CONTROLLER SYNTHESIS FOR CAPACITIVE POWER

TRANSFER SYSTEM

YASER AWADH KARAMA BAKHURAISA

MASTER OF ELECTRONIC ENGINEERING

(ELECTRONIC SYSTEM)

2019
 Faculty of Electronic and Computer Engineering

CONTROLLER SYNTHESIS FOR CAPACITIVE POWER

TRANSFER SYSTEM

Yaser Awadh Karama Bakhuraisa

Master of Electronic Engineering (Electronic System)

2019
CONTROLLER SYNTHESIS FOR CAPACITIVE POWER TRANSFER SYSTEM

YASER AWADH KARAMA BAKHURAISA

A thesis submitted
in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master
Electronic Engineering (Electronic System)

Faculty of Electronic and Computer Engineering

UNIVERSITI TEKNIKAL MALAYSIA MELAKA

2019
 DECLARATION

I declare that this thesis entitled “Controller Synthesis For Capacitive Power Transfer

System” is the result of my own research except as cited in the references. The thesis has not

been accepted for any degree and is not concurrently submitted in candidature of any other

degree.

Signature :

Name :
YASER AWADH KARAMA BAKHURIASA

Date : 17/12/2019
 APPROVAL

I hereby declare that I have checked this thesis and in my opinion, this thesis is adequate in

terms of scope and quality for the award of the degree of Master of Electronic Engineering

(Electronic System).

Signature :

Supervisor Name : PROF MADYA DR. MOHD SHAKIR BIN MD SAAT

Date : 03/01/2020
 DEDICATION

This work is dedicated to the inspiring person towards my life…

my dear mother, Saeeda Bent Sulaiman, who always wants me to have the best, for her
love, the prayers that she made for me.

…to my love…
my wife, Nawal Bent Ali, is a wonderful wife, a great companion and so much more in my

life. She is always a source of love, courage and strength at every tough

instant throughout these years.

…to my great guide…

my dear supervisor, PROF MADYA Dr. Mohd Shakir Bin Md Saat, for his visions in the

use Information Technology..

 ABSTRACT

Wireless Power Transfer (WPT) has become a concern in recent years concurrently with
prevalence of electric vehicle and smart phone. In near filed, WPT works with two
approaches Inductive Power Transfer (IPT) and Capacitive Power Transfer (CPT). However,
CPT technique provides some advantages over IPT such as uncomplicated structure and
safety. In this work, CPT system have been created based on class E power amplifier. The
problem of this work is unstable output voltage of CPT system owing to the high sensitivity
of class E power amplifier to its parameter variations. Motivated by this problem, State
Feedback (SF) Controller and Linear Quadratic Controller (LQR) were designed to stabilize
CPT output voltage regardless of occurring the load variation. SF controller was designed
based on pole placement approach, while LQR controller was designed based on the
minimise solution of the cost function. The CPT system have been mathematically modelled
and analysed based on Generalized State Space Averaging (GSSA) method. MATLAB
application was used to validate and simulate the CPT system and both controllers. The
obtained results were compared to investigate which controller deliver a better performance
with respect to the rising time, settling time and overshoot. The simulation result showed
that, both of designed controllers provided satisfied response for stabilizing the output
voltage. Furthermore, LQR controller provided better response characteristic rather than SF
controller.

i
 ABSTRAK

Pemindahan Kuasa Tanpa Wayar (WPT) menjadi keutamaan pada kebelakangan ini kerana
kemajuan kenderaan elektrik dan juga telefon pintar. Dalam penghantaran kuasa jarak
dekat, terdapat dua jenis sistem pemindahan kuasa tanpa wayar iaitu Pemindahan Kuasa
Induktif (IPT) dan Pemindahan Kuasa Kapasitif (CPT). Walaubagaimanapun, teknik CPT
mempunyai beberapa kelebihan berbanding CPT seperti struktur yang kurang kompleks dan
juga keselamatan. Dalam kerja ini, sistem CPT telah dibina berdasarkan penguat kuasa
Kelas E. Masalah kerja ini adalah ketidakstabilan keluaran voltan system CPT disebabkan
oleh sensitiviti tinggi penguat kuasa Kelas E terhadap perubahan parameter. Motivasi
daripada masalah ini, Pengawal Suap-Balik State Feedback(SF) dan Pengawal Linear
Quadratic Regulator(LQR) telah direkabentuk untuk menstabilkan keluaran voltan CPT
sekiranya berlaku perubahan pada beban. Pengawal SF direkabentuk berdasarkan teknik
penempatan kutub, manakala, LQR direkabentuk berdasarkan penyelesaian minima fungsi
kos. Sistem CPT telah di modelkan dan dianalisa berdasarkan Teknik Generalized State
Space Averaging . Aplikasi MATLAB telah digunakan untuk validasi dan simulasi CPT dan
juga kedua Pengawal. Keputusan yang diperolehi di bandingkan untuk meninjau pengawal
mana yang berikan prestasi yang lebih baik dari segi masa menaik, masa penetapan dan
lonjakan. Hasil berkaitan menunjukkan kedua-dua pengawal yang telah direkabentuk
memenuhi tindak balas untuk stabilkan keluaran voltan. Selain itu, pengawal LQR
menhasilkan ciri tindak balas yang lebih baik daripada pengawal SF.

ii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

In the Name of Allah, the Most Gracious, the Most Merciful

Alhamdulillah: first of all I would like to thank Allah who gave me the chance to finish
my Project 1 with peacefully. Secondly, I would like to take this chance to express my feeling
to the sever people who helped me in doing this project as I was in need of their help and the
project would not have been completed without their help.
Bless my supervisor PROF MADYA Dr. Mohd Shakir Bin Md Saat takes the most
amount of thanking because of the help and the guidelines that he offered to me, thus, I
would like to give him special thanks for being generous with me, May God on him and his
family.
I also appreciate this opportunity to thank Dr. Yusmarnita Yusop for giving me great
suggestions to improve my work. She is always helpful and patient when dealing with any
of my issues in this study.
Moreover, I would like to thank the UTeM for providing me a good environment to
study in additionally, I feel grateful for all the supports and companionships from my friends
including Mr. Salem Saleh Bafjaish, Mr Jalal Salah and my housemates. I also would like to
give a special thanks to my family my mother and my love, Nawal Ali, she is wonderful
wife, as well as sisters and brothers who encouraged and supported me to go study abroad.
Lastly, I want to thank my son, Ammar, and my daughters, Fatima and Aisha for all the
happy memories and challenges they brought to me in these three years, which extended my
life barriers.

iii
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

PAGE
DECLARATION
APPROVAL
DEDICATION
ABSTRACT i
ABSTRAK ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS iv
LIST OF TABLES vi
LIST OF FIGURES vii
LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS ix
1
1.1 Background 1
1.2 Problem Statement 3
1.3 Work Objectives 3
1.4 Scope of Work 4
1.5 Contribution of Work 4
1.6 Thesis Outline 5

7
2.1 Wireless Power Transfer 7
2.2 Capacitive Power Transfer 9
2.3 Power Amplifier Inverters 12
2.3.1 Types of Power Amplifier Inverters 13
2.3.2 Analysis of Class E Amplifier 14
2.4 System Modelling 20
2.5 Control Systems 27
2.5.1 State Feedback Controller 30
2.5.2 Linear Quadratic Regulator Controller 33

40
3.1 Introduction 40
3.2 Modelling of Capacitive Power Transfer System 42
3.2.1 Large Signal Model of CPT System 44
3.2.2 Steady State Model of CPT System 48
3.2.3 Small Signal Model of CPT System 49

iv
3.3 Capacitive Power Transfer System Validation 51
3.4 Controller Design: 53
3.4.1 Design of State Feedback Controller 54
3.4.2 State Feedback Controller Simulation 59
3.4.3 Design of Linear Quadratic Regulator Controller 60
3.4.4 Linear Quadratic Regulator Controller Simulation 63
3.5 Comparison between SF Controller and LQR Controller 64
3.6 Summary 65

66
4.1 Introduction 66
4.2 Analysis of Capacitive Power Transfer System 66
4.3 Capacitive Power Transfer System Simulation 69
4.4 Controller Analysis 74
4.4.1 Analysis of State Feedback Controller 75
4.4.2 Analysis of Linear Quadratic Regulator 80
4.5 Comparison between State Feedback and Linear Quadratic Regulator 87
4.6 Summary 89

90
5.1 Conclusion 90
5.2 Recommendation for Future Work 91

REFERENCES 93

v
 LIST OF TABLES

TABLE TITLE PAGE

Table 2.1 Reviews of the current existing WPT techniques [12] 7

Table 2.2 Comparison of power amplifier types[18] 13

Table 3.1 Brief explanations of the MATLAB syntaxes 53

Table 4.1 Proposed capacitive Power Transfer System parameters 67

Table 4.2 Performance characteristics for the open loop CPT system 74

Table 4.3 Summary the performance characteristics for all SF cases 80

Table 4.4 Summary of the performance characteristics for LQR cases 87

Table 4.5 Summary of the performance characteristics for SF and LQR controller 88

Table 4.6 Summary of the performance characteristics for current and previous

study 89

vi
 LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE TITLE PAGE

Figure 2.1 Normal structure of IPT system 8

Figure 2.2 Typical CPT system [12] 10

Figure 2.3 Equivalent circuit of the capacitive coupling across metal [12] 11

Figure 2.4 Class E power amplifier circuit[22] 14

Figure 2.5 Vector block diagram for a linear system [26] 22

Figure 2.6 DC-DC Boost converter [28] 23

Figure 2.7 Schematic CMOS Class E power amplifier [30] 24

Figure 2.8 Block diagram for simple close loop control system [26] 27

Figure 2.9 Time response characteristic [38] 29

Figure 2.10 Time domain specifications of system [39] 30

Figure 2.11 State feedback structure 31

Figure 2.12 Topology of IPT used for charging electrical vehicle battery [49] 35

Figure 2.13 Scheme of IPT with parallel digitally tuneable capacitors [50] 36

Figure 2.14 CPT system proposed in [62] 39

Figure 2.15 Output of controlled CPT of [62] 39

Figure 3.1 Methodology structure for the work 41

Figure 3.2 Schematic of the proposed CPT system 42

Figure 3.3 CPT equivalent circuit 43

Figure 3.4 Simulation Schematic for proposed CPT system 52

Figure 3.5 MATLAB window 52

vii
Figure 3.6 Block diagram of close loop system 53

Figure 3.7 Methodology of deign SF controller 56

Figure 3.8 State feedback simulation structure 60

Figure 3.9 Design LQR controller methodology 63

Figure 3.10 Structure of Linear Quadratic Regulator simulation 64

Figure 4.1 Scheme of CPT system 67

Figure 4.2 The proposed CPT simulation scheme 69

Figure 4.3 Output voltage simulation of the proposed CPT system 70

Figure 4.4 Poles of open loop CPT system 72

Figure 4.5 Step response of open loop CPT system 73

Figure 4.6 Root locus for open loop system 75

Figure 4.7 Pole placement Case 1. 76

Figure 4.8 Pole placement Case 2. 77

Figure 4.9 Pole placement Case 3 78

Figure 4.10 Pole placement Case 4 79

Figure 4.11 LQR response Case 1 82

Figure 4.12 LQR response Case 2 84

Figure 4.13 LQR response Case 3 85

Figure 4.14 LQR response Case 4 86

Figure 4.15 Time response for SF and LQR with disturbance 88

viii
 LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS

ARE - Algebraic Riccati Equation

CPT - Capacitive Power Transfer

EV - Electrical Vehicle

GSSA - Generalized State Space Model

IPT - Inductive Power Transfer

LC - Inductor Capacitor circuit

LQE - Linear Quadratic Estimator

LQG - Linear Quadratic Gaussian

LQR - Linear Quadratic Regulator

MOSFET - Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor

NMP - Non-Minimum Phase

PI - Proportional Integral

PID - Proportional Integral Derivative

Q - Quality factor

SF - State Feedback

SRC - Series Resonant Converter

SS - State Space

SSA - State Space Average

Td - Delay Time

Tr - Rising Time

ix
Ts - Settling Time

WPT - Wireless Power Transfer

ZVS - Zero Voltage Switching

x
 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background

In the midst of smash technological competition, many of research seeking to present

several works in miscellaneous areas to make human life more ease and safety. One of these

newly deployment areas is wireless power transfer. Indeed, wireless power transfer

technology is not spur of the day; the idea of wireless power transfer work was generated

early by Heinrich Hertz [1]. Nicolas Tesla is the world-famous American inventor Nicolas

Tesla, who was interested in the broad concept of resonance at that time. After one century,

he did miraculously great pioneering work on wireless high-power transmission. He

attempted to transfer a significant level of electrical energy without using cables [2]. Much

later, in 1961, this idea of wireless power transfer was implemented in a medical field which

transmitted electric energy through the skin to supply an applied pump [3]. Now days,

wireless power transfer attached to many application, particularly after invention of smart

phones [4][5], electrical vehicles (EV) [6][7], in addition to use in medical field [8].

However, wireless power transfer approach over physical connection provides advantages

such as ease and convenience, safety and costless [9].

Two main types of wireless power transfer method, Inductive Power Transfer (IPT),

which based on electromagnetic field, and Capacitive Power Transfer (CPT), which based

on electric field [10]. Inductive power transfer method related with application that need

high power level and medium transmission range, while capacitive power transfer method

related with low power level and short transmission range.

1
 Capacitive power transfer system has a high sensitive to circuit parameters variation

[11]. This refer to the sensitivity of Class E power amplifier (Series Resonant Converters

(SRC)) to its parameter’s variation. SRC is used to establish a high frequency signal, it

presents a high power efficiency only under Zero Voltage Switching (ZVS) condition,

almost hundred percent. Thus, the circuit parameters must be selected properly to meet zero

voltage switching condition. In real world, the variation of circuit parameters, such as the

load, inevitably occurs; that makes it necessary to tune switching frequency. Hence, it is

important to present a control strategy to modify switching frequency in spite of load

variation to ensure high efficiency of the system.

In general, to design a controller for any system, the modelling of the system must

be first established in order to analysis and understand the behavior of this system. Several

methods can be used to represent a mathematical model of the systems such as transfer

function (TF), State Space (SS) representation, State Space Average (SSA) and Generalized

State Space Average (GSSA) method; these methods can be applied based on the system

parameter. However, Generalized State Space Average (GSSA) method is useful to model

series resonant converter and satisfy a small ripple condition. Hence, it have been preferred

to present the capacitive power transfer system of this work.

Now days, there are various types of controller that can used in closed loop systems

such as classical controllers, Proportional-Integral-Derivatives (PID) controller, and Sate

Feedback (SF) controller and modern controllers, Linear Quadratic Regulator (LQR)

controller and Linear Quadratic Estimator (LQE) controller. The basic concept of design

controller is method of finding out the gain matrix (k) which is modify the poles of closed

loop system.

2
 This work focused mainly on capacitive power transfer method, the purpose of this

work is to design a control system for CPT, based on State Feedback (SF) control and Linear

Quadratic Regulator (LQR) control and compare with some previous work, to improve the

system efficiency. Since the proposed system of this work contains of resonant series LC,

Generalized State Space Average method has been considered to model the CPT system.

1.2 Problem Statement

In Capacitive Power Transfer (CPT) system, power from the source to the load is

transferred through electrical field between capacitors plates. In general, CPT system

consists of inverters to introduce a signal with high frequency. However, one of the major

problems with a Class-E inverter with resonate circuit is that the operation of it is high

sensitive to its circuits’ parameters. Meaning that, the circuit parameters must be optimized

properly. Hence, any load variation leads to unstable output voltage and the power delivery

efficiency drops significantly. Therefore, in order to stabilize the output voltage and keep

the output power efficiency, a suitable controller needs to be designed. The controller

response must be very fast and able to tune the frequency in real time; this will introduce

more stable and improve system efficiency in spite of load variation.

