The line-to-ground unbalanced fault analysis in

the power system

Amina Abir, Menaa, 2107274

Abstract— Addressing the intricate nature of line-to-ground unbalanced fault analysis is critical in power
system design. As such, this study undertakes a holistic approach to explore potential solutions and implications
through an exhaustive review of scholarly articles alongside referencing pertinent works pertaining to the topic
domain. Electrical systems and equipment can suffer from severe instability due to line-to-ground faults posing
an imminent danger. Understanding them well enough can help locate these faults more precisely, estimate
clearance times more accurately, and ensure the dependability of power systems overall. This study intends to
advance knowledge on fault analysis techniques that could be employed effectively towards achieving all these
objectives. The focus of this research is the analysis of electrical faults -- particularly unbalanced line to ground
faults -- through various computational methods such as fault current and voltage calculations, symmetrical
component analysis, and sequence network modeling. By thoroughly exploring these approaches. We aim to
broaden our understanding of their applications in practice. At its core, this paper discusses how employing
symmetrical component analysis has long provided distinctive solutions when it comes to power system
operations. In greater detail, one will find that all facets associated with executing 'fault analyses' involve
intricate mathematical formulations accounting for current and voltage values. The paper further adds value by
drawing on a shared case study that underlines how symmetrical components can be harnessed towards effective
fault analysis.

I. INTRODUCTION
A. Background and significance of line-to-ground unbalanced faults in power systems
Providing electricity reliably and safely hinges on flawless functioning of power systems.
However, such vital infrastructure is prone to developing faults that could disrupt their operation and
compromise safety standards. Amongst all types of defects hazardous for power grids' stability and
equipment durability- unbalanced line-to-ground fault warrants critical examination since it carries
significant risks if left unattended. Line-to-ground unbalances are observed when electricity flows
through an exposed wire that touches either earthing objects, or mobile devices connected to them.
Electrical energy does not pass properly through these lines resulting in uneven distribution between
two distinguishable sources: either the power supply wire or grounding point/earth itself. Several
environmental conditions feed this problem causing damage to insulated wires that ultimately lead to
unwanted interactions, gradually degrading performance over time - instances include direct exposure
to conductive material agents and lightning storms. The occurrence of unbalanced line-to-ground
faults can lead to unwelcome outcomes that range from voltage imbalances and equipment damage to
increased fault currents and system-wide outages. Therefore, ensuring the reliability and stability of
the electrical network requires detecting such faults promptly and analyzing them meticulously.

B. Overview of fault analysis in power systems

Within power system engineering lies an important practice called fault analysis. This strategy
involves identifying and analyzing any faults that may exist in each system to provide engineers with
insights into how it behaves during abnormal scenarios. The knowledge gained through this process is
necessary for creating suitable protective measures against future disruptions caused by such
 occurrences. C. L. Fortescue's concept of symmetrical components has given rise to an effective
technique for identifying flaws in power systems: symmetrical component analysis. [2] This
established method involves transforming the problematic system into a group of symmetrical
components to facilitate fault current and voltage computation.

C. Purpose and objectives of the research

This study delves into the exploration of line-to-ground unbalanced fault analysis methods and
their pertinent applications in power systems. By scrutinizing various scientific research articles,
conferences, and a book on power system defect analysis, our paper aims to shed light on this crucial
field.
The objectives of this research are as follows:
 This research endeavor involves an extensive review of the literature to investigate the
diverse approaches that are utilized for analyzing line-to-ground faults which are not
balanced.
 Exploring solution techniques for fault analysis, we turn our attention to symmetrical
component analysis. By examining its mathematical formulation and practical application, we
aim to showcase the effectiveness of this approach in addressing power system engineering
challenges when faults occur.
 The primary focus of this research is to assess whether incorporating line to ground fault
analysis into research designs could prove useful in terms of localizing faults and determining
an estimate for how long it will take to clear these faults.
 To present a case study that demonstrates the practical implementation of the selected
solution method and provides insight into fault location determination and estimation of
clearance time.
In this study, we endeavor to enrich the techniques employed for analyzing faults resulting from
line-to-ground unbalanced defects in power systems. The overarching mission is to strengthen the
dependability and stability of electric infrastructures.

