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 Anatomy & Physiology



 No medicine without physiology

 No surgery without Anatomy

Cell: Cell is the basic structural and

functional unit of life.

Physiology: This is the study of function of organ or

body or cell.

Anatomy: The study of structure (shape, size,

location) of an organ or a
cell is called anatomy.

Pathology: The study of abnormalities or diseases is

called pathology.
Etiology: The study of causes of diseases is known
as etiology.
Diffusion: The movement of molecules of a
substance from the area of its higher
Concentration to the area of its lower
concentration is called diffusion.
For example, Exchange of gases in the
lungs or body tissues.

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Facilitated Diffusion: The movement of

molecules from the area of its greater (higher)
concentration to the area of its lesser (lower)
concentration with the help of channels or
carriers. Eg, Intake of glucose by cells.
Osmosis: The movement of water molecules from
its higher concentration to its lower
concentration through a semi permeable
membrane.
E.g. Absorption of water by small
intestine.
Active Transport: The movement of molecules from
its lower concentration to the
higher concentration with the
help of consumption of cellular energy
(in the form of ATP).e.g. Sodium
Potassium Pump (Na-K pump).

Filtration: The movement of water and dissolved

substances from the area of
its higher pressure to the area of its lower
pressure is called
filtration. e.g. formation of urine in the
renal tubules.

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Phagocytosis: The engulfment (swallowing) of a solid substance

(e.g. bacteria etc.) by phagocytic cells is called phagocytosis.
Example: White Blood Cells engulf bacteria.
Pinocytosis: The uptake of fluid and dissolved substance.
Example: Cells of the kidney tubules reabsorb dissolved proteins
Pathology: Pathology is the study of diseases.

Etiology: Etiology is the study of causes of a disease.

Organization level of a body

Atoms  molecules & compounds  cells  tissues  organs  systems  body.

Directional and Non-directional Terms:

Terms Meanings Terms Meanings

1. Superficial towards the Patellar knee cap

surface 20.Hepatic liver
2. perineal pelvic floor 21.Iliac hip
3. Plantar sole of foot 22.Inguinal groin

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4. Popliteal back of knee 23.Lumber small back (loin)

5. Femoral thigh 24.Mammary breast
6. Frontal front 25.Nasal nose
7. Gastric stomach 26.Inferior below/lower
8. gluteal buttock 27.Anterior or ventral toward
9. Brachial upper arm the front
10.Buccal/oral mouth 28.Axillary Arm pit
11.Cardiac heart 29.Internal within
12.survical neck interior to
13.Cranial of head 30.External outside
14.Cranium head 31.Occipital back of head
15.Deltoid shoulder 32.Orbital eye related
16.volar palm 33.Parietal crown of
17.Superior above head
18.Temporal side of head 34.Pulmonary lungs
19.Umbilical navel 35.Renal kidney
36.Sacral base of
spine
37.Mental Chin

Terms Meanings
38.Central main part
39.peripheral extending away from the main part
40.proximal closer to the origin.
41.distal Away from the origin
42.parietal pertaining to the wall of a cavity.

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43.visceral pertaining to the organ in a cavity.

44.posterior or dorsal toward the back
45.medial toward the midline
46.Lateral Away from the midline
47.Ipsilateral Organs on the same side
48. Contralateral Organs on the opposite sides

 Relationship between Anatomy and Physiology:

 Anatomical Position:

SOLUTIONS
When a solute is dissolved in a solvent it forms a solution. Eg. Sugar dissolved in water.
Strength of a solution: The amount of solute particles dissolved per unit volume of a
solution is called strength or tonicity of the solution.
When we compare the tonicity of one solution to another solution we use the terms
hypotonic, isotonic, and hypertonic.
Hypotonic Solution
A solution having strength (concentration) lesser than the other one is said to be
hypotonic solution.
Isotonic Solution
A solution having strength equal to the other one is considered to be isotonic solution.
Hypertonic Solution
A solution having strength greater than the other one is called hypertonic solution.