1.3 Work Objectives

The objectives of this work are:

1. To model the Class E Capacitive Power Transfer System by using Generalized

State Space Average (GSSA).

2. To design State Feedback (SF) controller and Linear Quadratic Regulator

(LQR) controller in order to maintain the output voltage of CPT system.

3. To analyse and compare the performance of the two proposed controllers in

terms of robustness, settling-time and overshoot.

3
1.4 Scope of Work

The scope of this work focused on several points that are allied on the controller

design only for capacitive power transfer system to make the system able to introduce

constant voltage whatever the load has various. These points are summarized as follows:

1. Load variance only considered as a disturbance and assume constant coupling

capacitive.

2. Class E power amplifier is being used to introduce high frequency signal with

low power losses.

3. Use generalized state-space average (GSSA) approach to model CPT system

and investigate its behaviour; this model will be the heart of the controller

design.

4. Design two types of controller, Linear Quadrate Gaussian (LQG) by minimize

cost function and State Feedback (SF) controller by pole placement method.

The controller will tune only the switching MOSFET gate frequency while the

duty cycle is constant, 50%.

5. Use MATLAB software application to simulate the wireless power transfer

system and its controller; the simulation results for both controllers will be

compared.

1.5 Contribution of Work

Many of previous works have been done with designing of controllers for capacitive

power transfer system such as Proportional Integral and Linear Quadratic Regulator (LQR)

controller. The first contribution of this work are modeling the CPT system by using GSSA

approach. The second contribution is designing State Feedback (SF) controller for capacitor

4
power transfer system based on pole placement approach. The thired contribution is to

compare between SF controller and LQR controller.

1.6 Thesis Outline

Chapter 1 presents background of the work, problem statement, objectives, the scope

of this work and contribution of this work.

Chapter 2 discusses regarding literature review. This chapter starts with brief

overview of wireless power transfer (WPT), capacitive power transfer (CPT). Then analysis

and calculation of class E power amplifier parameters is introduced. Then, outlines of

methods of modelling systems are presented, followed by a brief explanation of control

system and time response characteristic of the systems. After that, State Feedback controller

(SF) and Linear Quadratic Regulator (LQR) methods design process is given and supported

some previous works on control system that have been applied for various applications. In

the last section of this chapter some related works of wireless power controller are also

reviewed.

The methodology of this work is given in Chapter 3. This chapter begins with

modelling the proposed capacitor power transfer system based on Generalized State Space

Average (GSSA) approach, and then both state feedback controller, based on pole

placement, and linear quadratic regulator controller, based on solve Algebraic Riccati

Equation (ARE), are designed.

Chapter 4 provides detail results and analysis of this work. In this chapter, the

simulation of the CPT system is done to validate the proposed model. Then controllers

results are given and analysed accordingly. The comparison between both controllers are

also given here.

5
 Chapter 5 provides conclusion and future work. This chapter outlines the conclusion

of this work and present some of recommendations for future work.

6
 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Wireless Power Transfer

Wireless Power Transfer (WPT) technology, in the past few decades, have becomes

increasing widely held due to their capability to provide power to portable loads without

physical electrical connections between the source and destination (load). Several

technologies, via the time line, have been developed in order to accomplish this. Table 2.1

displays briefly reviews of the current existing WPT techniques, which have been used in

various current contemporary applications [12].

Table 2.1 Reviews of the current existing WPT techniques [12]

Parameter Near Field Wave Propagation

Electrical Magnetic Acoustic

Category Electromagnetic wave
filed field wave

Capacitive Inductive Acoustic

Microwave
Power Power Power Energy
Approach Power
Transfer Transfer Transfer Harvesting
Transmission
(CPT) (IPT) (APT)

Level of
mW to W mW to kW mW to W uW to mW kW
Power

Distance Short Medium Medium Long

7
 The Inductive Power Transfer (IPT) technique is a generally used method of wireless

power transfer application systems; it has been, far and wide, developed and employed in

industrial and domestic applications[6]. IPT in its normal structure build out of three main

parts that is a primary power supply, magnetic coupling coils, and secondary pickup, as

shown in Figure 2.1. The power converter is used for creating an alternating current in the

main track and that can tempt a voltage in the secondary inductor via magnet coupling, thus

introducing the require power across the air gap, to the load. The figure shows two coupled

magnetic coils (Lt and Ls) in a classical IPT system, power is delivered from the primary

inductor to the secondary via an air gap with magnetic field M.

Figure 2.1 Normal structure of IPT system

There are some of the issues that are related to the IPT system. Magnetic field is not

able to go through metals and other materials and that means that this type of systems will

not be able to transfer the power through metal body. In other words, there is a huge eddy-

current loss can be generated by the magnetic field of the IPT system. This issue is just

enough to result temperature rise as well as potential fire hazard. In addition, other issue is

that this type of systems is limited to some other accessions that could occurred based on the

inherent operating principle. A good example of that is, the power across metal barriers that

is able to reduce the power transfer as in some cases it requires some conditions such as

8
machine tools or powering implemented medical devices with metallic shields. Lastly, in

some of the real applications the IPT projects need ferrite cores that is used to improve and

make some enhancement for the magnetic coupling to raise up the process of the power

transformation capability. However, ferrites are able to reduce the highest operative

frequency since core losses become noteworthy throughout high frequency process,

deteriorating the overall effectiveness [12].

2.2 Capacitive Power Transfer

CPT stands for Capacitive Power Transfer, which consider as one of the WPT

technologies, which transfer power based on high-frequency electric fields as “energy

carrying medium” [4][13]. A typical system is shown in Figure 2.2; it is combined of a DC

source connected with a power converter to introduce high frequency signal, and two

capacitive plates to provide coupling interface, and load which usually connected via

rectifier. The DC source can be generated directly by battery or created by rectifying an AC

source. Then, an inverter delivers the DC voltage /current to a high frequency AC voltage,

driving the capacitive coupling interface.

The capacitive coupling interface contains of four plats, two primary side conductive

plats and two secondary side conductive plats, all of them should be insulated for safety.

These plats produce two capacitors in series when the two pairs of plats have been close to

other. So that, a closed circuit is obtained to transfer energy from source to load. Usually,

the capacitors plates of the coupling interface manufactured by metal such as aluminium

sheets, cooper fails or other conductive material. Tens or hundreds Pico farad range usually

through the equivalent coupling capacitance, likewise high frequency or a high voltage is

required to achieve high power transfer of CPT system [12].

9
 Figure 2.2 Typical CPT system [12]

CPT characterized by its applicability in different environments with high efficiency.

According to [14], they designed capacitive power transfer CPT system for operation in fresh

water, the system provide an efficiency of 91.3% through a transfer range of 20 mm via

experimentation. CPT, now days, is successfully applied in several applications, it also

became widespread in several modern goods which assistance to provide more ease life. For

instance, with the growing of using the green energy, the electric vehicle became widespread

and the CPT technique is successfully applied for designing battery charger while its moving.

In [15], they presented a CPT system for electric vehicle charging that achieves high

efficiency. They enhanced the capacitors coupling plats by using of circular plates enveloped

in a high-break down strength dielectric material. [16] Proposed method to charge the

electric vehicle as application of CPT, the system has been installed on the conformal

bumper of the electrical vehicle. They exploited the conformal bumper surface to exhibit

around 10 nF of capacitive coupling between the vehicle and the charging station.

There are many advantages of using CPT technology comparing to IPT for instance,

CPT system produce low eddy losses in nearby metals as well as the lower electromagnetic

interference and higher flexibility of coupling structure. In addition, CPT provides some

other features as the following [12]:

10
 i. The ability to penetrate throughout the metal barriers, this can be done based

on the inherent working principle while IPT systems are not able to make the

same process as the there are some of metallic material as iron and steel that is

made up with high permeability, therefore, the magnetic field can prevent

away from the metallic slab. In addition to that, the power losses that is

interrelated hysteresis and eddy currents is just enough able to increase the heat

of these metals and offers some kind of safety for the particular users.

Moreover, this can be used to raise up the power transfer capability. Figure

2.3, illustrates the primary plate, the metallic slab, and the secondary plate from

two capacitors in series. The effective value of the two split capacitors is going

to be equally to the original capacitance in which means that there is no effect

or impact on process of the power transfer, this is done without considering the

account of the thickness of material slab. It is noted that the ability of CPT

system to transfer power through metal barriers is achieved on the precondition

that the metal slab does not fully cover the primary plates, which will shield

the electric field completely.

Figure 2.3 Equivalent circuit of the capacitive coupling across metal [12]
ii. Coupling structure complexity: in such as systems, the coupling interface in

somehow is not complex and it’s easy to setup. This interface is created of

planar conductive plates as it also be in the form of any shapes based on

11
 applications requirements. Moreover, these interfaces can be very thin, such as

aluminum. The cost of CPT is considered as lesser than IPT systems and that

is the reason why they can be easily installed and used in the real manufactures

project.

iii. Low Electromagnetic interference (EMI) emission: In CPT systems the electric

field is typically restricted between the coupling plates and secondary plates is

quite small but in IPT it’s not limited between tow coils in which means its

required to deal carefully with it and to avoid making nearby electronic circuits

malfunction. That’s why the harmonic radiation and EMI in CPT systems are

pointedly reduced which also leads to decrease problem of EMI shielding

design that used in IPT systems and that is the reason behind why CPT system

are costed more comparing to IPT systems.

iv. Small size and lightweight: the coupling plates, in CPT system, can be designed

very thin (such as aluminum foil) and small. Furthermore, high operating

frequency than IPT system, which supports the purpose of decreasing the

reactive impedance and the dissipation (a higher operating frequency leads to

smaller loss energy). However, in IPT systems requirement of extra ferrites to

improve the magnetic coupling between primary inductor and secondary

inductor. This lead to increase the size the complexity of the system.

2.3 Power Amplifier Inverters

For most WPT applications, the DC-AC converters with resonant tank are mainly

used to provide high swiching, but these converters with resonant tank are not suitable

mainly due to its high control difficulty and unstable output.

12
2.3.1 Types of Power Amplifier Inverters

Power amplifier inverters are considered the main part for any wireless power

transfer system, its performance play a basic role in the system efficiency [17]. However,

several types of power amplifier can be used for this purpose such as Class A power

amplifier, Class B power amplifier, Class AB power amplifier, Class C power amplifier,

Class D power amplifier and Class E power amplifier. Each one of these converters has their

own advantages and limitations. Since the power efficiency is very important parameter in

wireless power transfer systems, thus, the suitable converter for CPT system is must be

designed. Table 2.2 shows a brief comparison of the different power inverters [18]. It is

important to note that the efficiencies presented in this table are only valid for ideal

components under ideal conditions, and will vary greatly with design.

Table 2.2 Comparison of power amplifier types[18]

Amplifier Maximum Efficiency Layout Area Distortion

class A 50% small Low

class B 78.50% small High
class AB Approaching 100% small Moderate
class C 80% moderate Moderate

class E Approaching 100% moderate Low

From the Table 2.2, it is clear that Class E power amplifier is well suited for

capacitive power transfer systems. Class E amplifier provides almost 100 percent efficiency;

provided that, its parameters have been selected with optimized design process. [19]

Proposed a new wireless power transfer technique by using Class E power amplifier with

high efficiency, approximately 97% with the operating frequency of 1MHz and coupling gap

distance is 0.25mm. Meanwhile, [20] introduced Class E power amplifier to meet

specification of wireless application such as Wi-Max, cellular phones, cordless phones etc.

13
The power amplifier having two ports input port and output port that should match each

other in 1GHz the input port. They use the device of RF3931GaN HEMT (Gallium Nitrate

High Electron Mobility Transistor) to achieve high power efficiency and rising gain up to

14.327dB with frequency range of 1GHz. The result showed that the proposed power

amplifier produced 64% efficiency after optimization and the maximum source power

achieved is 32dBw. In [21], they designed a Class-E power amplifier with high efficiency

and high frequency power source CPT system. The delivered output power was about 30 W,

with 13.56 MHz central working frequency.

2.3.2 Analysis of Class E Amplifier

The Class E power amplifier was introduced in 1972 as shown in Figure 2.4 [22].

The analysis of this work generally comes from [22], [23] and [24]. Basically, the circuit

was introduced as a narrow-band tuned RF amplifier with a similar topology to that of a

standard low noise amplifier (LNA). As shown in Figure 2.4, it consists of one MOSFET

work as switch to introduce high frequency. Two basic ideas must be achieved in order to

introduce a high efficiency power amplifier; transistor is used as a switch instead of a current

source to reduce all transistor is switching losses occurrence. Furthermore, one can demand

that the derivative of the switch voltage also equal to zero at the switching time.

Figure 2.4 Class E power amplifier circuit[22]

14
 For analysis of the class E power amplifier that illustrated in Figure 2.4, the

following assumptions are made in order to simplify the analysis [22]:

1. Ideal switch transistor is assumed an (on-resistance equal to zero, infinity off

– resistance and zero switching time).

2. The value of choke inductance, Lc is high enough to deliver current with low

ripple factor. On other meaning, the input current ac component is much

lower than the dc component.

3. To grant sinusoidal current io via the resonant circuit, the loaded quality

factor, Q of the resonate RLC circuit must be assumed high enough.

4. The duty cycle ratio of switching, D, is 0.5.

From the assumptions above, we can define the choke current, 𝑖𝐿 and the output

current, io as

𝑖𝑙 = 𝐼𝐷𝐶 (Assumption 2, the chock inductance, Lc is high enough) (2.1)

𝑖𝑜 = 𝐼𝑜 sin(𝑤𝑡 +θ) (Assumption 3, Q of the LCR circuit is high) (2.2)

where θ is the phase shift between the output voltage and the input signal at the MOSFET

gate and w is the switching frequency. Applying KCL at the drain of the MOSFET yields

𝑖𝑙 = 𝑖𝑐𝑝 + 𝑖𝐷 + 𝑖𝑜 (2.3)

where, 𝑖𝑐𝑝 is the current through shunt capacitor, CP when MOSFET off, and 𝑖𝑜 is the ouput

current.

15
Since the MOSFET and the shunt capacitor, CP are in parallel; so, when the transistor is ON,

no current flows through Cp. However, when transistor is OFF, zero can be substituted into

(2.3) for 𝑖𝐷 with the results of (2.1) and (2.2) yields

𝑖𝑐𝑝 = 0 [case switch ON]

} (2.4)
𝑖𝑐𝑝 = 𝐼𝐷𝐶 − 𝐼𝑜 sin(𝑤𝑡 + ∅) [case switch OFF]

By substituting the results of (2.1) and (2.2) into (2.3) and also with the result of 𝑖𝑐𝑝 = 0 in

the ON state yields the drain equations 𝐼𝐷 as

𝑖𝐷 = 𝐼𝐷𝐶 − 𝐼𝑜 sin(𝑤𝑡 + 𝜃) [case switch ON]

} (2.5)
𝐼𝐷 = 0 [case switch OFF]

We know that, when the current goes through a capacitor, it produces a voltage. Also,

we can see that knowing that the capacitor voltage, vcp is the same as the drain voltage, 𝑣𝐷𝑆 ,

thus the 𝑣𝐷𝑆 is given by

𝑤𝑡 𝑤𝑡
1 1
𝑣𝐷𝑆 (𝑤𝑡) = ∫ 𝑖 𝑑(𝑤𝑡) = ∫ [𝐼𝐷𝐶 − 𝐼𝑜 sin(𝑤𝑡 + ∅) 𝑑(𝑤𝑡)
𝑤 𝐶𝑝 0 𝐶𝑝 𝑤 𝐶𝑝 0

1
𝑣𝐷𝑆 (𝑤𝑡) = [𝐼 ∗ 𝑤𝑡 + 𝐼𝑜 cos(𝑤𝑡 + ∅) − 𝐼0 cos(∅)] (2.6)
𝑤 𝐶𝑝 𝐷𝐶

At the moment of turn on the switch, we can get

𝐼𝐷𝐶 = −𝐼𝑜 sin ∅ (2.7)

Thus,

𝐼𝐷 = 𝐼𝑜 (sin(𝑤𝑡 + ∅) − 𝑠𝑖𝑛∅) (2.8)

16
The 𝑣𝐷𝑆 (𝑤𝑡) is then can be calculated by

−1 𝑤𝑡 −1 𝑤𝑡
𝑣𝐷𝑆 (𝑤𝑡) = ∫ 𝐼 𝑑 (𝑤𝑡) = ∫ 𝐼 (sin(𝑤𝑡 + ∅) − 𝑠𝑖𝑛∅)𝑑(𝑤𝑡)
𝑤 𝐶𝑝 0 𝐷 𝑤 𝐶𝑝 0 𝑜

−𝐼𝑜
𝑣𝐷𝑆 (𝑤𝑡) = [cos(𝑤𝑡 + ∅) + 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅ + (𝑤𝑡 − 𝜋)𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ] (2.9)
𝑤𝐶𝑝

At w=2πn, the first assumption of Class E (𝑉𝐷𝑆 = 0) yields:

2𝑐𝑜𝑠∅ + 𝜋𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 0

Or

2
𝑡𝑎𝑛∅ = − 𝜋 (2.10)

This is the necessity for the fundamental phase shift that permits Class E operation.