II. LITERATURE REVIEW

A. Overview of line-to-ground unbalanced faults and their characteristics

In power systems, any contact between a single phase or multiple phases of a conductor with
either soil or any grounded body causes what we call an unbalanced defect in transmission lines (line-
to-ground). Because of their occurrence, there's incomplete balance between electrical energy flowing
through electromagnetic fields created around conductors carrying electric current and electrical
charge existing beneath surrounding soil surfaces that create further asymmetries owing to discharge
effects on nearby industrial equipment like transformers causing variable device operations to appear
faulty at times. To avoid such situations and glitches that may arise from time to time studying
potential faults involving these systems are indispensable as it'll aid individuals dealing with such
incidents while also being vigilant about potential hazards beforehand so they can take preventive
measures accordingly without compromising service delivery standards expected from them. A line-
to-ground fault can cause an upsurge in current flow within its affected phase but may have minimal
impact on other phases. The extent of damage caused by this mishap is influenced by numerous
 factors including impedance between ground and faulty phase as well as the level of present fault
currents. This discordance raises concerns such as heightened levels of faulty currents, voltage
imbalances and equipment damage.
B. Review of existing solution methods for fault analysis
 Analysis of fault currents and voltages
One approach commonly employed when evaluating issues related to power system failures
involves taking a closer look at both their associated currents and voltages. In practice, this means
computing factors like phase angles or magnitude levels for each accordingly located point within the
system affected by said issue. One way in which such calculations are made comprises applying
Ohm's Law, with its equation demonstrating how dividing a given source's voltage over its impedance
similarly derives said source's resulting current:
I_F = V_F / Z-F. These computations provide valuable insights to engineers, who require them to
properly gauge the severity and impact of power system faults on different elements within the given
structure.
 Symmetrical component analysis
Professionals make extensive use of symmetrical component analysis in defect analysis
solutions. The technique involves disassembling a defective system into individual symmetrical
components - positive sequence. Negative sequence and zero sequence ones. By assessing the
symmetrical components of current and voltage faults engineers can determine how dysfunctional
mechanisms affect the system and design protective strategies that suit their needs best. With the
help of transformation matrices they express symmetrical components (I_Positive , Negative ,
Zero) in terms of phase currents (I_a , b_ c).
Here is an example representation using Symmetric Component Analysis formulas:

I_pos = 1/3*(IA+ IB+ IC)

I_negative= 1/3*(IA+ a^2*IB+a*IC)
i_zero=1/3*(ia+a*ib+(a^2)*ic)

The complex cube root unity 'a' represents.

 Sequence network models
Fault analysis within the power system requires an all-encompassing approach that only
sequence network models can provide. Positive, negative, and zero sequence networks are
carefully utilized within these complex models to accurately represent different parts of the power
system's behavior during a fault event. By solving these sequences within our analysis efforts, we
are able learn more about both current flow and voltage values--ultimately leading us towards
insightful discoveries about fault characteristics alongside overall responses from our systems.
When utilizing sequence network models, equations that rely on symmetrical components and
network parameters need to be solved. However, this can become intricate as both vary
depending on the configuration of the system and type of fault.

III. METHODOLOGY
Fault analysis is a critical consideration in ensuring the optimal provision of switchgear apparatus,
well-functioning relay configurations as well as smooth system operation. There are diverse potential
factors that predispose to malfunctions including insulation failure that stems from numerous root causes
such as flashovers, physical harm, and even human error. Two fundamental classifications define most
fault types namely symmetrical three-phase which usually affects all phases uniformly or asymmetrical
ones that largely impact only one phase (or very occasionally doubly). Faults typically emanate from
either short-circuits between active conductors or connections with earth together with fractures in
conductors which infringe upon single or multiple phases simultaneously - however these two types could
potentially occur positively concurrently under certain circumstances. In fault analysis, it is common to
use per-unit quantities, which resemble percentage quantities. This approach leads to consistent solutions
across a range of power and voltage ratings while dealing with values of the order of unity. Moreover,
these calculations get simplified and less complex when using symmetrical components to address
balanced three-phase defects.
A. Symmetrical Components Theory
A fundamental notion in understanding power systems is the theory of symmetrical components.
This theory allows us to portray asymmetrical three phase quantities as a blend of balanced positive,
negative and zero sequence elements. As we delve into power system analysis, we must consider the
fact that most of its defects are asymmetrical. To effectively tackle an asymmetrical defect challenge,
it is crucial that we find a solution for an unbalanced three-phase circuit. That said, solving this type of
circuit can be complex and challenging when done directly. Henceforth, using symmetrical
components comes in handy as it generates three fictitious single-phase networks; one containing a
driving emf. With balanced system reactance's in place, there's no mutual coupling among these
artificial networks making analysis quite straightforward.
To analyze power systems' behaviors under various operating conditions, symmetrical
components theory has defined three such components - positive sequence, negative sequence, and
zero sequence. Positive sequence indicates a balanced behavior that is considered normal for power
systems. In contrast, negative sequences represent unbalanced conditions where phase voltages and
currents possess equal magnitudes but are offset by 120-degree shift in phases. Complex numbers and
phasor algebra make it easier to evaluate these sequences' responses during line-to-ground faults.
Any unbalanced set of three-phase voltages (or current) can be converted into three balanced sets.
These include:
 Fig. 1 depicts a positive sequence set of three symmetrical voltages with the same phase sequence
abc as the original set, indicated by Va1,Vb1,Vc1.
 Figure 1. A positive sequence set of three symmetrical voltages

 A negative sequence set of three symmetrical voltages with the opposite phase sequence to the
original set, denoted by Va2, Vb2, and Vc2 as depicted in figure 2.