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BODY CAVITIES
The organs that make up the systems of the body are contained in four major cavities (Other minor cavities having no
organs are also present in the body). The four major cavities are as follows:
Cranial Cavity
The cranial cavity contains the brain; and, its boundaries are formed by the bones of the skull.
Thoracic Cavity
Heart and lungs are present in this cavity. A bony framework and supporting muscles
form its boundaries. Mediastinum is a name given to the space between the lungs which includes some
structures, except the lungs, such as heart, esophagus, thymus gland, blood vessels and lymph vessels.
Abdominal Cavity
This is the largest cavity in the body. It is oval in shape situated in the main part of the trunk. Abdominal
cavity is separated from thoracic cavity by diaphragm (Muscular Partition). Abdominal cavity contains a
number of organs and other structures including inferior surface of diaphragm, spleen, liver, pancreas,
stomach, intestine, two kidneys, two adrenal glands, and upper parts of the ureters etc.
Pelvic Cavity
It is a roughly funnel shaped cavity extending from the lower end of the abdominal cavity. It means that it
is continuous with the abdominal cavity. The pelvic cavity is surrounded by pubic bones (anteriorly),
sacrum and coccyx (posteriorly), innominate bones (laterally), and the pelvic floor muscles (inferiorly).
The pelvic cavity contains the lower parts of the ureters, urinary bladder, sigmoid colon, rectum and anus,
and in females the reproductive organs as ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus, and vagina.

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PLANES AND SECTIONS

To describe internal anatomy, the body or an organ is often cut or sectioned in a
specific way to make it easily visible. So, a plane is an imaginary line that separates two
portions of the body or an organ. The types of sections and planes are described as
follows:
Frontal (coronal) Section
When a plane separates a body into front and back portions is called frontal section.
Sagittal Section
A plane that cuts a body into right and left portion is called sagittal section.
A mid sagittal plane gives equal right and left halves.
A parasagittal plane cuts a body or an organ into two unequal right and left parts.
Transverse Section
When a horizontal plane separates a body into upper and lower portions.
Longitudinal Section
When a plane passes along the long axis of a body or an organ.

Different sections and planes are illustrated as follows:

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Abdominopelvic Regions and Quadrants.

To describe he location of abdominal and pelvic organs easily, the abdomenopelvic region is divided into two ways—1)
Either into Nine regions or 2) Four quadrants.
The nine regions are made by drawing two transverse and two vertical lines.
The top horizontal, the subcostal line is drawn just inferior to the rib cage, across the inferior portion of the stomach.
The bottom horizontal one is transtubercular line.
The two vertical lines are midclavicular lines.

Right Hypochondriac Region Contains.

Right lobe of Liver, gall bladder, a part of right kidney
Left Hypochondriac Region Contains.
A Part of stomach, spleen, a small part of pancreas,
A part of left kidney
Right Lumber Region.
Part of small intestine,
Superior part of cecum
Ascending colon,
Inferior part of right kidney
Left Lumber Region.
Part of small intestine,
Descending colon,
An inferior part of left kidney
Right Iliac Region

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Lower end of cecum, appendix

Left Iliac Region
Part of small intestine,
Part of sigmoid colon
Epigastric Region
Greater part of liver, greater part of stomach,
Greater part of pancreas
Umbilical Region
Part of small intestine,
Transverse colon of large intestine
Hypogastric Region
Part of sigmoid colon
Urinary bladder when full

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T I S S U E S

Tissue:
A tissue is a group of cells with similar structure and function.
There are basically four divisions of tissues.
i. Epithelial tissues iii. Muscle tissues
ii. Connective tissues iv. Nervous tissues
Epithelial tissues: Epithelial tissue covers body surfaces, organs and lines body cavities, hollow organs,
and ducts. Since they have no capillaries of their own, epithelial tissues receive oxygen and nutrients from
the connective tissues beneath them.

Further classification of the epithelial tissues is based on the type of cell of which the tissue is made. There
are three distinctive shapes as:
a. squamous cells (flat cells)
b. cuboidal cells (cube shaped)
c. columnar cells (tall)

Epithelial cells may either be found in a single layer called “simple squamous epithelium” or more than
one layer called “stratified squamous epithelium”

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Simple squamous Epithelium: This is a single layer of flat cells. These cells are very thin and smooth.
For example, the alveoli (air sacs) of the lungs are simple squamous epithelium. Being the inner, the cells
permit the diffusion of gases between the air and blood.