The phase shift between current and voltage is 𝜃 = −0.567 rad; the voltage will led the

current waveform. One can find that

−2 𝜋
𝑠𝑖𝑛∅ = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = (2.11)
√𝜋 2 + 4 √𝜋 2 + 4

Then, by substituting (2.11) in equation (2.7), we get that the current cross through choke

inductor is

2𝐼𝑜
𝐼𝐷𝐶 = (2.12)
√𝜋 2 + 4

Thus, the voltage on the drain of the MOSFET can be calculated by

17
 𝐼𝐷𝐶 3𝜋 𝜋
𝑣𝐷𝑆 (𝑤𝑡) = [𝑤𝑡 − − cos(𝑤𝑡) − sin(𝑤𝑡)] (2.13)
𝑤𝐶𝑝 2 2

Since we assume that, the choke inductor is ideal (no resistance) the average voltage

performing through the switch/shunt capacitor over a full on-off cycle (for 2π ≥ wt ≥ π) must

be equivalent to the supply voltage VDD. For that, the supply voltage can calculated by the

following equation:

1 2𝜋 𝐼𝐷𝐶
𝑉𝐷𝐷 = ∫ 𝑣(𝑤𝑡) 𝑑(𝑤𝑡) = (2.14)
2𝜋 𝜋 𝜋𝑤𝐶𝑝

In addition, we have assumed that the MOSFET is ideal zero losses and the Class E

condition is satisfied. The DC power, which delivered by the bias DC source, should be

equal to the dissipated power in the load resistance. Let the load resistance, R to be that

before the Lext match to be R, we get

1 2
𝐼𝐷𝐶 𝑉𝐷𝐷 = 𝐼 𝑅 (2.15)
2 𝑜

By substituting (2.12) into (2.15) and arrange it we get

𝑉𝑜 8𝑉𝐷𝐷
𝐼𝐷𝐶 = sin ∅ = 2 (2.16)
𝑅 (𝜋 + 4)𝑅

Thus, the load power for the Class E amplifier will calculated by

8𝑉𝐶𝐶 2
𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = (2.17)
(𝜋 2 + 4)𝑅

18
 As calculations, we can identify the amplifier power output in terms of the load

resistance and MOSFET drain voltage, VDD. We can also identify choke inductor current, IL

and hence shunt capacitance, Cp. The design process requires finding a good arrangement of

VDD, R and series capacitor, Cs that allows for a realizable amplifier. Commonly, R should

be very small; otherwise, the series inductor will be too small to be physically realizable. At

this case, we can derive the appropriate value for the extra inductance, Lext. Since we have a

formula for the fundamental frequency current via the load, one can find the voltage over

the load resistor, VR and Lext by following expression

1 2𝜋
𝑉𝑅 = ∫ 𝑣 sin(𝑤𝑡 + 𝜃 ) 𝑑 (𝑤𝑡) (2.18)
𝜋 𝜋 𝑜

And the voltage across Lext, VLext is

1 2𝜋
𝑉𝐿𝑒𝑥𝑡= ∫ 𝑣𝑜 cos(𝑤𝑡 + 𝜃 ) 𝑑(𝑤𝑡)
𝜋 𝜋
(2.19)

Then, by applying KVL we have

𝑉𝐿𝑒𝑥𝑡 𝑤𝐿𝑒𝑥𝑡 𝜋 + 2 sin 2𝜃 − (𝜋⁄2) cos 2𝜃

= = (2.20)
𝑉𝑅 𝑅 (𝜋⁄2)𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 + 2 cos 2𝜃

Since the phase shift between current and voltage is 𝜃 = −0.567 rad, then the Lext

can be obtained by

1.153 𝑅
𝐿𝑒𝑥𝑡 = (2.21)
𝑤

The series resonate part of the output circuit can be treated based on the center

frequency and R, Lres and Cs, that are already specified in the design. Only the resonant circuit

19
Q-factor is remains to specify. The quality factor, Q of the resonant circuit relates the

maximum or peak energy stored in the circuit (the reactance) to the energy dissipated (the

resistance) during each cycle of oscillation. Q factor value should achieve the sharpness of

bandwidth of resonant reactance; the value above 7 is suffice [25]. By a directly analysis of

a series resonate LRC network, the value of resonant capacitance Cs and inductance Lres can

then be calculated by

𝑄𝑅
𝐿𝑟𝑒𝑠 = (2.22)
𝑤

1
𝐶𝑠 = (2.23)
𝑤𝑄𝑅

Shunt capacitor, Cp calculated by

𝐼0 𝑃0
𝐶𝑝 = = (2.24)
𝜋𝑤𝑉𝑐𝑐 𝜋𝑤𝑉𝑐𝑐 2

The series inductor, Lt final value corresponds to the sum of all the computed inductances

Lres and Lext.

𝐿𝑡 = 𝐿𝑒𝑥𝑡 + 𝐿𝑟𝑒𝑠 (2.25)

Based on the previous analysis, the Class E power amplifier can be designed with the

optimized parameters by knowing the desired frequency and the load resistance.

2.4 System Modelling

In the design of the control system, the system must be introduced in mathematical

terms to understand dynamic system and analyse dynamic characteristic. The mathematical

20
model of a dynamic system is a set of differential equations that represents the system

behavior exactly, or at the least fairly as well [26]. There are several methods to represent

the mathematical model of the system such as transfer function (TF), state space (SS), state

space average (SSA) and generalized state space average (GSSA). Each one of these

approaches has spatial area that can be applied in and get some limitations when used on

other fields. Therefore, the system can be represented into many mathematical models,

according to one’s perspective. The systems’ behaviour, whether they are mechanical,

electrical, thermal, economic, biological etc.., may defined in terms of differential equations.

Each differential equation is obtained by using physical laws that govern a particular system

such as mechanical Newton’s laws and Kirchhoff’s laws for electrical system. The obtaining

reasonable mathematical models is very important part of the entire analysis of control

systems. However, mathematical models may assume many different formulas. Depending

on some particular system and some particular conditions, one mathematical may be better

suitable rather than the other models [27]. However, in optimal control system problems, it

is useful to present state space representation of the system.

The state-space representation is mathematical model of the system related to set of

differential equations that expressing the system [26]. Three types of variables are concerned

in state-space analysis: input variables, which represent the system input, output variables,

and state variables which represent the plant of the system. The most general state-space

representation of a linear system with p inputs, q outputs and n state variables can be

represented by the following equation as shown

𝑥(𝑡̇ ) = 𝐴(𝑡)𝑥(𝑡) + 𝐵(𝑡)𝑢(𝑡)

} (2.26)
𝑦(𝑡) = 𝐶(𝑡)𝑥(𝑡) + 𝐷(𝑡)𝑢(𝑡)

21
where,

𝑥(. ) is the state vector, 𝑥 (𝑡) ∈ ℛ𝑛 , 𝑢(. ) is the input (or control) vector, 𝑢(𝑡) ∈ ℛ 𝑝 , 𝑦(. )

is the output vector, 𝑦(𝑡) ∈ ℛ𝑞 .

𝐴(𝑥) is the state (or system) matrix with n×n dimension, 𝐵(𝑥 ) is the input matrix with n×p

dimension, 𝐶(𝑥) is the output matrix with q×n dimension, 𝐷(𝑥) is the direct matrix with q×p

dimension.

Figure 2.5 present the block diagram of the state space of linear control system. The

dynamic system must involve elements that memorize the value of the input for time, t grater

or equal to t. Since integrators in a continues-time control system serve as memory devices,

the outputs of such integrators can be considered as the variables that define the internal state

of the dynamic system.

Figure 2.5 Vector block diagram for a linear system [26]

Thus, the outputs of integrators serve as state variables. The number of state

variables to completely define the dynamics of the system is equal to the number of

integrators involved in the system.

22
 The state space model is useful method that can be used to represent a

mathematical model to understand the behavior of the nonlinear switching systems.

Many researchers introduced mathematical model based on state space approach.

According to [28][29], they presented state-space-based analysis for DC-DC switching

converters. Figure 2.6 displays the boost converter circuit. In this system, there is no

direct connection from input to the output, therefore the D matrix equal to zero.

Obviously, a DC-DC converter consists of only two energy storage elements (one

inductor and one capacitor) therefore two state variables introduced, 𝑖𝐿 and 𝑣𝑐 , and only

one input vector, 𝑣𝑔 . By applying KVL and KCL for two loops then linearization around

the equilibrium point, the small signal differential equations can be obtained as.

𝑑𝑖̂𝑙 (1 − 𝐷 ) 𝑣𝑔
= − 𝑣̂𝑐 + 𝑑̂
𝑑𝑡 𝐿 (1 − 𝐷 )

𝑑𝑣̂𝑐 (1 − 𝐷) 1 𝑣𝑔
= 𝑖̂𝑙 − 𝑣̂𝑐 − 𝑑̂
𝑑𝑡 𝐶 𝑅𝐶 𝑅𝐶 (1 − 𝐷 )2

Figure 2.6 DC-DC Boost converter [28]

23
 In [30], a state space method to analyse CMOS Class E power amplifier using state-

space equations was presented. This system work with switching mode with resonate circuit.

The state variables referred to the schematic of Figure 2.7, these variables are related to the

energy storing elements on the circuit. The system variable are

𝑥 (𝑡) = [𝑖𝐿 (𝑡) 𝑖𝑥 (𝑡) 𝑣𝑠𝑤 (𝑡) 𝑣0 (𝑡)]𝑡

By setting up the first derivative expressions for each storage element, the state equations

derived on two stages: when the switch is closed and when switch is open condition.

Figure 2.7 Schematic CMOS Class E power amplifier [30]

The state space averaging has been considered the best technique that can be used to

obtain the converter small signal model [31]. It has successfully applied to pulse-width

modulated power converters, but it has limitations with switched circuits which has resonant

elements, it does not satisfy a small ripple condition [32]. The basic limitation in resonant

converters is that, these circuits have state variables with a mostly oscillatory dynamics.

Unfortunately, most of wireless power transfer systems consist of series-parallel resonant

DC-DC converter. Thus, one cannot apply state space average approach on wide range of

the power circuits, which consists of the resonant type converters. On other hand, it is

24
necessary to find another approach that can describe random forms of waveforms. Motivated

by this fact, [33][34], introduced a more general averaging process that involves state space

averaging and is possibly appropriate to much larger types of circuits and systems. This

method called generalized state space average (GSSA).

The working principle of GSSA is based on the fact that the waveform x(•) can be

estimated on the interval (t -T, t] to random accuracy with a Fourier series expression of the

form.

𝑥 (𝑡 − 𝑇 + 𝑠) = ∑〈𝑥〉𝑘 (𝑡)𝑒 𝑗𝑘𝑤𝑠(𝑡−𝑇+𝑠) (2.27)

𝑘

where,

ωs=2π/T, s ∈(0, T ].

〈x〉k(t) are complex Fourier coefficients.

The time derivative of the kth coefficient is calculated as

𝑑 𝑑
〈𝑥 〉𝑘 (𝑡) = 〈 𝑥 〉𝑘 (𝑡) − 𝑗𝑘ω𝑠 〈𝑥 〉𝑘 (𝑡) (2.28)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

The equation (2.28) relates to the exact derivative of the kth coefficient only in the

case that ωs is constant. When the frequency is not constant (include small ripple), (2.28)

relates to approximately derivative by taking only the fundamental harmonic and ignoring

the rest harmonic of the kth coefficient. In the general, the switched resonant circuits produce

small ripple in its signal, thus GSSA is the best suitable approach to represent the

25
mathematical model of these circuits. Since the proposed CPT system in this work involved

a switched resonant circuit, thus GSSA approach will applied to model the system.

Basically, for designing a control system, its require to represent the state-space

model. However, it is hard to put the nonlinear system (large signal model) in state-space

model; thus, we need to find small signal model of the system. On other words, introduce

small signal model of the system. Small signal model can found by linearize the large signal

model around the operating (equilibrium) point. Linearization means creating a linear

approximation expression of a nonlinear system, that is valid in a small area around the

operating or equilibrium point, a steady-state condition, in which all model states are

constant values. Design a control system with using classical design techniques, such as bode

plot and root locus design, requires linearization of non-linear model. Linearization also

permit us to analyse system behaviour, such as system stability, disturbance rejection,

reference tracking and measure resonances in the frequency response of the closed-loop

system [26].

Nonlinear system can be linearized by several approaches, but in this work only one

Taylor Series Expansion is utilised as shown in the following formula. This is because it is

commonly used due to its simplicity.

𝑑 (𝑥 − 𝑥0 ) 𝑑 (𝑥 − 𝑥0 )2
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑓 (𝑥0 ) + 𝑓 (𝑥 )|𝑥=𝑥0 + 𝑓 (𝑥 )|𝑥=𝑥0 +⋯ (2.29)
𝑑𝑥 1! 𝑑𝑥 2!

Where x0 is the equilibrium (operating) point.

26
2.5 Control Systems

To design a controller for any system, it is necessary derive the mathematical model

of the system to understand the behavior of the open loop system. In addition, the

characteristic of the desired controller must be known to achieve the desired specifications

[27]. However, control system is an interconnection of components forming a system

configuration that will provide a desired system response. A feedback control system is that

the system that is responsible to control and maintain a relationship of one system variable

with the other one [35]. This can be done by comparing functions of these variables and

using the difference as a means of control. Figure 2.8 shows a block diagram for simple

closed loop control system. The sensor or measuring element is a device that converts the

output variable into another suitable variable, such as a displacement, pressure, voltage, etc.,

that can be used to compare the output to the reference input signal. This element is in the

feedback path of the closed-loop system [26]. The set point of the controller must be

converted to a reference input with the same units as the feedback signal from the sensor or

measuring element.

Figure 2.8 Block diagram for simple close loop control system [26]

The modern control theory concerns with systems that have self-organizing,

adaptive, robust, learning, and optimum qualities. In close loop control systems, the usage

27
of a utilizes an extra measure of the real output in order to use it for the comparison between

the actual output and the desired output. This type of measurement is called as feedback

signal.

In the following some important terminologies, that will be used in the design

specifications of the controller, the control designer should be familiar with these

terminologies.

Root Locus (Zeros and Poles): The important terminology in control design is extract

zero and poles of the system. By that will know whether the system is stable or unstable; if

the poles located on the left half of the imaginary axis of s domain, the system is stable.

Whereas if located on the right half the system unstable. Zeros on right half dose not effect

to the system stability, zeros located on right half introduce non-minimum phase (NMP)

system [36].