Figure 2. A negative sequence set of three symmetrical voltages

 A set of three voltages, all equal magnitude and phase, denoted by Va0, Vb0, and Vc0 and
depicted in figure 3.
 Figure 3. A zero sequence set of three voltages

Symmetrical components refer to the trio of positive, negative as well as zero sequences. This thus
implies that:
Va = Va1 +Va2 +Va0 (1)
Vb = Vb1 +Vb2 +Vb0 (2)
Vc = Vc1 + Vc2 +Vc0 (3)
Utilizing symmetrical elements when examining power systems is indispensable since it enables
transforming arbitrarily asymmetrical circumstances into balanced ones through computation of system
responses that can be converted back into their original phase variables. Subscript symbols indicate
positive (1), negative (2), and zero (0) sequences respectively. Symmetric devices are a mere
representation of any genuine current imbalances or voltage disparities existing within our power
networks.
B. Application to Line-to-Ground Fault Analysis
Symmetrical components theory is utilized to analyze line-to-ground faults, providing a
streamlined method to examine fault behavior. This methodology enables one to determine fault
currents and voltages at various locations throughout the power system. The theory of symmetrical
components efficiently determines fault currents by considering the contributions of every sequence
component. This framework allows for vital data to be collected, which can aid in fault detection,
along with providing insurance for system protection and design.
C. Fault Current Distribution
As power systems move away from tradition, they are increasingly incorporating numerous
distributed generators (DGs) into their networks. This has resulted in increased scrutiny of network
node 'k', to which several DGs are connected, with suspicions of potential faults. The accompanying
Figure 4 [7, 8] gives weight to these concerns.
 Figure 4. Scheme of fault at distribution or transmission line supplying Grid and DG (Sezai POLAT 2020)

Dealing with asymmetrical faults such as single-phase ground faults necessitate identifying the three-
phase current's symmetrical components: positive, negative, and zero phase sequence. When calculating
asymmetrical defects accurately though, all three phase sequences - negative, zero, and positive - should
be factored in. Symmetrically based algorithms are utilized by PSS/Sincal calculations. Calculating fault
current at the 'k' point requires a meticulous approach involving computation of positive, negative, and
zero sequence values. The symmetrical component transformation method proves to be instrumental in
this process.
Table 1. The formulates of short circuit currents for “k” point (Sezai POLAT 2020)

From the positive, negative, and zero fault point impedance sequences, we can observe the impedances
Zk+, Zk, and Zk0 in Thevenin equivalent circuit. Prior to the fault, in a stable system condition, Uka
represents the fault point voltage. By utilizing the Current Divider Method, we can derive the fault current
sequences Ik+, Ik, and Ik0. To calculate each generator's contribution to the fault current as per Table 1 is
crucial. Obtaining the Thevenin equivalent circuit for the sequence network is a straightforward process,
thanks to its simple and radial structure. However, in cases where the network comprises multiple
connection points or has a loop configuration, calculating bus admittance matrix becomes necessary to
determine fault currents and bus voltages.

D. Network matrix calculations

According to [9], the steady-state mathematical representation of a three-phase bus electric power
system is as follows:

[ ][ ][ ]
abc abc abc abc
Z1 Z 11 … Z k 11 k I1
⋮ = ⋮ … ⋮ . ⋮ (4)
abc abc abc abc
Zk Z k 1 … Z kk Ik
 or, in a compact form
Vbus = Zbus · Ibus (5)
abc
Where Z nn is the nth 3 3 submatrix, and k is the vehicle where the error takes place. Therefore, a
3n 3n Zbus matrix is implemented for an n-bus network. The use of the impedance matrix Zbus to
calculate faults is a reliable and effective method, suitable for both comprehensive and smaller power
systems. This technique also yields precise estimations of the relevant voltages and currents involved
during any given fault analysis. The diagonal elements contained within the matrix correspond to the
Thévenin equivalent impedance observed via the analyzed bus. The calculation process for these
specific elements is straightforward, as it can be directly performed from the admittance matrix Ybus
that corresponds with said bus.
−1
Zbus = Y bus (6)

The bus admittance matrix is calculated according to the following algorithm [10]
n
[Yabc ]i,i = ∑ [Y abc ] i , j+ [ Y abc ]i , j diagonal elements (7)
j=1

[ Y abc ]i , j=−[ Y abc ]i , j (8)

The Ybus matrix for an n-bus network can be obtained through the admittances of elements
connected to buses i and j.