Simple Cuboidal Epithelium: This is a single layer of cube-shaped cells making the functional unit of
glands, which are also called glandular tissues. For example thyroid glands, which secrets thyroxin
hormone and salivary glands, which secrete saliva.

Simple Columnar Epithelium: These cells are taller just like cylinder shaped. They are specialized for
secretion and absorption. The stomach lining is made of columnar epithelium, which secretes gastric juice
for digestion. Microvilli (folds of the cell membrane) in the small intestine absorb the end products of
digestion. Goblet cells are another type of columnar cells that secrete mucus in the lining of small
intestine and respiratory tract.

1
Simple Cilliated Epithelium: They are columnar cells that have cilia on their free surfaces. Nasal
Cavities, larynx, trachea and bronchi are lined with Cilia to sweep mucus, with trapped dust and bacteria
toward the pharynx to be swallowe4d for destruction by HCL in the stomach.

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Stratified Squamous Epithelium: These tissues consists of many layers of mostly flat cells. These
cells make up the epidermis (upper layer) of the skin. Here the surface cells are dead. They tear and wear
off by rubbing and other environmental factors, which are being replaced by the lower cells, stratified
squamous epithelium also lines the oral cavity, esophagus, and in women, thevagina. This layer of such
cells provide a barrier to pathogens (disease producing organisms).

Transitional Epithelium: This is a type of stratified epithelium in the surface cells change shape from
round to squamous when undergo pressure or stretching. For example, the urinary bladder is lined with
transitional epithelium. When the bladder is empty, the surface cells are rounded. But when the bladder
fills, these cells become flattened. Transitional (unstable) epithelium enables the bladder to stretch without
tearing the lining.

Connective Tissues: It’s name suggests to connect body parts. It is the most abundant and found
everywhere in the body. Its distinctive characteristic is that it produces and secretes matrix to their exterior
called extracellular matrix. This matrix may be liquid (e.g. plasma) or solid and hard (eg. Calcium salt in
the bone).
Connective tissues perform many functions but they are basically involved in protecting, transporting,
insulating, supporting, and binding together other body parts. There are different types of connective
tissues, as:
i Blood
ii Areolar

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iii Adipose
iv Fibrous
v Elastic
vi Bone
vii Cartilage
a.Elastic Cartilage
b. Fibro Cartilage
c.Hyaline Cartilage

Bone
Bone is a connective tissue, which is composed of bone cells (asteocytes) surrounded by calcium salts and
collagen fibers as a very hard matrix. Being hard, the bone protects and supports other body organs. For
example, the skull protects the brain.

Cartilage
It is less hard and more flexible than bone. It is composed of chindrocytes (Cartilage Cells). It is found in
only a few places in the body. There are three types of cartilages.
a. Hyaline Cartilage
b. Fibro Cartilage
c. Elastic Cartilage

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2
Hyaline Cartilage:It is a smooth bluish-white tissue embedded in a matrix of collagen fibers. It provides
flexibility, support and smooth surfaces for movement at joints. It is found:
i. On the ends of long bones that form joints.
ii. Forming the coastal cartilages, which attach the ribs
to the sternum (breast bone)
iii.Forming part of the larynx, trachea and bronchi.

Fibro Cartilage: It is a tough, slightly flexible, supporting tissue which is found:

as pad or cushion like disks between the vertibrae of the
spinal column (intervertebral discs)

Elastic Cartilage: It is very soft and elastic. It is found in external ear and at the tip of
nose to give support.

Areolar or loose tissue: (Areola = small space)

These tissues are contained in the matrix called fibers along with fluid, which form
semisolid loose network. On viewing through microscope. The matrix appears to be empty
space, which explains the name of areola. These tissues are found under mucous

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membranes in the respiratory, digestive and reproductive tract. Phagocytes wander through
he fluid of areolar tissues to kill bacteria, dead cells and other cell debris.