Zero and poles can be calculated from the transfer of the system; zeros is the values

that make the numerator of the transfer function of the system equal to zero, while pole is

the values of the zeros of denominator of the transfer function. The system transient

response, basically, depends on the poles location. Shortest transient whenever poles located

far from the imaginary axis[37]. Furthermore, the location of the poles with respect to the

real axis shaped the damping ratio of the transient time response of the system as shown in

Figure 2.9.

Dominant pole: if the system has several poles located on spaced places, the

dominant poles are that located nearest the imaginary axis. The system response will be

greatly affected by this pole, sometimes ignore the other poles when analysis [38].

28
 Figure 2.9 Time response characteristic [38]

Time Domain Specifications: is the variation of the output of the system with respect

to the time. Two areas, transient response and steady state response are sides of the system

time response. Transient Response defined as how long the time takes the output of the

system to reach to the steady state part. Figure 2.10 displays the all the time domain

specifications of system. The area up to the settling time is known as transient response and

the next area, after the settling time, is known as steady state response [39].

Delay Time: required time response to reach to half of its final value from the zero

instant. It is denoted by td .

Rise Time: required time response to rise from 10% until it’s reach to 90% of its final

value denoted by tr.

Peak Overshoot: it is defined by the deviation of the response at peak time from the

final value of response. It is also called the maximum overshoot.

Settling time: it is denoted by ts, it defined as the time that required for the response

from zero until reach the steady state and stay within the specified tolerance bands to its final

value. Generally, tolerance range is banded from 2% to 5%.

29
 Figure 2.10 Time domain specifications of system [39]

In system designing, the compromise between reduce transient time response and

damping ratio of the system is required to achieve appropriate system response.

2.5.1 State Feedback Controller

The main purpose of design State Feedback (SF) controller is to create desirable

closed loop response in terms time response of both transient and steady state characteristics

[35]. State feedback controller structure is shown in Figure 2.11; the structure assumed all

state of the system are observable. The main idea of the design of state feedback controller

by pole placement is to place the closed loop poles to select a desired place to meet the

required time response specifications [27].

As known, the mathematical model of any open loop system, equation (2.26), if D=0,

no direct connection from input to output [26]. The system represent as

𝑥 = 𝐴𝑥̇ + 𝐵𝑢
(2.30)
𝑦 = 𝐶𝑥

30
 The block diagram of close loop system illustrated in Figure 2.8. Consider the output

signal scaled by scale k and returned to the input signal as shown in Figure 2.11, the input

signal will become (𝑢 − 𝑘𝑥). Thus, the state of the closed loop will be

𝑥̇ = 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵 (𝑢 − 𝑘𝑥 ) (2.31)

𝑥̇ = (𝐴 − 𝐵𝑘 )𝑥 + 𝐵𝑢 (2.32)

The poles of the new closed loop system corresponds, directly, to the Eigen value of

(A-Bk) matrix.

Figure 2.11 State feedback structure

Poles of closed loop can be located arbitrary for the controllable open loop system is

state in nature. The controllability of the system can be checked by the rank of controllability

matrix, M by equation (2.30), if matrix M full rank, the system is controllable.

𝑀 = [𝐵 𝐴𝐵 𝐴2 𝐵 … … 𝐴𝑛−1 𝐵] (2.30)

Another approach can be used to check of the system controllability, this approach

only used for single input single output (SISO) systems, by calculating the determine of

square matrix M. The controllable system which has M determine unequal to zero.

31
 For design the state feedback gain, if the system is in canonical controllable form,

start with find out the polynomial of existing pols and desired poles, then gain matrix, k can

be calculated directly by

𝑘 = [(∝𝑛−1 − 𝑎𝑛−1 ) (∝𝑛−2 − 𝑎𝑛−2 ) … … … … (∝1 − 𝑎1 )] (2.31)

where, α are the coefficients of desired poles’ polynomial, and a are the coefficients of the

existing poles’ polynomial.

Ackermann’s formula is technique can be used for determine state feedback gain

matrix with the systems which is not in the controllable canonical form. One such well

known Ackermann’s formula

𝑘 = [(∝𝑛−1 − 𝑎𝑛−1 ) (∝𝑛−2 − 𝑎𝑛−2 ) … … … … (∝1 − 𝑎1 )] × 𝑇 −1 (2.32)

where T is similarity transformation to controllable canonical form.

𝑇 = 𝑀∗𝑊 (2.33)

where, M is controllability matrix which already calculated by (2-30), W is matrix has

elements of coefficients of the existing polynomial.

𝑎𝑛−1 𝑎𝑛−2 𝑎𝑛−3 … … … … 𝑎1 1

𝑎𝑛−2 𝑎𝑛−3 𝑎𝑛−4 … … … . . 1 0
𝑎𝑛−3 𝑎𝑛−4 … … … … … . 1 0 0
𝑎𝑛−4 𝑎𝑛−5 … … … … 1 0 0 0
𝑊=
.
.
.
[ 1 ..…0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ]

32
 The gain matrix, k is applied to the system input to introduce new Eigen values of

the desired poles witch are selected based on the system root locus. It must be careful for

select new poles location, sometimes results unstable closed loop system. The poles should

be selected not far away from the existing pole spatially with non-minimum phase systems.

2.5.2 Linear Quadratic Regulator Controller

Linear Quadratic Regulator (LQR) controller is designed with same concept of the

state feedback controller; furthermore, with same structure of State Feedback control

systems. The difference only based on the method of found out the gain matrix k. LQR

method is the optimal theory of SF controller; the main idea in LQR control design is to

minimize the quadratic cost function. The nice feature of LQR as compared to SF controller

is that instead to having to specify where the poles should be located a set of performance

weighting are specified that could have more ease. The value of cost function, equation

(2.34), can be tuned based on the Q and R matrices [40]. The linear quadratic regulator idea

is to minimize the quadratic cost function to find the gain matrix, k, where u= -kx.

∞
𝐽 = ∫ 𝑥 (𝑡)𝑇 𝑄𝑥 (𝑡) + 𝑢(𝑡)𝑇 𝑅𝑢(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 (2.34)
0

where Q and R are weighting parameters to scale the state and control input vectors

respectively. Q is related to the performance of the system while R is related to the energy

[41]. Q is positive semi-definite weighting square matrix and R is positive definite weighting

square matrix. The dimensions of the scaling matrix related to the dimensions of the input

and state vectors [42][43]. The weighting parameters of the scaling matrix can be chosen

arbitrary or based on optimization tools such as practical swarm optimization (PSO), genetic

algorithm (GA) [44]…etc. The tradeoff between the scaling matrices is very important to

33
provide a good designed system. The cost function has a unique minimum solution that can

be obtained by solving the Algebraic Riccati Equation (ARE) [45], which set as following

𝑃𝐴 + 𝐴𝑇 𝑃 + 𝑄 − 𝑃𝐵𝑅−1 𝐵𝑇 𝑃 = 0 (2.35)

The solution of Algebraic Riccati Equation, P is required to calculate the optimal

gain matrix, k. The optimal gain matrix can be calculated by

𝑘 = −𝑅−1 𝐵𝑇 𝑃 (2.36)

The cost function has a unique minimum that can be obtained by solving the

Algebraic Riccati Equation. The parameters Q and R can be used as design parameters to

scale the state variables and the control signals. Conventionally, the scale matrix of LQR are

selected randomly according to the trial and error approach to determine the optimum gain

controller[46]. The following steps of algorithm to design LQR controller,

1. Find out stat and input matrices (A, B) from the plant.

2. Select matrices Q and R parameters.

3. Solve Algebraic Riccati Equation (ARE) based on selected Q and R matrices

to find out the value of P.

4. Use equation (2.36) to find the LQR gain matrix for the feedback controller.

5. Repeat steps 2 to 4 until meet the desired system performance.

LQR controller is more predictive comparing to state feedback controller, and cost

function provide compromise between system performance and energy, this property is

important in some applications.

34
 Many research applied to design different controller to achieve the system

stability[47][48]. Indeed, there are many types of controller that can used in closed loop

systems such as Proportional-Integral-Derivatives (PID) controller, Sate Feedback (SF)

controller, Linear-Quadratic-Regulator (LQR) controller and Linear-Quadratic-Gaussian

(LQG) controller ...etc. these controllers have applied in several various applications. The

aims of this discussion to create background about controllers and how to analysis the control

systems. According to [34], a comparison between PI controller and LQR controller were

established to design controller for DC-DC power converter. The system work based on

swathing mode; thus, state space average approach was used to derive the mathematical

model of the system. The result of this study showed that, LQR controller provided stabilize

the system and improve the stability rather than PI controller. According to [49] they

designed a control system for inductive power transfer used for charging electrical vehicle

battery when it is moving. The controller was designed based on state feedback controller

with mutual inductor, to improve the starting speed and stability of the system. The topology

of this design displayed in Figure 2.12, it consist of the resonant converter connected, via

electromagnetic field, to buck converter on the load side

Figure 2.12 Topology of IPT used for charging electrical vehicle battery [49]

35
 Based on [50], they proposed IPT controller with PI technique. The design involved

parallel digitally tuneable capacitors in both sides of the system, as sc Design of Auto

Frequency Tuning Capacitive Power Transfer System Based on Class-E dc/dc Converter.

Their proposed scheme describes in Figure 2.13. This design used two PI controller to

provide zero steady state error while maintaining closed loop system.

Figure 2.13 Scheme of IPT with parallel digitally tuneable capacitors [50]

Some of study introduced controllers with optimisation tools. Optimization tools

useful to introduce a good solutions for some issues. This were done by [51] [44], they apply

Genetic Algorithm (GA) to select the scale matrices Q and R. the study were applied in

different areas, to compare LQR with and without Genetic Algorithm. They found that, GA

introduced optimal controller for select matrices, and the LQR controllers with GA provided

fast response than LQR only. Linear Quadratic Gaussian controller proposed in multi area

of power systems [34] to stabilize the system at load variation, LQG is combine of LQR

controller with Kaman filter, and compared with PID, the result of this work was, the

performance of LQR and LQG is better than PID. New control algorithm was proposed by

[52] this design was built by combine PI controller with LQR to provide a good controller

of wind turbine. PI was used as the conventional controller while LQR was used as feed

forward controller. This design is easily implemented by wind turbine. According to [53]

36
they presented a comparison between three types of controllers proportional integral (PI),

fuzzy logic (FL) and sliding mode (SM) control, the study applied on DC-DC buck-boost

converter powered by photovoltaic (PV) modules. The result shows that; the output voltage

catches the reference voltage value but at the same time, it has an overshoot and long

response time for the SM controller in the simulation results. The output voltage does not

catch the reference voltage with the FL controller and PI controller for every time. The FL

controller and PI controller do not have any overshoot and large ripple in the output voltage.

In study [54] the authors compared between full state feedback controller and linear

quadratic regulator to accomplish stabilization of the pendulum. They use MATLAB to show

the response of the systems; they found LQR controller method resulted better results rather

than the simple state feedback, but makes some troubles because of selection of constants of

controller. Constant of the LQR controller can also be adjusted by the heuristic techniques

for better results. Based on [55] the state feedback with integral action SFIC has better

response than PID when they applied that methods to control of pressurizer water level in

nuclear power plant. Moreover, in [56] they propose same result when they applied PID and

LQR Controllers for 4-leg voltage-source inverters. LQR method gives the better

performance, such as rise time, settling time, compared to PID controller. [45] provided

comparison of the time specification performance between two controllers for an inverted

pendulum system to determine the control strategy that delivers better performance with

respect to pendulum's angle and cart's position. The simulation results show that pole

placement controller has a better performance as compared to the LQR controller in

controlling the inverted pendulum system. [57] Presented comparison on the time

specification performance between two conventional controllers, Linear-Quadratic-

Regulator (LQR) and Proportional-Integral-Derivatives (PID) controllers, to determine

which control strategy delivers better performance with respect to pendulum’s angle and

37
cart’s position. The result shows that LQR produced better response compared to PID control

strategies and is presented in time domain.

In the simplest of terms, Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) is a very similar to

State Variable feedback for a second order system. The difference is in how you obtain the

state variables. The linear–quadratic–Gaussian (LQG) control is a combination between is

the combination of a Kalman filter with linear–quadratic regulator (LQR). The controller

should have high-speed response to introduce the desire output in real time. Based on [58]

LQG control is an optimal controller approach and also suitable for linear dynamic systems

comparing to PID controller, that was in the study they applied for control of a robot arm on

two wheeled moving platform but on other side PID controller is do not need a detailed

dynamic model of the system. [59] described a practical approach to regulate the humidity

level under greenhouse in real time. They used linear–quadratic–Gaussian (LQG) controller

to meet the challenge sophisticated monitoring and control equipment. The mathematical

model of the relative humidity under greenhouse was introduced based on state space

approach to understand the dynamic behaviour of the relative humidity under greenhouse by

using subspace N4SID algorithm. The study [48], presented the design of capacitive wireless

power transfer systems based on a suboptimal Class-E2 converter approach to maintain its

high efficiency over a wide bandwidth of operation frequency. They developed the

frequency controller based on PI to regulate the system output voltage. Nichols tuning

method was used to determine the initial parameters of the PI controller. As result, the design

met almost zero voltage switching (ZVS) with a very small turn-on voltage when the load is

varied. [60] Applied a linear quadratic regulator (LQR) and linear quadratic Gaussian (LQG)

controllers for an active anti-roll bar system. [61] Discussed some theoretical and practical

aspects of the linear–quadratic–Gaussian (LQG) control algorithms implementation.

38
 In regards to related work that is focusing on the same fundamental of CPT system,

the existing results can be found in [62]. To be specific designed Linear Quadratic Gaussian

(LQG) controller for CPT system, which is described in Figure 2.14; LQG controller is

obtained by combination of LQR and Kalman filter, also known Linear Quadratic Estimator

(LQE). Results of this selected related work will be compared to the obtained result of this

work to at the end of analysis in Chapter 4.

Figure 2.14 CPT system proposed in [62]

The design provided a controller to tune the frequency of the MOSFET on the subject

of the load variation. The result of this related work is displayed in Figure 2.15, the system

provided time response specifications such as rising time Tr = 0.19 ms, settling time Ts =

0.3 ms and zero overshot damping ratio.

Figure 2.15 Output of controlled CPT of [62]

39
 METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction

In this chapter, methodology that has been used for designing the CPT system

controllers are discussed and explained in detail. The methodology structure of this work is

shown in the flow chart of Figure 3.1. This work started by literature review on wireless

power transfer (WPT) technology and its applications in several areas, also brief details of

WPT techniques have been presented. Capacitive power transfer (CPT) technique provides

some advantages over inductive power transfer (IPT) such as the ease to design and ability

to penetrate through metal barriers. Thus, CPT technique have been considered the preferred

method for this work. The most problem of CPT system is the high sensitivity to its

parameter variations, this refer to the sensitivity of the class E inverter, which is the effective

part of the WPT system component, as displays in Figure 3.2. Hence, it is require designing

a controller to modify the MOSFET gate switching frequency of the inverter regardless of

any load variation to stabilize the output voltage and improve the system efficiency.

Generally, for designing a system controller, the modelling of the system must be first

established. Referring to assumptions and analysis of class E power amplifier in Section

2.3.1 and modelling system approaches in section 2.4 in the literature, the system had been

modelled. Moreover, since the proposed CPT system consists of LC resonant tank in its

component, the proposed CPT system have been analysed and modelled by using

generalized state space average (GSSA) method.

40
 Start

Wireless Power Transfer

Capacitive Power Transfer Inductive Power Transfer

Model CPT System

Design SF controller Design LQR controller

Compare

END

Figure 3.1 Methodology structure for the work

MATLAB software application have been used to validate and simulate the CPT

system consideration. Two methods of simulation have been done for this objective. First

method with MATLAB Simulink to validate the proposed CPT elements. The second

method by is using MATLAB code to validate the mathematical model of the proposed CPT

system. According to the established mathematical model of the proposed CPT system, State

Feedback (SF) controller and Linear Quadratic Regulator (LQR) controller have been

designed. SF controller, in this work, has been designed based on the pole placement

approach, while the LQR controller has been designed by optimizing the minimum solution

41
of Algebraic Riccati Equation (ARE). In the last, the obtained results of the time response

specifications for both SF and LQR controllers have been justified and compared.

