
reservoir as shown above on the right. atas.
MICROSHRINKAGE is usually many small SUSUT MIKRO biasanya berupa lubang-lubang
subsurface holes that appear at the gate of the kecil di bawah permukaan yang muncul pada gate
casting caused by premature blocking of the akibat penyumbatan gate sebelum pengisian
gate. selesai seluruhnya.
Microshrinkage can also occur when the Susut mikro dapat juga disebabkan ketika
molten metal must flow from a thin section logam cair harus mengalir dari bagian tipis ke
into a thicker section of a casting. bagian yang lebih tebal di dalam cetakan.
BLOW HOLES are small holes at the surface of LUBANG TIUP adalah lubang-lubang kecil pada
the casting caused by gas which comes from permukaan benda cor akibat gas-gas yang berasal
the mold itself. Many molds are made of sand, dari dinding cetakan. Banyak cetakan yang dibuat
and when molten metal comes into contact dari pasir, dan saat logam cair bersentuhan
with the mold, the water in the sand is released dengannya kelembaban yang terkandung dalam
as steam. pasir berubah menjadi uap air.
POROSITY is caused by entrapped gas. POROSITAS disebabkan karena gas-gas yang
Porosity is usually subsurface but can occur on terperangkap. Porositas biasanya di bawah
the surface depending on the design of the permukaan namun dapat pula terjadi di
mold. permukaan, tergantung pada disain cetakan.
As a billet is rolled into bar stock, nonmetallic Saat billet dirol menjadi batang tongkat, inklusi
inclusions are squeezed out into longer and nonlogam tertekan menjadi diskontinuitas yang
thinner discontinuities called stringers. panjang dan tipis dinamakan stringers.
A nonmetallic inclusion in bar stock extends in Inklusi nonlogam dalam batang tongkat menyebar
the direction of grain formation. As the billet is ke arah pembentukan butiran. Saat billet dirol
rolled smaller around and longer, the stringer semakin kecil dan panjang, stringer juga menjadi
also becomes smaller around and longer. lebih kecil dan panjang.
A seam could also occur when the billet is Seam juga bisa terjadi saat billet dibentuk menjadi
formed into a rectangular bar as shown below. batang kotak seperti berikut.
HEAT TREAT CRACKS are often caused by the RETAK LAKU PANAS seringkali disebabkan tega-
stresses built up during heating and cooling. ngan yang terjadi selama pemanasan dan pendi-
Unequal cooling between light and heavy nginan. Laju pendinginan yang tidak sama antara
sections may cause heat treat cracks. bagian ringan dan berat bisa menyebabkan retak.
Heat treat cracks have no specific direction Retak laku panas tidak mempunyai arah
and usually start at sharp corners which act tertentu, dan biasanya bermula dari pojok-pojok
as stress concentration points. tajam yang bertindak sebagai titik konsentrasi
tegangan.
During inspection of heat treated parts, the first Selama pemeriksaan komponen yang dilaku
areas of concern will be: panas, daerah pertama yang menjadi perhatian:
• Any sharp area, such as corner, ridges, • Daerah tajam seperti pojok-pojok,
etc. permukaan kasar, takik, dll.
• Junction of light and heavy sections. • Pertemuan antara bagian ringan dan berat.
The photo below shows a part that has cracked Foto di bawah ini memperlihatkan komponen yang
from heat treatment. Notice that the crack cuts retak akibat perlakuan panas. Perhatikan bahwa
across the grain. Since heat treatment cracks retak tersebut melintang terhadap butiran logam.
have no specific direction, the crack might just Karena retak laku panas tidak memiliki arah ter-
as well have followed the grain. tentu, arahnya bisa juga mengikuti butiran logam.
A FORGING BURST is a rupture caused by PECAH TEMPA adalah kepecahan yang disebab-
forging at improper temperatures. Forging kan karena suhu penempaan yang salah. Penem-
metal at too low temperature may cause burst. paan logam pada suhu terlalu rendah mengaki-
Burst may be either internal or open to the batkan kepecahan. Pecah tempa bisa berada di
surface a shown below. dalam, maupun membuka ke permukaan.
Improper temperatures caused these parts Suhu yang terlalu rendah mengakibatkan
to break as the material was being shaped komponen tersebut pecah saat ditempa. Logam
by forging. The metal was not hot enough tidak cukup panas sehingga tidak terjadi aliran
and did not want to flow with the forging. saat ditempa. Saat ditekan pada waktu
When squeezed by the heavy forging press, penempaan, logam akan pecah di bagian
the metal in the center simply ruptured. tengahnya.
Forging laps can also be caused by poor Lipatan tempa dapat juga disebabkan disain
die design. As the metal is pressed into the cetakan yang keliru. Saat logam ditekan di
cavity in this die, the metal is forced up at dalam rongga cetakan, logam dipaksa meme-
the bottom of the die and tends to fold over nuhi cetakan dan cenderung terlipat ke arahnya
on itself, forming the forging lap shown on sendiri membentuk lipatan tempa seperti dalam
the right. gambar kanan bawah.
Porosity Porositas
Undercut Undercut
Fatigue cracks are possible only after the Retak fatik hanya mungkin timbul setelah
part is placed into service, but may be the komponen menjalankan fungsinya, dan bisa
result of porosity, inclusions, or other disebabkan karena porositas, inklusi, atau
discontinuities in a highly stressed metal diskontinuitas lain pada bagian logam yang
part. konsentrasi tegangannya tinggi.
_______ 2. Discontinuities involving fatigue are often considered critical and are referred to as
a processing type discontinuity.
_______ 3. Discontinuities and defects are terms that are considered to have the sarne
meaning in radiographic testing methods.
_______ 4. Knowing the history of a part is usually considered important in selecting the test
method and knowing the type of discontinuity to look for.
_______ 6. Porosity in a billet could cause a lamination if the metal were formed into a flat
plate.
_______ 7. When a billet is rolled into bar stock, a nonmetallic inclusion could be formed into
a longer and thinner discontinuity called a stringer.
_______ 9. Hot tears and shrinkage cracks are often the result of metal cooling too rapidly in
the ingot stage.
_______ 10. Porosity is caused by gas which is trapped in the molten metal as it solidifies.
_______ 11. Laps and bursts are examples of processing type discontinuities.
_______ 12. The radiographic testing method is excellent for finding slag inclusions in
weldments.
_______ 13. Grinding cracks are often caused by the stresses created by the excessive
heating of the metal surface.
_______ 14. Because cold metal occupies more space than hot metal, there is the danger of
“hot tears” during the casting process.
_______ 15. Lack of penetration and lack of fusion both refer to the same type of welding
discontinuity.
_______ 16. Lack of fusion between passes in a weldment can always be detected with the
radiographic testing method.
CORRECT ANGLE FOR CORNER JOINT AND CORRECT DETAIL CORRECT ANGLE FOR CORNER JOINT BUT INCORRECT DETAIL
PLACEMENT PLACEMENT
CORRECT ANGLE FOR CORNER JOINT AND CORRECT DETAIL
PLACEMENT
_______ 4. The panoramic technique involves a series of separate exposures that, when
completed, will show the entire circular weldment.
_______ 5. When a large vessel is radiographed, the image of the source side weld will “'burn
out” if the tube or source is placed in close contact.
_______ 6. Alignment of the tube with suspected discontinuities is not necessary because if
the film does not show any defect over 2% of the part thickness, the part is
considered to be safe to put into use.
_______ 7. A radiographer that is a level I certified technician is usually the person that makes
the decision relative to the radiographic technique used.