3. Muscular tissue: generates heat and physical force to produce movements. It maintains posture and
provides protection. A muscle tissue consists of elongated cells called muscle fibers that use ATP to
generate force. It is classified into three types: skeletal, cardiac and smooth muscle.
Skeletal muscle tissue is usually attached to the bones of the skeleton. It has striations. A single muscle
fiber is very long upto 30—40 cm. A single muscle fiber is multi-nucleated. It produces voluntary
movements.
Cardiac muscle tissue forms most of the wall of the heart. It is striated and involuntary. Cardiac muscle
fibers are branched. They attach with one another through intercalated discs which are the thickenings of
plasma membranes. Cardiac muscle fibers usually have only one nucleus. An occasional cell has two
nuclei.
Smooth muscle tissue is located in the walls of hollow structures like blood vessels, airways, stomach,
intestine, bladder, etc. Its contraction helps constrict or narrow the lumen. They are usually involuntary
and non-striated. They are single celled fibers. These fibers are small, thickest in the middle, and tapering
at each end.
All four types of Tissues are Summarized bellow in the tables:
Epithelial Tissues
Type Structure Location and function

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Simple Squamous One layer of flat  Alveoli of the lungs—

cells thin to permit diffusion
of gases.
 Capillaries—thin to
permit exchanges of
materials; smooth to
prevent abnormal
blood clotting
Stratified squamous Many layers of
 Epidermis—surface
cells; surface
cells are dead; a barrier
cells change
to pathogens
from rounded to
flat  Lining of esophagus,
vagina surface cells are
living a barrier to
pathogens.
Transitional Many layers of
 Lining of urinary
cells; surface
bladder- permits
cells change
expansion without
from rounded to
tearing the lining.
flat
Cuboidal One layer of
 Lining of stomach-
column-shaped
secretes gastric juice.
cells

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 Lining of small
intestine secretes
enzymes and absorbs
end products of
digestion (microvilli
present)
Ciliated One layer of
 Lining of trachea-
columnar cells
sweeps mucus and dust
with cilia on
to pharynx
their free
surfaces  Lining of fallopian
tube sweeps ovum
toward uterus.

Connective Tissues

Type Structure Location and Function

Blood Plasma (matrix) and red Within blood vessels

blood cells, white blood
cells, and platelets • Plasma—transports

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materials
• RBCs—carry oxygen
• WBCs—destroy
pathogens
• Platelets—prevent
blood loss

Areolar Fibroblasts and a matrix Subcutaneous

(loose) of tissue fluid, collagen, • Connects skin to
and elastin fibers muscles
Mucous membranes
(digestive,
respiratory, urinary,
reproductive
tracts)

Adipose Adipocytes that store fat Subcutaneous

(little matrix) • Stores excess energy
• Act as cushions like
buttocks

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Tendons and ligaments

Fibrous Mostly collagen Fibers (regular)
(matrix) with few • Strong to withstand
fibroblasts forces of
movement of Joints.
Dermis (irregular)
• The strong inner layer
of the skin

Elastic Mostly elastic fibers Walls of large arteries

(matrix) with few • Helps maintain blood
fibroblasts pressure
Around Alveoli in
Lungs
• Promotes normal
exhalation

Bone Osteocytes in a matrix of Bones

calcium salts and • Support the body

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collagen • Protect internal organs

from
mechanical injury
• Store excess calcium
• Contain and protect
red bone
marrow

Cartilage Chondrocytes----flexible Wall of trachea

• Keeps airway open
On joint surfaces of
bones
• Smooth to prevent
friction
Tip of nose and outer ear
• Support
Between vertebrae
• Absorb shock

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Types of Muscle tissues

Type Structure Location and function
Effect of nerve
impulses
Skeletal Large cylindrical cells Attached to bones Essentially to cause
with striations and  Moves the skeleton contraction (voluntary)
several nuclei each and produces heat.

Smooth Small tapered cells Walls of arteries Bring about contraction

with no striations and  Maintains blood or regulate the rate of
one nucleus each pressure walls of contraction (involuntary)
stomach and
intestine
 Peristalsis
Iris of eye

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 Regulates size of
pupil

Cardiac Branched cells with Walls of the chambers Regulate only the rate of
faint striations and one of the contraction
nucleus each heart
 Pumps blood

Nerve Tissue
Part Structure Function
Nerve cell body  Contains the nucleus  Regulates the functioning
of the neuron

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Axon  Cellular process  Carries impulses away

(extension) from the cell body.