3.2 Modelling of Capacitive Power Transfer System

In this section, the mathematical model for the proposed CPT system, which is

illustrated in Figure 3.2, have been derived. The differential equations of the mathematical

model were established according to the storing energy elements (capacitors and inductors).

In the last, the state space model of the system have been created by using generalized state

space average (GSSA) method. Figure 3.2 consists of two main parts, Class E power

amplifier with series resonate converter (LC) and full wave rectifier. Class E amplifier is

used as DC-AC inverter to provide high frequency. It is important to know that, the Class E

power amplifier has high sensitive to its parameter variation. In the sense that, its parameter

values must be selected properly in order to provide high efficiency.

Figure 3.2 Schematic of the proposed CPT system

The full wave rectifier is used as AC-DC converter to provide DC signal, which will

be used in some applications such as battery charge. The equivalent circuit of the proposed

CPT system is illustrated in Figure 3.3. The capacitor Cs is the equivalent of series capacitors,

Cs1 and Cs2, and Re is the equivalent resistance of the loaded full wave rectifier.

42
 Figure 3.3 CPT equivalent circuit

The equivalent capacitor, 𝐶𝑠 represents for the series capacitors, 𝐶𝑠1 and 𝐶𝑠2 , and it

can be calculated as

𝐶𝑠1 𝐶𝑠2
𝐶𝑠 = (3.1)
𝐶𝑠1 + 𝐶𝑠2

According to [63], The equivalent resistance, Re of the full wave rectifier can be

calculated by using (3.2).

8
𝑅𝑒 = 𝑅 (3.2)
𝜋2 𝑙

We observe that, when MOSFET, switch, is in case ON, the current across the Lt is

drive from the shunt capacitor, Cp. While in second case, when MOSFET is OFF, the current

will derive from the source, Vcc. Voltage on shunt capacitor that named vAB by equation

(2.13) at analysis of Class E in literature.

𝐼𝐷𝐶 3𝜋 𝜋
𝑣𝐴𝐵 = [𝑤𝑡 − − cos(𝑤𝑡) − sin(𝑤𝑡)] (3.3)
𝑤𝐶𝑝 2 2

43
 We can see that the first part has two active components capacitor Cs and inductor

Lt. the second part has only one active component (capacitor) Cf. Each of these storing energy

elements can be represented with differential equation to create the state space model.

However, since the proposed CPT system included LC resonant circuit, thus applying GSSA

method is required to the state space model. The parameters of the system will be calculated

in chapter 4 according to the analysis and assumptions of Class E that have been represented

in the literature.

3.2.1 Large Signal Model of CPT System

The large signal model is a method that is used to describe the nonlinear signal with

respect to nominal time in terms of the underlying nonlinear differential equations. Based on

the circuit of the proposed system, which shown in Figure 3.1, and by applying Kirchhoff’s

voltage law (KVL) Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL) on the first part of CPT system (Class E

amplifier part) we got the following differential equations

𝑑𝑖
𝑣𝐴𝐵 = 𝐿𝑡 + 𝑣𝑐𝑠 + 𝑠𝑔𝑛(𝑖 )𝑣𝑓 (3.4)
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑣𝑐𝑠
𝑖 = 𝑐𝑠 (3.5)
𝑑𝑡

where vcs is the voltage on the capacitor Ccs, i is the resonant current through inductor Lt ,

and vAB is the voltage across the shunt capacitor which can be calculated by referring to

analysis of Class E, the voltage across shunt capacitor, vAB can be then expressed as

𝐼𝐷𝐶 3𝜋 𝜋
𝑉𝐴𝐵 = 𝑤𝐶 (𝑤𝑡 − 2 − 2 cos(𝑤𝑡) − sin(𝑤𝑡) 𝜋 < 𝑤𝑡 < 2𝜋
𝑝 } (3.6)
𝑉𝐴𝐵 = 0 0 < 𝑤𝑡 < 𝜋

44
where, sgn(x) is symbol function for the reasonable base wave approximation [64]

1, 𝑥>0

𝑠𝑔𝑛(𝑥 ) 0, 𝑥 = 0 (3.7)

{−1, 𝑥 < 0

Similarly, by applying Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL) on second part (rectifier part) we got

𝑑𝑣𝑓 𝑣𝑓
|𝑖 | = 𝐶𝑓 + (3.8)
𝑑𝑡 𝑅𝑙

where, vf is the output voltage for the system (voltage on Cf and RL).

From equations (3.4), (3.5) and (3.8), the state vector consist of three variables 𝑖, 𝑣𝑐𝑠

and 𝑣𝑓 . Although, the shunt capacitor, Cp is storing energy element but it is not considered

as state variable; the reason is that the Cp waveform is not differentiable and its dynamic

behavior is completely defined by the energy stored in Lt and series capacitor, Ccs.

According to GSSA method, which is a useful to model resonate converter (Section

2.4 in the literature), the coefficient of the first-order Fourier series of the voltage and current

signal of each part is taken as the state variable. Thus, the decomposition of Fourier series

expansion is required.

The Fourier series expansions of i (the series current going via Lt and Cs) and vcs (the

voltage applied on capacitor Cs) can be simplified as

𝑖 = 𝑖𝑠 sin(𝑤𝑡) + 𝑖𝑐 cos(𝑤𝑡)
} (3.9)
𝑣𝑐𝑠 = 𝑣𝑠 sin(𝑤𝑡) + 𝑣𝑐 cos(𝑤𝑡)

45
By differentiate both sides of the above equations we get

𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑖
= ( − 𝑤𝑖𝑐 ) sin(𝑤𝑡) + ( 𝑐 + 𝑤𝑖𝑠 ) cos(𝑤𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑣𝑐𝑠 𝑑𝑣𝑠 𝑑𝑣𝑐 } (3.10)
= ( − 𝑤𝑣 𝑐 ) sin( 𝑤𝑡 ) + ( + 𝑤𝑣𝑠 ) cos (𝑤𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

Then, by exerting Fourier decomposition expansion for the voltage vAB that represented in

the previous part in equation (3.6), the simplified of Fourier series expansion of the voltage

vAB applied by take the first harmonic as

𝑣𝐴𝐵 = 𝑎1 sin(𝑤𝑡) + 𝑏1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑤𝑡) (3.11)

The first harmonic of Fourier coefficients can be obtained as following

1 2𝜋 𝜋𝑉
𝑎1 = 𝜋 ∫𝜋 𝑣𝐴𝐵 sin(𝑤𝑡) 𝑑(𝑤𝑡) = − 2𝑐𝑐
1 2𝜋 (8 − 𝜋 2 )𝑉𝑐𝑐 } (3.12)
𝑏1 = 𝜋 ∫𝜋 𝑣𝐴𝐵 cos (𝑤𝑡) 𝑑(𝑤𝑡) = 4

The current through the rectifier is approximately DC, so it is assumed that it can be

approximated with sufficient accuracy with the DC coefficient of the complex Fourier series,

it can be represented [64] as

2
|𝑖 | ≈ 𝑖 (3.13)
𝜋 𝑝

𝑖𝑝 = √𝑖𝑠 2 + 𝑖𝑐 2 (3.14)

Sgn(i) can be expressed as

46
 4𝑖𝑠 4𝑖𝑐
𝑠𝑔𝑛 (𝑖 )𝑣𝑓 = sin(𝑤𝑡) 𝑣𝑓 + cos(𝑤𝑡)𝑣𝑓 (3.15)
𝜋𝑖𝑝 𝜋𝑖𝑝

From the above decomposition of Fourier series expansion, the new obtained state vector

consisted of five variables; it is given by the following

𝑥 = [ 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑐 𝑣𝑠 𝑣𝑐 𝑣𝑓 ]𝑡

Substituting equations (3.10), (3.12), (3.13) and (3.15) into (3.4), (3.5) and (3.8), and

separate sine and cosine expressions to obtain the nonlinear large signal model, we get

𝜋𝑉𝑐𝑐 𝑑𝑖𝑠 4𝑖𝑠

= 𝐿𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑐 − 𝐿𝑡 − 𝑣𝑠 − 𝑣
2 𝑑𝑡 𝜋𝑖𝑝 𝑓
(8 − 𝜋 2 )𝑉𝑐𝑐 𝑑𝑖𝑐 4𝑖𝑐
= 𝐿𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑐 − 𝐿𝑡 − 𝑣𝑐 − 𝑣
4 𝑑𝑡 𝜋𝑖𝑝 𝑓
𝑑𝑣𝑠 (3.16)
𝑖𝑠 = 𝐶𝑠 − 𝐶𝑠 𝑤𝑣𝑠
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑣𝑐
𝑖𝑐 = 𝐶𝑠 − 𝐶𝑠 𝑤𝑣𝑐
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑣𝑓 2 𝑣𝑓
𝐶𝑓 = 𝑖𝑝 −
𝑑𝑡 𝜋 𝑅𝑙 }

By normalizing and rearranging the above equations, one arrives at

𝑑𝑖𝑠 4𝑣𝑓 1 𝜋𝑉𝑐𝑐

= − 𝑖𝑠 + 𝑤𝑖𝑐 − 𝑣𝑠 + 0𝑣𝑐 −
𝑑𝑡 𝐿𝑡 𝜋𝑖𝑝 𝐿𝑡 2𝐿𝑡 2
𝑑𝑖𝑐 4𝑣𝑓 1 (8 − 𝜋 2 )𝑉𝑐𝑐
= − 𝑤𝑖𝑠 − 𝑖𝑐 + 0𝑣𝑠 − 𝑣𝑐 −
𝑑𝑡 𝜋𝑖𝑝 𝐿𝑡 4𝐿𝑡
𝑑𝑣𝑠 1
= 𝑖𝑠 + 0𝑖𝑐 + 0𝑣𝑠 + 𝑤𝑣𝑐 + 0𝑉𝑐𝑐 (3.17)
𝑑𝑡 𝐶𝑠
𝑑𝑣𝑐 1
= 0𝑖𝑠 + 𝑖𝑐 + w𝑣𝑠 + 0𝑣𝑐 + 0𝑉𝑐𝑐
𝑑𝑡 𝐶𝑠
𝑑𝑣𝑓 2 2 𝑣𝑓
= 𝑖𝑠 + 𝑖𝑐 + 0𝑣𝑠 + 0𝑣𝑐 −
𝑑𝑡 𝜋𝐶𝑓 𝜋𝐶𝑓 𝑅𝑙 𝐶𝑓 }

47
 Since the large signal model included five differential equations, so the proposed

CPT system classified as fifth order system. Furthermore, five poles for this system are

involved. Knowing these poles is very important to design a controller for the proposed CPT

system.

3.2.2 Steady State Model of CPT System

In the steady state, there is no variation in the state vector with respect to the time.

Meaning that the partial differentiation equation of (3.16) in the large signal model with

respect to time is equal to zero. Therefore, we can obtain the steady state of 𝑖𝑝 and 𝑣𝑓 as

following

𝜋𝑉𝑓
𝐼𝑝 = (3.18)
2𝑅𝑙

Substitute (3.18) in (3.16) yield:

𝑑𝐼𝑠 8𝑅𝑙 1 𝜋𝑉𝑐𝑐

= − 𝐼𝑠 + 𝑤𝐼𝑐 − 𝑉𝑠 −
𝑑𝑡 𝐿𝑡 𝜋 2 𝐿𝑡 2𝐿𝑡 2
𝑑𝐼𝑐 8𝑅𝑙 1 (8 − 𝜋 2 )𝑉𝑐𝑐
= − 𝑤𝐼𝑠 − 𝐼 − 𝑉 −
𝑑𝑡 𝐿𝑡 𝜋 2 𝑐 𝐿 𝑡 𝑐 4𝐿𝑡
(3.19)
𝑑𝑉𝑠 1
𝑑𝑡 = 𝐶𝑠 𝐼𝑠 + 𝑤𝑉𝑐
𝑑𝑉𝑐 1
𝑑𝑡 = 𝐶𝑠 𝐼𝑐 − 𝑤𝑉𝑠 }

Note that, in the steady the variables always denoted in upper case letters. From equation (3-

19), the steady state model for system sit as following

48
 −8𝑅𝑙 −1
𝑤 0 𝜋𝑉𝐶𝐶
𝐿𝑡 𝜋 2 𝐿𝑡 −
2𝐿𝑡
−8𝑅𝑙 −1
−𝑤 0 (8 − 𝜋 2 )𝑉𝐶𝐶
𝐿𝑡 𝜋 2 𝐿𝑡
𝐴𝑠𝑠 = , 𝐵𝑠𝑠 = 4𝐿𝑡
1
0 0 𝑤
𝐶𝑠 0
1
0 −𝑤 0 [ 0 ]
[ 𝐶𝑠 ]

3.2.3 Small Signal Model of CPT System

In the controller design, it is hard to use nonlinear model (large signal model) for

designing the controller because a huge number of required calculations. In other words,

linearize the large signal model is required to design the controller. To linearize the large

signal model, first we have to find out the operating point (also called equilibrium point) of

the nonlinear model, and then linearize the system around this operating point. The

equilibrium point can be obtained by setting the equation (3.17) to zero then solving the

system for the variable of the state variables. The equilibrium point of the system is

0 = 𝐴𝑋𝑒 + 𝐵𝑉𝑐𝑐 → 𝑋𝑒 = 𝐴−1 𝐵 𝑉𝑐𝑐

MATLAB code was used to calculate the equilibrium point of state vector [Ise, Ice,

Vse, Vce] and Vfe is in steady state value.