IV. RESULTS
A. Case Study
In this study, we made use of modified IEEE 13 bus test feeders that had three-phase loads.
Specifically, the aerial feeders utilized conductor type 556,500 ASCR and neutral conductor type 4/0
ASCR while the underground cables employed conductor type 250,000 AA. For determining series
impedance, we considered the feeder's topology as well as its conductor type.
Table 2. Pre-fault voltages (Case A) in pu. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0898122110002579

matrices of the feeders in Ω/km are:

(9)
 (10)
Three different load and system conditions have been considered:
Case A: Sal = Sbl = Scl and ideal transposition of feeders (reference case);
Case B: Sal = Scl and Sbl = 0.8 Sal;
Case C: Sal = Scl and Sbl = 0.5 Sal.
In our exploration of power systems, we used Sal for phase a loads' complex power representation while
Sbl accounted for phase b loads' complexity. On the other hand,Scl indicated complex power recordings
of phase c loads. To mimic phase-to-ground errors during our study, simulation with various fault
impedances was conducted (Rf = 0,0.346 ,3.46, and 34.6). We employed the Symmetrical Components
Method to evaluate voltage and current progression during faults when considering Case, A as a reference
case. For Cases B and C representing unbalanced systems, the Phase Components Method was preferred
in determining fault voltages, currents among other aspects. We further analyzed voltages, currents, buses
(671632and650, in particular) during faults.

|V maxabc|−|V average|
V unbalanced = (11)
|V average|
The fault current variation between Cases B, C and the reference case (Case A) is calculated according to:
1I = IA − IB,C /IA (12)
Table 3, shows the pre-fault voltage at system buses for condition A.
Table 4, In Case A, we can observe the fault voltages that occur when there is phase a to ground faults.
These faults lead to an overvoltage in non-faulting phases due to system grounding. However, this
scenario is not the case when defect impedances exceed 3.46, as voltages remain almost unaffected.

Table 3. During-fault voltages (Case A), phase a to ground fault. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0898122110002579

Table 4. Fault currents (Case A), phase to ground faults. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0898122110002579

 As per Symmetrical Components Method calculations, Table 5 illustrates the variant fault
currents witnessed at all three buses analyzed in Case A. Upon studying this data closely, we draw a
crucial inference- upon increasing fault impedances; there is a noticeable decrease in corresponding fault
currents. This trend continues until we reach an impedance level above 3.46 whereupon there's a
convergence with nominal current values at earlier levels. It must be noted here that identifying such
characteristics impedances varies depending on load impedance values too - making this metric
universally relevant than specifics alone. Furthermore, when considering phase-to-ground faults' impact
on these readings - we can conclude that recognizing a characteristic value of "3:46" assumes significance
as an acceptable benchmark number for accuracy.

Table 5. Fault currents (Case A), phase to ground faults.

According to Table 8, there is a difference in fault currents between Case A and Case B. The highest
variation in fault current (4.69%) was observed at bus 671, during a zero-fault impedance phase at-ground
malfunction.

Table 6. Fault current variation between Case A and Case B.

In Table 7, we see that both Case A and Case C display varying fault currents. The greatest discrepancy
of 5.95% occurs in phase b of bus671 with a defect impedance value of 3 .46. To help analyze this
situation, Fig 5 computationally depicts voltage disequilibrium index at bus650for each case through
equation (11). Furthermore, to better understand electrical fluctuations due to a faulty occurrence, M Fig
6 and Fig 7 show how individual cases compare to the baseline case (Case A) in terms of maximum
voltage variation and fault current variation, respectively. It is worth mentioning that load imbalance has a
direct impact on increasing fault current irregularities.
Table 7. Fault current variation between Case A and Case C.
 Figure 5. Voltage unbalance vs. load unbalance.

Figure 6. Maximum during-fault voltage variation vs. load unbalance.

Figure 7. Maximum fault current variation vs. load unbalance.

V. CONCLUSION

Unbalanced line-to-ground faults are fundamental challenges faced by numerous power systems
globally; therefore, this research paper aims to investigate them thoroughly. The methodology used
comprised theoretical analysis, mathematical calculations, and simulation studies to understand their
defect characteristics thoroughly and their impact on reliable system operation. Empirical evidence from
symmetrical components theory shows it provides a mathematical framework for better comprehension of
unbalanced quantities' behavior during line-to-ground disturbances. Consequently, Fault current
distribution analyses highlighted how various components such as generators, transformers, transmission
lines, and loads play pivotal roles in understanding fault current travels under different scenarios.
Moreover, Fault voltage analysis provided convincing proof related to adverse effects of even small
magnitude-imbalances in voltage levels during line-to-ground faults. Improving our knowledge base
&expertise further by utilizing methodologies like impedance matrix approach &symmetrical components
approach will aid more robust and reliable protection schemes-being designed for safer and efficient
operations of power systems now& onwards.

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