Dendrites  Cellular process  Carry impulses toward the

(extension) cell body

Synapse  Space between axon of one  Transmits impulses from

neuron and the dendrite or one neuron to others.
cell body of the next
neuron

Neurotransmitter  Chemicals released by  Transmit impulses across

s axons synapses

Neuroglia  Specialized cells in the  Form the myelin sheaths

peripheral nervous system around neurons.

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MEMBRANES
Membranes are sheets of tissue that cover (on the outside) or line (on the inside) surfaces
and organs. There are two major categories of membranes as Epithelial Membranes and
Connective Membranes. Their function is secretion and protection.
Epithelial Membranes
These membranes are made up of epithelial tissues that cover or line many internal structures or
cavities. The types of epithelial membranes are Serous Membrane, Mucous Membrane, and
Skin Membrane. Serous membrane secretes serous fluid and mucous membrane secretes
mucous.
Serous Membrane
Serous membranes or serosa are sheets of simple squamous epithelium that line some body
cavities and cover the organs in these cavities. Serous membrane forms two layers. The parietal
(outer) layer lines cavity and the visceral (inner) layer surrounds organs within the cavity. The
two layers are separated by serous fluid, which is secreted by the epithelium. There are three
sites where serous membranes are found:
 The serous membranes associated with lungs are called pleura. The pleura lines the
thoracic cavity and surrounding the lungs. Fluid in the plural space or sac is known as

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plural fluid.
 The serous membrane associated with heart is called pericardium. It lines the
pericardial cavity and covers the heart. The parietal layer lines inside the fibrous
pericardium (the outermost connective tissue membrane); and the visceral
layer covers the outer surface of the heart. The pericardial space or sac is filled with
pericardial fluid.
 The serous membrane associated with abdominopelvic cavity is called peritoneum.
Peritoneum lines the abdominopelvic cavity (as a parietal layer) and covers its organs
(as a visceral layer). In several places the parietal peritoneum forms extensions or
projections called Mesentery that loosely attach organs to the posterior wall of the
abdomen and thus supports and helps prevent the long tube of
intestine from strangulation.
The serous fluid between the visceral and parietal layers acts as a lubricant and
enables the organs to glide freely within the cavity without being damaged by friction.
Mucous Membrane
Mucous membrane or mucosa is the epithelial membrane that lines body surfaces opening
directly to the exterior such as alimentary canal, respiratory tract and genitourinary tract. It
produces mucous, which is a slimy fluid. The epithelial cells of the mucous membrane are also
called goblet (oval in shape) cells. Mucous protects the lining membrane from drying,

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mechanical and chemical injury. In the respiratory tract it traps the inhaled foreign particles and
thus preventing them from entering the alveoli of the lungs.

Note: Skin membrane will be covered in detail in integumentary system.

Connective Membranes
Many membranes are made of connective tissue. Their locations and functions are
summarized as follows.

Connective tissue membranes

Membrane Location and Function

Superficial fascia  Between the skin and
muscles; adipose
tissue stores fat

Periosteum  Covers each bone;

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contains blood
vessels that enter the
bone

Perichondrium  Covers cartilage;

contains capillaries,
the only blood supply
for cartilage.

Synovial  Lines joint cavities;

secretes synovial
fluid to prevent
friction when joints
move

Deep Fascia  Covers each skeletal

muscle; anchors
tendons

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Meninges  Cover the brain and

spinal cord; contain
cerebrospinal fluid
(CSF)

Fibrous pericardium  Forms a sac around

the heart

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HOMEOSTASIS: (Homeo= same, Stasis= sanding) The condition in

which the body’s internal environment (e.g. blood, temperature, oxygen,
CO2, Na, K, Ca, etc.) remains relatively constant within physiological
limits.
METABOLISM: All chemical processes occurring in the body is called
metabolism.
FEED BACK MECHANISM: A sequence of events in which
information about the status of a situation is continually reported to a
central region.
NEGATIVE FEED BACK: A mechanism of response in which a
stimulus initiates action which reverses or reduces the stimulus.
POSITIVE FEED BACK: A mechanism of response in which a
stimulus initiates action that enhances the stimulus.

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