The small signal model obtained by applying Taylor formula (2.29) in Chapter 2 to

the large signal model in the previous section. The linear small signal model is set as

following

49
 𝑑𝑖̂𝑠 4𝐼𝑠𝑒 𝐼𝑐𝑒 𝑉𝑓𝑒 4𝐼𝑐𝑒 2 𝑉𝑓𝑒 1 4𝐼𝑠𝑒
𝑑𝑡 = 𝑤0 𝑖̂𝑐 + 𝜋𝐿𝑡 𝐼𝑝𝑒 3 𝑖̂𝑐 − 𝜋𝐿𝑡 𝐼𝑝𝑒 3 𝑖̂𝑠 − 𝐿𝑡 𝑣̂𝑠 − 𝜋𝐼𝑝𝑒 𝐿𝑡 𝑣̂𝑓 + 𝐼𝑐𝑒 𝑤
̂

𝑑𝑖̂𝑐 4𝐼𝑠𝑒 𝐼𝑐𝑒 𝑉𝑓𝑒 4𝐼𝑠𝑒 2 𝑉𝑓𝑒 1 4𝐼𝑐𝑒

= − 𝑤0 𝑖̂𝑠 + 3 𝑖̂𝑠 − 3 𝑖̂𝑐 − 𝐿 𝑣̂𝑠 − 𝑣̂𝑓 − 𝐼𝑠𝑒 𝑤
̂
𝑑𝑡 𝜋𝐿𝑡 𝐼𝑝𝑒 𝜋𝐿𝑡 𝐼𝑝𝑒 𝑡 𝜋𝐿 𝑡 𝐼𝑝𝑒
𝑑𝑣̂𝑠 1
𝑑𝑡 = 𝐶𝑠 𝑖̂𝑠 + 𝑤0 𝑣̂𝑐 + 𝑉𝑐𝑒 𝑤 ̂ (3.20)
𝑑𝑣̂𝑐 1
𝑑𝑡 = 𝐶𝑠 𝑖̂𝑐 − 𝑤0 𝑣̂𝑠 − 𝑉𝑠𝑒 𝑤 ̂
𝑑𝑣̂𝑓 2𝐼𝑠𝑒 2𝐼𝑐𝑒 1
= 𝑖̂ +
𝑑𝑡 𝜋𝐶𝑓 𝐼𝑝𝑒 𝑠 𝜋𝐶𝑓 𝐼𝑝𝑒 𝑖̂𝑐 − 𝑅𝑙 𝐶𝑓 𝑣̂𝑓
}

The small signal model can be created by performing the equation (3.20) as following

𝑥̂̇ = 𝐴𝑙 𝑥̂ + 𝐵𝑙 𝑢̂
} (3.21)
𝑦̂ = 𝐶𝑙 𝑥̂

where, 𝐴𝑙 , 𝐵𝑙 and 𝐶𝑙 are the state, input and output matrices, respectively and 𝑥̂ is the state

vector, 𝑢̂ is the input vector and 𝑦̂ is the output vector. They are

𝑥̂ = [𝑖̂𝑠 , 𝑖̂𝑐 , 𝑣̂𝑠 , 𝑣̂𝑐 , 𝑣̂𝑓 ]𝑡 , 𝑢̂ = 𝑤

̂, 𝑦̂ = 𝑣̂𝑓

where,

𝑥 = 𝑥̂ + 𝑋𝑒

𝑢 = 𝑢̂ + 𝑈𝑒 (3.22)

𝑦 = 𝑦̂ + 𝑌𝑒 }

Now, the state space of the linear small signal model is found out by the extracting the state

matrix, input matrix and output matrix as following

50
 4𝐼𝑐𝑒 2 𝑉𝑓𝑒 4𝐼𝑐𝑒 𝐼𝑠𝑒 𝑉𝑓𝑒 1 4𝐼𝑠𝑒
− 3 𝑤0 + 3 − 0 −
𝜋𝐿𝑡 𝐼𝑝𝑒 𝜋𝐿𝑡 𝐼𝑝𝑒 𝐿 𝜋𝐿𝑡 𝐼𝑝𝑒
4𝐼𝑐𝑒 𝐼𝑠𝑒 𝑉𝑓𝑒 4𝐼𝑠𝑒 2 𝑉𝑓𝑒 1 4𝐼𝑐𝑒
−𝑤0 + 3 − 0 − −
𝜋𝐿𝑡 𝐼𝑝𝑒 𝜋𝐿𝑡 𝐼𝑝 𝑒 3 𝐿 𝜋𝐿𝑡 𝐼𝑝𝑒
𝐴𝑙 = 1
0 0 𝑤0 0
𝐶𝑠
1
0 − 𝑤0 0 0
𝐶𝑠
2𝐼𝑠𝑒 2𝐼𝑐𝑒 −1
0 0
[ 𝜋𝐶𝑝 𝐼𝑝𝑒 𝜋𝐶𝑝 𝐼𝑝𝑒 𝑅𝑙 𝐶𝑓 ]

𝐵𝑙 = [𝐼𝑐 − 𝐼𝑠 𝑉𝑐 − 𝑉𝑠 0]𝑡

and 𝐶𝑙 = [0 0 0 0 1]

3.3 Capacitive Power Transfer System Validation

In order to confirm the validity of the design consideration, MATLAB software

application has been used to simulate capacitive power transfer system. Two approaches of

simulation have been applied to simulate the proposed CPT system. The first approach of

simulation by MATLAB Simulink based on Simelectronics package which has been used to

validate the calculated parameters of the proposed CPT system. The second simulation

approach has been done by MATLAB code to validate the mathematical model of the CPT

system. In MATLAB Simulink, the schematic of the system has been built by using

Simelectronics package of Simulink. Figure 3.4 shows schematic of the proposed capacitor

power transfer system. The values of the system parameters have been considered according

to the presented assumptions and calculations in Section 2.3.1 in the literature. The

simulation schematic is included of two load resistant connected via controlled switch to

demonstrate the variation of the output voltage while the load variation.

51
 Figure 3.4 Simulation Schematic for proposed CPT system

MATLAB code script have been used to validate the mathematical model CPT

system, which is introduced in the small signal model in equation (3.21). The code has been

created, also, based on the some calculation that had been done earlier and shown in the

literature (see section 2.3.1). Figure 3.5 displays the MATLAB script that have been used.

Figure 3.5 MATLAB window

52
 Some of MATLAB scripts have been created by using reserved MATLAB syntaxes;

Table 3.1 in the following displays brief explanations of the MATLAB syntaxes that have

been used in this work.

Table 3.1 Brief explanations of the MATLAB syntaxes

Syntax Function

CPT__tf=tf(n,d) Find out the system transfer function

poles = eig(Al) Find out the Eigen values of the state matrix (system poles)

[p,z]=pzmap(CPT_tf) Find out the poles and zeros of the CPT system

rlocus(CPT_tf) Draw the CPT system root locus

step (CPT_tf) Sketch the CPT system step response

3.4 Controller Design:

As mentioned before, the mathematical model is the basic for designing any control

systems. Any open loop system, without direct matrix, can be represented by the equation

(3.21). The block diagram of close loop system illustrated in Figure 3.5. Consider the output

signal scaled by scale (k) and returned to the input signal as shown in Figure 3.6, the input

signal will become (𝑢 − 𝑘𝑥). Thus the state of the closed loop is represented as

𝑥̇ = 𝐴𝑙 𝑥 + 𝐵𝑙 (𝑢 − 𝑘𝑥 ) (3.23)

Figure 3.6 Block diagram of close loop system

53
By normalizing the equation (3-23), we got

𝑥̇ = (𝐴𝑙 − 𝐵𝑙 𝑘 )𝑥 + 𝐵𝑢 (3.24)

The equation (3.24) shows that, the new state matrix is introduced, and the input

matrix is not changed, this will tend to introduce a new characteristic of the system. The

change, basically, occurred by the gain matrix k because the rest matrices A and B are the

same, the design was created based on the static parameters of the system. Thus, the core of

closed loop is the scaling of the gain matrix k.

The aim of this work, as mention earlier, is to design controller for CPT system to

stabilize the output voltage and deliver lossless power. Two techniques of controller have

been proposed, SF controller and LQR. Indeed, the two proposed controllers are work in

same structure, to obtain the feedback gain k. The main difference between those controllers

is in the approach of calculating the gain matrix k. Trial and error method have been

considered to select the desired poles and scale matrix for SF and LQR respectively.

3.4.1 Design of State Feedback Controller

In this section, state feedback controller have designed by using Ackerman’s method.

as a controller to tune the frequency of the proposed system in order to provide stable output

voltage whatever the load variation. This will avoid switching power losses. The concept of

state feedback controller is to change the existing poles of the system into desired location

according the root locus. Of course, changing the root location of the system, often, will

introduce changing in the state of the system. In the theory of control system time response,

in the literature, the characteristic of the system determined by characteristic of the state

matrix and the roots of the system are the Eigen values of the state matrix. Thus, the changed

54
of the characteristic of the matrix will propose new time response of the system. The

following steps outline the algorithm to design State Feedback controller

 Step 1. Get the mathematical small signal model as in equation (3.21). and find

out the state matrix, the input matrix and the output matrix.

 Step 2. Check the controllability matrix of the system 𝑀.

𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑡𝑦 (𝑀) = [𝐵𝑙 𝐴𝑙 𝐵𝑙 𝐴𝑙 2 𝐵𝑙 … … 𝐴𝑙 𝑛−1 𝐵𝑙 ] (3.25)

 Step 3. Obtain the transfer function model of the system and extract the existing

system polynomial equation (the denominator of the system transfer function).

𝑠 𝑛 + 𝑎1 𝑠 𝑛−1 + 𝑎2 𝑠 𝑛−2 … … … … . 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑠 + 𝑎𝑛 (3.26)

 Step 4. Figure out the transformation to controllable canonical form matrix

𝑇 = 𝑀∗𝑊 (3.27)

where, 𝑀 is controllability matrix of the system, and 𝑊is spatial upper triangular

square matrix it will be explained later.

 Step 5. Calculate the inverse of the transformation to controllable canonical

form matrix 𝑇.

 Step 6. Select the desired poles and extract the desired polynomial equation.

𝑠 𝑛 +∝1 𝑠 𝑛−1 +∝2 𝑠 𝑛−2 … … … … . ∝𝑛−1 𝑠 +∝𝑛 (3.28)

 Step 7. Calculate the State Feedback gain matrix

𝑘 = [(∝𝑛−1 − 𝑎𝑛−1 ) (∝𝑛−2 − 𝑎𝑛−2 ) … … … … (∝1 − 𝑎1 )] × 𝑇 −1 (3.29)

 Step 8. Verify the closed loop specification. If does not meet the desired, repeat

the steps 6 to 8.

The flow chart in Figure 3.7 summarize the method of deign SF controller.

55
 Start

Model CPT System

Check the controllability

Obtain transfer function

Obtain Transformation to controllable canonical form matrix

Select the desired poles

Calculate the State Feedback gain matrix

Verify the closed loop specification

Met Desired No
Response

Yes

END

Figure 3.7 Methodology of deign SF controller

In the following, a detailed explanation of applying the state feedback controller steps

for the proposed CPT system. First step is just bring out the system matrices. Based on the

demotion of the state matrix (5×5) we conclude that, the proposed system is fifth order

system and it involved of five poles. The second step of designing state feedback controller

is for checking the controllability matrix, M of the system. The system controllability defined

as how many variables of the state vector that can be controlled. Basically, to design state

56
feedback controller, the system must be controllable. There are two methods can be used to

check the system controllability, these methods depend on the dimensions of the

controllability matrix. The first method can be applied only with square controllability

matrix, exactly for ingle input single output (SISO) system. The system controllability can

be checked by calculating the determine of controllability matrix. Non-zero determine means

full controllable system. The second method is more general than the first method; it can be

used with either square or non-square. This method is based on the rank of the controllability

matrix. Full rank controllability matrix for full system controllability and vice versa. Since

the proposed CPT system is SISO, thus wall methods can be applied to check the system

controllability. The controllability matrix of the proposed CPT system from equation (3.25)

set as

𝑀 = [𝐵𝑙 𝐴𝑙 𝐵𝑙 𝐴𝑙 2 𝐵𝑙 𝐴𝑙 3 𝐵𝑙 𝐴𝑙 4 𝐵𝑙 ]

The third step, the denominator is represented as the existing polynomial equation, it

expressed as

𝑠 5 + 𝑎1 𝑠 4 + 𝑎2 𝑠 3 + 𝑎3 𝑠 2 + 𝑎4 𝑠 + 𝑎5

The step four, is the transformation to controllable canonical form matrix, 𝑇. This

matrix can be calculated by applying the equation (3.27). where, 𝑀 is the calculated matrix

at the previse step 3 and the spatial matrix, 𝑊is is upper triangular square matrix, it can be

extracted from the coefficients of the existing polynomial equation as follows

57
 𝑎4 𝑎3 𝑎2 𝑎1 1

𝑎3 𝑎2 𝑎1 1 0

𝑊 = 𝑎2 𝑎1 1 0 0

𝑎1 1 0 0 0

[ 1 0 0 0 0]

In the step 5, is just calculate the inverse of 𝑇 matrix. The step 6, the poles have been

selected arbitrary from the root locus of the proposed CPT system, and its location on the

root locus has significant effect on the controller gain and the system response. Further poles

to the imaginary axis provides fast response, and closer poles to the real axis provide lower

overshoot. In this work, four cases have been done for design SF controller. The desired

poles for whole cases have been selected based on the trial and error method. However, the

polynomial equation of the desired poles is important for calculating the gain matrix of the

SF controller. For the proposed CPT system the polynomial equation set as

𝑠 5 +∝1 𝑠 4 +∝2 𝑠 3 +∝3 𝑠 2 +∝4 𝑠+∝5

The gain matrix, k can be calculated by using equation (3.29) in step 7. For the

proposed system, in this work, the gain matrix of the SF controller content of (1×5)

dimensions, it set as

𝑘 = [(∝5 − 𝑎5 ) (∝4 − 𝑎4 ) (∝3 − 𝑎3 ) (∝2 − 𝑎2 ) (∝1 − 𝑎1 )] × 𝑇 −1

Final step, check the response specification of the system such rising time T r, settling

time Ts and overshoot. Since the desired poles have been selected randomly, the response

58
sometimes does not meet the wanted specifications. Thus, in this case need to repeat the

steps 6 to 8.

3.4.2 State Feedback Controller Simulation

Two approaches of simulation have been applied to simulate the designed state

feedback controller, these approaches are MATLAB code and MATLAB Simulink. In

MATLAB code approach, the script have been built according to the presented mathematical

model in equation (3.21) in the previous section (3.2.3). Then the desired poles added.

Syntax ‘place’ or ‘acker’ can be applied to obtain the desired optimal gain as following.

K = place(Al,Bl,p)

K = acker(Al,Bl,p)

where 𝐴𝑙 and 𝐵𝑙 are linear state and input matrix of the proposed system respectively,

p is the desired poles.

p=[insert the desired poles];

K = place(Al,Bl,p)

CPT_cl = ss(Al-Bl*K, Bl, Cl, Dl);

step (CPT_tf)

title('Open-Loop Step Response');

To show the output of this script, enter the new desired poles and run this this script

in the editor window. The script output is the gain matrix of the SF controller based on the

59
new inserted poles and the step response of the closed loop system with state feedback

controller.

Simulation of the SF controller based Simulink tool is presented in the following. SF

controller structure is illustrated in Figure 3.8. It has been created based on the blocks of

state space model. The linear mathematical have been inserted to introduce the plant CPT

system. The output signal has been taken and multiplied to the SF gain matrix k and then

subtracted from the reference. The system has been subjected to unit step signal to test the

system response. The other unit step was subjected to the output of the system as a

disturbance.

Figure 3.8 State feedback simulation structure

3.4.3 Design of Linear Quadratic Regulator Controller

Linear Quadratic Regulator Controller (LQR), as mentioned before, has same

concept of state feedback controller. The main difference between LQR and state feedback

is the approach of calculating the gain matrix. The poles in LQR are selected by optimization

60
function. The LQR idea is to minimize the quadratic cost function to find the controller gain

matrix, k, where u = - k x.

∞
𝐽 = ∫ 𝑥 (𝑡)𝑇 𝑄𝑥(𝑡) + 𝑢(𝑡)𝑇 𝑅𝑢 (𝑡)𝑑𝑡 (3.30)
0

where Q and R are weighting parameters to scale the state and control input vectors

respectively. Q is scale related to the performance of the system it is positive semi-definite

weighting square matrix, while R is scale related to the energy and it is positive definite

weighting square matrix. The dimensions of the scaling matrix related to the dimensions of

the input and state vectors. In this work, the weighting parameters of the scaling matrix have

been chosen arbitrary based on trial and error method. Four cases of the scaling matrix have

been done for desiging the LQR controller according to the most significant of the state

variable, after that, the best case have been selected in trms of provide the lowes settling time

and lowest overshoot in the time response spacification. The tradeoff between the scaling

matrices is very important to provide a good designed system.

The cost function has a unique minimum solution that can be obtained by solving the

Algebraic Riccati Equation (ARE), which set as following

𝑃𝐴𝑙 + 𝐴𝑙 𝑇 𝑃 + 𝑄 − 𝑃𝐵𝑙 𝑅−1 𝐵𝑙 𝑇 𝑃 = 0 (3.31)

The solution of Algebraic Riccati Equation (P) is required to calculate the optimal

gain matrix (k). The optimal gain matrix can be calculated by

𝑘 = −𝑅−1 𝐵𝑙 𝑇 𝑃 (3.32)

The procedures of designing control system by LQR technique are:

61
 1. Find out stat and input matrices 𝐴𝑙 , 𝐵𝑙 from the small signal model in

equation (3.21).

2. Select matrices Q and R parameters.

3. Solve Algebraic Riccati Equation (ARE) based on selected Q and R matrices

to find out the value of P.

4. Use equation (3.32) to find the optimal gain value for the feedback.

5. Check the response specifications and repeat steps 2 to 5 if do not meet the

desired.

The dimensions of the scaling matrices Q and R are determined according to the

dimensions of the state vector and input victor of the system respectively. Hence, the Q

matrix for the proposed CPT system is (5×5) and R is single element matrix. In general, the

Q matrix is shaped as a diagonal matrix to identify which variable of the state vector has

given more significant. In this work, since the we have five state variable, the Q matrix

obtained as

𝑎11 0 0 0 0

0 𝑎22 0 0 0

𝑄= 0 0 𝑎33 0 0

0 0 0 𝑎44 0

[ 0 0 0 0 𝑎55 ]

The elements of the sacling matrices in this work have been selected according to the

trial and error method with take of some of rules such the elemnts which related to the state

varible that wanted to be controlled is given most significant. A summarize of design LQR

controller method is displayed in flow chart on Figure3.9.

62
 Start

Design LQR control

Select Q, R matrices

Calculate the LQR gain matrix

Verify the closed loop specification

Met Desired No
Response

Yes

END

Figure 3.9 Design LQR controller methodology

3.4.4 Linear Quadratic Regulator Controller Simulation

Again, MATLAB Code and Simulink package have been used to simulate the

designed Linear Quadratic Regulator (LQR) controller. Referring the mathematical model

parameters that already have been presented in section (3.2.3), MATLAB syntax ‘[k, S, P]

= lqr (Al, Bl, Q, R)’ has been created to find out the flowing parameters: optimal gain matrix,

Algebraic Riccati Equation solution and find out the poles of closed the loop system. The

founded data applied onto the state space bloke of the closed loop system, which illustrated

in LQR structure Figure 3.10.

63
 Figure 3.10 Structure of Linear Quadratic Regulator simulation

Linear Quadratic Regulator also have been simulated by MALAB coding. MATLAB

script based on syntax ‘[K,P,E] = lqr(Al,Bl,Q,R)’. This syntax have been used to found

out the LQR gain matrix, P matrix, which is solution of Algebraic Riccati Equation (ARE),

and the poles of the LQR controller.

3.5 Comparison between SF Controller and LQR Controller

In the last part of methodology, a comparison between the time response

specifications of the two designed controllers will be introduced to fulfillment of the

presented work's objectives. Some of parameters have been considered to select the best

controller such as settling time, rising time and overshoot; the definitions of these parameters

are presented in Section 2.5 in the literature. Surely, the best controller is that provide fast

response and low overshoot. In other words, the controller which provide the lowest settling

time, rising time and overshoot will be selected as better controller. For more realistic, some

of controllers provide fast response but with increase of the overshoot, in this case the

compromise is required to select the best controller. For make sure of the robustness of the

64
controllers, both of the system have been subjected with disturbance as the load variation.

Then, the time response of the controllers have been compared to see which one of the

controllers maintain the output voltage stable and provide the lowest steady state error.

3.6 Summary

This chapter presented a detailed explanation of methodology how to design a

controller for CPT system. The design stared with derive the mathematical model of the

system. Based on the derived model, two controller SF and LQR have been designed. Trial

and error method have been considered to select the arbitrary desired poles of SF controller

and the scale matrix of the LQR have been selected. MATLAB application based on two

approaches of simulation have been used to validate the design consideration. Based on some

of considered parameters (rising time, settling time and overshoot) a comparison between

the designed controller will be established to select the best controller.

65
 RESULTS AND ANALYSIS

4.1 Introduction

The purpose of this work is to design a capacitive power transfer system controller

with characteristic to regulate the output at real time. These characteristic are fast response,

low over shoot and minimum steady state error. This chapter presents analysis of the

proposed capacitive power transfer system and the two designed controllers based on some

desired system response characteristics. This chapter organized in four sections. The first

presented a general introduction for analysis. The second section introduce analysis and

calculations for the parameters of the proposed capacitive power transfer in open loop case.

The third section discuss on analysis of the response of the close loop system include state

feedback controller with different selected poles and LQR response with several created

scale matrices. The last section, compare between the two controllers regarding to time

response characteristic.

4.2 Analysis of Capacitive Power Transfer System

This section discusses and investigate the parameters of the proposed CPT system by

referring to the assumptions and analysis that have been done in the literature, section 2.3.1.

Figure 4.1. shows the proposed CPT system scheme.

The system consists of two main parts. The first part is Class E inverter with L-C

series-resonant tank, which is used to provide a signal with high frequency. The second part

is full wave rectifier, which can be used for some applications such as battery charger. The

value of chock inductor, which connected to the DC source, should be large enough to grant

66
very low current ripple it can be neglected for analysis simplification. The minimum value

of choke inductor, 𝐿𝑐ℎ𝑜𝑘𝑒 can be calculated as

𝜋2 𝑅𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝐿𝑐ℎ𝑜𝑘𝑒(𝑚𝑖𝑛) = 2 ( + 1) = 112.48 𝑢𝐻 (4.1)
4 𝑓

Figure 4.1 Scheme of CPT system

The system parameters have been calculated, as mention before, based on some

assumptions and according to analysis of class E power amplifier in literature. Quality factor

is the bandwidth of series circuit current at resonance. The assumed parameters are listed in

Table 4.1.

Table 4.1 Proposed capacitive Power Transfer System parameters

Vcc R load Cf Switching frequency Quality factor, Q

24 v 40 Ω 20 uF 2MHz 20

According to [63], the equivalent resistance of the full wave rectifier ‘Re‘ be

calculated by

67
 8
𝑅𝑒 = 𝑅 = 32.42 Ω (4.2)
𝜋2 𝑙

The power on the load calculated based on the equivalent resistance and voltage source

8𝑉𝐶𝐶 2
𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = = 10.3 𝑤 (4.3)
(𝜋 2 + 4)𝑅𝑒

The shunt capacitor, Cp set as

𝑃0
𝐶𝑝 = = 453 𝑝𝐹 (4.5)
𝜋𝑤𝑉𝑐𝑐 2

The parameters of resonate circuit, Lt and the equivalent capacitor, Cs have been

derived base on the quality factor of LC circuit. The switching frequency should be little bit

greater than the operating frequency of the resonate, the L-C – series resonant circuit

represents an inductive load at the operating frequency, f. Thus, the inductance, Lt can be

divided into two inductances, Lext and Lres, connected in series and Lres resonates with Cs at

the operating frequency, that is,

1.153 𝑅𝑒
𝐿𝑒𝑥𝑡 = = 2.97 𝑢𝐻 (4.6)
𝑤

1
𝐿𝑟𝑒𝑠 = = 51.6 𝑢𝐻 (4.7)
𝑤𝑄𝑅𝑒

𝐿𝑡 = 𝐿𝑒𝑥𝑡 + 𝐿𝑟𝑒𝑠 = 54.57 (4.8)

1
𝐶𝑠 = = 122.72 𝑝𝐹 (4.9)
𝑤𝑄𝑅𝑒

68
 𝐶𝑠1 = 𝐶𝑠2 = 245.44 𝑝𝐹 (4.10)

4.3 Capacitive Power Transfer System Simulation

In order to confirm the validity of the proposed capacitor power transfer system

design consideration the system have been simulated. MATLAB, based on two types of

simulation methods (Simelectronics package of Simulink and coding) have been used to

implement the proposed capacitor power transfer system. Figure 4.2 shows simulation

schematic of proposed CPT system. The system component values created from the

calculation that have been done in Section 4.2. There are two resistance connected via

controlled switch to demonstrate unstabilised output voltage while the load variation.

Figure 4.2 The proposed CPT simulation scheme

When the MATLAB simulation have been run, the output voltage started from zero

and continue increasing with undershoot response. The output voltage reached to steady state

at 2ms, and measured output was equal to 18.2 V with R load equal to 40 ohm. Since the

controlled switch had been sit to be close after 15 ms. Thus of the load changed to 45 ohm

and also the output voltage varied to 19 V according to the load variation. Figure 4.3 displays

the output voltage of the simulated system.

69
 Figure 4.3 Output voltage simulation of the proposed CPT system

Several cases have been done with different load values to investigate the unstable

output voltage according to load variation. MATLAB code, also, have been used to validate

the mathematical model which have been presented by equation (3.22) in Section 3.2.3. The

code have been built based on the four matrices 𝐴𝑙 , 𝐵𝑙 , 𝐶𝑙 and D and MATLAB syntaxes,

which have been represented in, table 3.1 in Chapter 3. This MATLAB code calculated the

parameters of the mathematical model and according to the calculated CPT system

component. The provided outputs of applying this MATLAB code are:

Numerical small signal model set as

−4.92 ∗ 105 1.23 ∗ 107 − 1.83 ∗ 104 0 − 9.64 ∗ 103

−1.28 ∗ 107 − 1.02 ∗ 105 0 − 1.83 ∗ 104 2.12 ∗ 104

8.15 ∗ 109 0 0 1.26 ∗ 107 0

𝐴𝑙 =
0 8.15 ∗ 109 − 1.23 ∗ 107 0 0

1.31 ∗ 104 − 2.9 ∗ 104 0 0 − 1.25 ∗ 103

[ ]

70
 𝐵𝑙 = [ 3.26 ∗ 105 1.48 ∗ 105 9.6 ∗ 107 − 2.11 ∗ 108 0 ]𝑡

𝐶𝑙 = [ 0 0 0 0 1]

Transfer function of the open loop CPT system shown as

𝐺 (𝑠 ) =

7.792 ∗ 1015 𝑠 2 − 8.049 ∗ 1022 𝑠 + 2.394 ∗ 1030

𝑠 5 + 5.954 ∗ 105 𝑠 4 + 6.145 ∗ 1014 𝑠 3 + 1.833 ∗ 1020 𝑠 2 + 7.423 ∗ 1025 𝑠 + 1.619 ∗ 1029

It is clear that, the denominator of transfer function model is five order polynomial

while the nominator is second order polynomial; hence, the proposed system be made of two

zeros and five poles. The denominator of the transfer function motel also demonstrate the

polynomial characteristic equation of the existing poles.

Science the numerator of the transfer function model is second order polynomial,

thus the system included two zeros. They zeros set as

Z1= 5.164631475684922e+06 + 1.675006343430007e+07i

Z2= 5.164631475684922e+06 - 1.675006343430007e+07i

Both of two conjugate zeroes are located in the right side of the imaginary axis. Zeros

in right half plan does not cause the system un-stable, it does cause the system to be Non-

Minimum-Phase (NMP) system. These zeros will affect to the root locus, the poles move to

the right half plan if there are zeros. This will be disuse in the next section.

According to the denominator order, the proposed CPT system poles set as

71
 P1 = -1.485161288843371e+05 + 2.478398763944124e+07i

P2 = -1.485161288843371e+05 - 2.478398763944124e+07i

P3 = -1.480875894101151e+05 + 3.134762880901488e+05i

P4 = -1.480875894101151e+05 - 3.134762880901488e+05i

P5 = -2.192806503415129e+03

Obviously, the poles P1, P2, P3 and P4 are complex numbers, while P5 is real number.

However, the important thing is that, all poles consist of negative real part. In other words,

all poles are located on the left side of imaginary axis on s domain as shown in Figure 4.4.

Thus, the proposed CPT system is stable. Knowing the root locus is important to design state

feedback controller, it shows the place of the poles that can be located when designing the

closed loop system.

Figure 4.4 Poles of open loop CPT system

72
 Before start to analysis the response of open loop system, here some notes for analysis.

i. Poles and zeros cancelation occur when pair of poles and zeros located closely.

ii. Poles located close to the origin have effect to the system characteristic more

than the poles, which located very far.

iii. Move poles far from origin provide high gain and Fast response a well.

iv. Higher order system may be reduced to lower order ‘system reduction’, but the

results are approximated. This helpful for analysis of high order systems. This

happened because the poles, which have a very small residue, contribute little

on the transient response and consistently may be neglected.

Now, we back to the open loop analysis of the original proposed CPT system. As

shown in Figure 4.5, there is major similarity of response specification to the output

simulation in Figure 4.3. This similarity validates that, the small signal model, which have

been introduced in Section 3.2.3, can be used to represent the proposed CPT system. The

transient response specifications is important in designing the controller later.

Figure 4.5 Step response of open loop CPT system

73
 The graph shows the settling time of the system is 1.79ms, the system arrive at steady

state with no error. The rising time of the system is 1.0 ms. Table 4.2 shows summary of the

performance characteristics for the open loop system.

Table 4.2 Performance characteristics for the open loop CPT system

Time response specifications Open loop system

Settling Time Ts 1.79 ms

Rising Time Tr 1.0 ms

Overshoot % 0%

It is clear that, that transient response of the system is over damping, this refer to the

poles of the system. All five poles are located left to the imaginary axes, Figure 4.4, the

closest pole to the imaginary axes is 2.19*10^3, this pole is the dominant pole of the system.

It only consist of real number. Thus the damping ratio of the transient approximately zero,

the rest poles have low contribution on the system response.

4.4 Controller Analysis

Feedback is the property of a closed-loop system, which allows the output to be

compared with the input to the system such that the appropriate control action maybe formed

as some function of the input and output. This part provide a discussion about analysis of

closed loop system. Two types of control systems have been designed as one of the

objectives of this work. The goal of designing the controller is to improve transient response

of the system in terms of rising time, settling time, delay time and overshoots.

The control design has been done with several cases of the desired pole of state

feedback controller and the scale matrices for linear quadratic regulator controller. The

selection of poles and matrices have been done arbitrary and with refer to the rules and

74
assumptions of design control system. The conventional method ‘trial and error’ have been

applied to select the desired poles and scale matrices. Trial and error is approach to solve

problems based on repeat varied attempts until meet the desired solution. The analysis of

both CPT control systems, SF and LQR system, have been presented to prove which one of

them is robustness and achieve the objectives such as fast response and minimizing steady

state error.

4.4.1 Analysis of State Feedback Controller

The main idea of design state feedback controller is how to select the correct place

of the desired poles for the closed loop system. The location of the poles shape the system

transaction response. On other hand, selecting the wrong poles may lead to introduce

unstable system. Although, zeros does not effect to the stability of the open loop system but

it may have effect on the stability of the closed loop system. The poles are moved to the right

half plan if there are zeros are located there. Figure 4.6 shows root locus of the proposed

CPT system, the graph shows five poles and two zeros. In this part, four cases with different

desired poles have been applied to investigate the effective of poles location on the transient

response. In the controller design, we always look for the best poles that provide fast

response with low over shoot.

Figure 4.6 Root locus for open loop system

75
 Case 1: the desired poles have been selected arbitrary. They are characterized as

P={-1.15e+05+3.03e+05i -1.15e+05-3.03e+05i -9.23e+04+3.02e+05i -9.23e+04-

3.02e+05i -100.08e+03}.

The gain matrix of this desired poled according to MATLAB simulation set as

𝑘 = [2.33e + 08 8.2e + 08 − 1.24487e + 06 3.71e + 05 − 5.33e + 05]

The step response for this case is shown in Figure 4.7. We can see that, the transaction

response has been significantly improved. The controller provided a fast response with some

low over shoot compared to the open loop system. The settling time of this case is 53.1 us.

The appearance of overshoot on the transient response is owing to the changing the location

of the dominant pole in the original system. In this case, the dominant pole have been located

far from the imaginary axis. In other words, the rest poles of the original system become

closer to the imaginary axis. Therefore, it provide a significant effect to the system response.

Summary of the performance characteristics for Cas1 is outlined in the Table 4.3 at the end

of this Section.

Figure 4.7 Pole placement Case 1.

76
 Case 2: As mention in the notes of analysis in the beginning of this section, move

poles far from origin provide high gain and short time delay. In this case, the poles have been

located more far away from the origin. They characterized as

P={-1.1e+05+2.48e+07i -1.1e+05-2.48e+07i -1.2e+05+3.06e+05i -1.2e+05-

3.06e+05i -9.e+6}

Since the dominant pole in this case have been located more far away from the origin,

high gain have been presented and the system response becomes faster compared to Case 1;

meanwhile, the overshoot have been increased to 29.1% as Figure 4.8 shows. The reason of

increasing the over shoot is owing to that, the rest conjugate poles becomes closest to origin;

in other words, they became dominant poles. The increasing of the overshoot response in the

design is undesired; it will damage the system in some cases. From Case 2, we can conclude

that, the system response is improved as long as the poles located far from the origin, gain

also is improved. On the other hand, the over shoot increased this will cause some risks.

Thus, the trade of between reduce the delay time and minimize overshoot should be

considered in design controllers.

Figure 4.8 Pole placement Case 2.

77
 Case 3: In order to compromise between delay time and overshot response, the poles

must be selected in optimize location. In this case, the dominant desired pole has been

located between the positions of the dominant poles in the previous cases. The poles have

been characterized as

P={-1.1e+05+2.48e+07i -1.1e+05-2.48e+07i -1.2e+05+3.06e+05i -1.2e+05-

3.06e+05i -20e+4}

Based on MATLAB simulation, these desired poles provided gain matrix as

following

𝑘 = [−2.78𝑒 + 06 − 3.13𝑒 + 05 3.88𝑒 + 02 − 4.48𝑒 + 03 2.46𝑒 + 06]

The step response for this case is shown in Figure 4.9. We can see that, the transaction

response have been significantly improved. The controller provided a faster response

compared to Case 1 and lower over shoot compared to Case 2. The settling time and

overshoot of this case are 28.5 us and 5.65 % respectively. Thus we can say that, Case 3 is

the best case comparing to Case 1 and Case 2.

Figure 4.9 Pole placement Case 3

78
 Case 4: in this case, the dominant pole of the original system has been remained
close to its original location and only the two pars of conjugate poles have been changed.
They set as

P={-5.9e+04+2.49e+07i -5.9e+04-2.49e+07i -2.01e+04+3.3e+05i -2.01e+04-

3.3e+05i -9.e+3}.

Figure 4.10. illustrates the time specification for Case 4. Although, the conjugate

poles of the original system have been changed, but the provided gain was weak and the

transient response is not different to the original system. This because the dominant pole

which has strong effect to the system is located in same place in both designs. The gain

matrix of this case is based on MATLAB simulation is

𝑘 = [-8.33e+06 -6.07e+06 8.99e+03 -1.21e+04 1.06e+05]

Figure 4.10 Pole placement Case 4

The time transaction response for the proposed CPT system under consideration is
given in Table 4.3. Case 4 is the worst case. Case 2 and Case 3 are almost satisfy. Case 3 is
the best case in terms of settling time; meanwhile Case 2 is the best one in terms of rising
time. Although, Case 2 is the best case in terms of rising time, but it is over damping.

79
Thus, we can say that, Case 3 is the best case in this design. This case will be taken to
compare with the controller in the next section.

Table 4.3 Summary the performance characteristics for all SF cases

Time response
Case 1 Case 2 Case 3 Case 4
specifications

Settling Time Ts 53.1us 33us 28.7us 0.435ms

Rise Time Tr 9.43us 4.3us 7.51us 0.425ms

Over shoot % 1.63% 29.1% 5.65% 0

4.4.2 Analysis of Linear Quadratic Regulator

As mentioned before, the State Feedback controller and Linear Quadratic Regulator

controller are same in concept; the difference between them is the method to find out the

controller gain matrix. Linear quadratic regulator method depends on the cost function to

calculate the gain matrix. In another sense, the poles in LQR are selected based on the cost

function by selecting the optimal solution of the Algebraic Riccati Equation (ARE).

However, the scale matrices Q and R are considered the most important parameters to

calculate the optimal solution of ARE. Therefore, we shall focus on how to select the scale

matrices of the cost function for analysis of LQR. Basically, the scale matrix, Q, is used to

scale the state vector parameters while the scale matrix, R, is used to scale the input vector.

According to the state vector dimensions of the proposed CPT system, Q matrix will

be square matrix (5×5); it is normally selected to be diagonal matrix to identify which

variable of the state vector has given more significant, while R matrix will be a single

element matrix for single input. For analysis, in this section, different values for the Q and

R have been created to find the ARE optimal solution and calculate the LQR gain matrix.

80
At the last, a comparison between the designed LQR controllers have been presented in terms

of time response specification to validate which design is the best for the proposed CPT

system

Case 1: In this case, all stat vector variables and input vector have been introduced

with similar significant. Q matrix have been set as identity diagonal matrix and R also have

been presented with unique identity matrix as following

1 0 0 0 0

0 1 0 0 0

𝑄= 0 0 1 0 0 𝑅=1

0 0 0 1 0

[0 0 0 0 1]

The system in this case will be regulator, u=-kx. All the state variables will go to zero

by the value of gain matrix, k. the gain matrix for this scale matrices have found by using

MATLAB syntax.

[K,P,E] = lqr(Al,Bl,Q,R)

The elements of gain matrix is set as

k = [ 1.29e+02 -4.39e+02 1.67e-01 -1.13 -1.38e+01 ]

The system time response is illustrated in Figure 4.9. There is no noticeable change

in transient response of this design comparing to the response of open loop system.

81
 Figure 4.11 LQR response Case 1

To analyze the system specification, the poles of the LQR have been extracted. They

set as

P1 = -2.322704193499966e+08 + 0.000000000000000e+00i

P2 = -3.735766771723004e+05 + 2.495979161313306e+07i

P3 = -3.735766771723004e+05 - 2.495979161313306e+07i

P4 = -3.453176652928300e+05 + 0.000000000000000e+00i

P5 = -1.662484076245352e+03 + 0.000000000000000e+00i

There are three poles consist of only real part, and the rest two poles are conjugate.

P5 The dominant pole in this design, it is the closest to the origin. It also located near to the

dominant pole of the original system. Hence, the system response is under damping and

82
weak gain have been provided. The details of the transient response will be summarize in

Table 4.4 at the end of this section.

Case 2: In this case, the state variable, which related to the output ‘vf’ have been

given the most significant. The scale matrices Q and R matrices are set as

0.001 0 0 0 0

0 0.001 0 0 0

𝑄= 0 0 0.001 0 0 𝑅=1

0 0 0 0.001 0

[0 0 0 0 1]

As apparently in Figure 4.12, there is noteworthy improvement have been occurred

in the system response comparing to the previous case. The system provided 0.667 us rise

time and 0.123 ms settling time. As a general overview of the system poles which are listed

in the following

-1.485161289417096e+05 + 2.478398763944174e+07i

-1.485161289417096e+05 - 2.478398763944174e+07i

-1.483288569318416e+05 + 3.144181751366038e+05i

-1.483288569318416e+05 - 3.144181751366038e+05i

-3.232009307094435e+04 + 0.000000000000000e+00i

The last pole, in the list, is located the closet pole to the origin. It can be named the

dominant pole of the system. It consist only real part number. Thus, there is no overshoot

83
appear on the specification response. Furthermore, since this pole have been located far to

the origin comparing to the dominant pole in the original system; the gain have been

provided. The gain matrix of this case set as

k=[ 5.66e-02 -1.83e-02 -2.68e-05 -8.26e-05 9.29e-01]

Figure 4.12 LQR response Case 2

Case 3: In this case, the vector vf which is related to the output have been scaled with

more significant. The scale matrices have been set as

0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0

𝑄= 0 0 0 0 0 𝑅=1

0 0 0 0 0

[ 0 0 0 0 80 ]

The time response get more faster comparing to the previous cases, meanwhile the

response have attached with over damping, Figure 4.13. This explained by the poles of the

close loop system

84
 -1.485161334740806e+05 + 2.478398763948136e+07i

-1.485161334740806e+05 - 2.478398763948136e+07i

-1.663199840622945e+05 + 3.589051743917458e+05i

-1.663199840622945e+05 - 3.589051743917458e+05i

-2.227803531542967e+05 + 0.000000000000000e+00i

It is clear that all the poles are approximately located on vertical line, this means all

poles have same dominant grade. Thus, they will effect to the time response of the close loop

system. The system get faster response comparing to past cases. The matrix gain of this case

is

k=[ 0.525 -0.262 -3.89e-04 -7.67e-04 8.82]

Figure 4.13 LQR response Case 3

Case 4: In this case, we shall set the parameters in Case 3 with change R to 10. The

time response of the system retreated. While the energy was improved. This bake to the

85
increase of matrix R, which related to energy. The lasted increase of R will improve the

energy at the expense of the system performance. Poles of closed loop in this case are set as

-1.485161294580563e+05 + 2.478398763944627e+07i

-1.485161294580563e+05 - 2.478398763944627e+07i

-1.505910590465012e+05 + 3.221258917867229e+05i

-1.505910590465012e+05 - 3.221258917867229e+05i

-9.749234139812722e+04 + 0.000000000000000e+00i

Increase of R matrix moved the last pole to be closet pole to origin and became

dominant pole. Therefore, the time response appeared as under damping, Figure 4.14 cause

this pole is only real number.

Figure 4.14 LQR response Case 4

Summarize of the performance characteristics for all cases of Linear Quadratic

Regulator (LQR) controller, that have been designed in this section, is shown in Table 4.4.

86
The best controller must achieve three specifications as possible, low rising time, low settling

time and minimum over-shoot. Case 1 is the worst in terms of settling time and rising time,

so it will be ignored in this comparison. Fast response is important for design CPT control

system. The faster system response means more stabilize output. Case 3 achieved the best

time response; this case can be considered as the best case in this work. In terms of overshoot,

although Case 3 involved, but it still acceptable, it is only 2.59 %.

Table 4.4 Summary of the performance characteristics for LQR cases

Time response
Case 1 Case 2 Case 3 Case 4
specifications

Settling time Ts 2.36ms 0.123ms 23.4 us 42us

Rising Time Tr 1.32ms 66.7us 7.1 us 21us

Overshoot % 0% 0% 1.34% 0%

4.5 Comparison between State Feedback and Linear Quadratic Regulator

In this work both full-state feedback and Linear Quadratic Regulator controller

methods have been presented for the proposed Capacitor Power Transfer system. The State

Feedback controller have been designed based on pole placement approach and the Linear

Quadratic Regulator have been designed based on minimise solution of Algebraic Riccati

Equation. This section presents a comparison between the proposed open loop system and

both designed controllers. Furthermore, comparison with previous study which is presented

in Section 2.6 of the literature. The comparison has been formed based on the time response

specifications of the best cases of controllers. According to analysis of the controller that

have been done in section 4.4, Case 3 in Section 4.4.1 and Case 3 in Section 4.4.2 are the

best cases. Thus, these two cases have been considered in the comparison. Summary of time

response for the whole CPT, SF and LQR have been outlined in Table 4.5. Referring to Table

87
4.5, both of designed controllers provided satisfied time response specification comparing

to the open loop CPT system. SF controller reduced the settling time from 1.79 ms to 28.5us

also LQR reduced the settling time to 23.4us. Figure 4.15 displays a simulation of the time

response for both designed SF and LQR controller. As apparently in this figure, the LQR

controller provided fast response compared to SF controller. In addition, LQR controller

introduced a smooth overshoot response better than SF controller did. The figure of

simulation also prove the robustness of both controller when the system subjected to a

disturbance. It can be seen that, when occurred two disturbances in the form of the CPT

output at time 0.06 ms and 0.12 ms, over-shoot have been produced by the CPT system

output. Both controllers maintained the CPT output to the reference, but LQR controller was

faster to return to the reference than SF controller. LQR took 0.019 ms to return to the

reference, while SF took 0.025 ms.

Figure 4.15 Time response for SF and LQR with disturbance

Table 4.5 Summary of the performance characteristics for SF and LQR controller

Parameter Original system SF LQR

Settling time Ts 1.79ms 28.5 us 23.4 us

Rising Time Tr 1.0 ms 7.51 us 7.1 us

Overshoot % 0% 5.65 % 1.34 %

88
 Comparing to the previous case study “ LQG Control of Capacitive Power Transfer

System “[62], which have been discussed in the last section of the literature, both designed

controller, SF and LQR, of this work introduced faster response than the previous study, but

with damping ratio, as shown in the time response in Figure 4.15 and 2.16. Summarize of

time response specifications for this current work and the previous study is shown in Table

4.6.

Table 4.6 Summary of the performance characteristics for current and previous study

Parameter Controller Settling time Ts Rising Time Tr Overshoot %

SF 28.5 us 7.51 us 5.65%
Current work
LQR 23.4 us 7.1 us 1.34%
Previous study LQR 0.3 ms 0.19 ms 0%

4.6 Summary

In this chapter, analysis and discussion for designing CPT system, SF controller and

LQR controller have been presented and the found result have been compared. The analysis

started with derivation of the numerical model of CPT system. After that, four cases for

designing SF and LQR have been introduced. The comparison have been done based on the

time response specifications. The result showed that, both SF and LQR controllers provided

satisfied time response characteristic for CPT system. Nevertheless, LQR controller

provided better characteristic response than SF controller.

89
 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMEDATION

5.1 Conclusion

In the recent era, modern technology research compete to introduce solutions to make

human life easy and safely. One of this modern research is transfer the power without

physical connection; this strategy well known as Wireless Power Transfer (WPT). WPT

became attached with many application such as electrical vehicles and some medical

equipment. Two famous approaches have been used to create WPT system, Inductor Power

Transfer (IPT) and Capacitive Power Transfer (CPT). However, the purpose of this work is

to design control system for capacitive power transfer system as a solution to grant the output

voltage stabilization regardless of load variation. The structure of the proposed CPT system

of this work was created based on series resonate converters (SRC), which is a powerful

circuit to introduce high switching frequency with high efficiency, but, on other hand, the

sensitivity of SRC to parameter variations leads to failure to meet Zero Voltage Switching

(ZVS) condition.

The proposed CPT system has been analysed and then modelled according to

Generalized State Space Average (GSSA) method. After that, the large signal model and

small signal model have been derived. The simulation result showed major similarity to the

output of simulation by using the calculated elements of CPT system, this similarity

validated that, GSSA approach is successfully represented the proposed CPT system.

According to the established small signal model, State Feedback (SF) controller and

Linear Quadratic Regulator (LQR) controller have been designed. SF was designed based

90
on pole placement method while LQR controller was designed based on minimize cost

function methods. The poles of state feedback controller were chosen arbitrary according to

the root locus of the open loop system. Then the controller gain matrix, k have been

calculated. The scale matrices Q and R also were selected arbitrary based on the large scale

element for the state variable, which related to output. Based on these scale matrices, the

Algebraic Riccati Equation (ARE) has been solved to create the linear quadratic controller

gain matrix of the LQR controller. Four cases were applied for each of both controllers to

present the best controller, which meet the best time response characteristic such as fast

rising time, settling time and low overshoot. The results showed that, both of state feedback

controller and linear quadratic regulator controller provided satisfactory transient response.

Indeed, linear quadratic regulator controller provided better response to stabilize a capacitor

power transfer system rather than state feedback controller. The best proposed LQR

controller improved settling time from1.79ms to 22.7us while state feedback present 28.5us

as settling time. The overshoot response of the SF controller was higher than LQR’s

overshoot; it was 5.65 percentage. The proposed CPT system has been subjected to

disturbance to make sure of its rubustness. The results showed that both of SF and LQR

designed controllers maintained the output voltage with zero stedy state error, but the LQR

controller provided better response rather than SF controller.

5.2 Recommendation for Future Work

As recommendations, this work done only with investigated of the load variation as

controller disturbance; another parameter ‘coupling capacitor’ in capacitive power transfer

system can variate, this will consider controller disturbance as well for future research.

Coupling capacitor variation can be modelled by the plate’s misalignment, alteration of the

distance between plates, and/or both. The gain matrix of linear quadratic regulator controller

have been calculated based on minimizes solution of Algebra Riccati Equation. Lyapunov
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equation also can used to show the system stability. Method of select desired pole for SF

and scale matrix ‘Q and R’ for LQR based on optimization tools such as genetic algorithm

and particle swarm optimization, will provide a good result for time response rather than

arbitrary selection.

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