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State Feedback Controller Design for Capacitive Power Transfer System

Conference Paper · July 2021

DOI: 10.1109/ICOTEN52080.2021.9493568

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 978-1-6654-1224-7/21/$31.00 ©2021 IEEE
State Feedback Controller Design for Capacitive
Power Transfer System
Yaser Awadh
Department of Electronic and Control
Seiyun Community Collage
Hadhramout, Yemen
Yasser.awad480@gmail.com
Abstract— Wireless Power Transfer (WPT) has become an
advantageous and commercially viable technology in recent
years, concurrently with the prevalence of electric vehicles and
smartphones. Capacitive Power Transfer (CPT) is one of the
latest techniques in WPT. It has an uncomplicated structure and
is safer compared to other WPTs. Nonetheless, the major issue
of the CPT system is that its efficiency significantly decreases
when there is variation in load. In this paper, a state-feedback
(SF) controller model which is able to maintain the output
voltage was described. Hence, the overall efficiency of the system
was retained even with load variations. A mathematical model
of the CPT system was developed using Generalized State Space
Averaging (GSSA) method. The proposed SF controllers were
designed based on Linear Quadratic Regulator (LQR) and pole
placement method. MATLAB was used to validate and simulate
two SF controllers with the CPT system. The obtained results
showed that the SF controllers model improved the system
response's speed and provided a satisfactory response in
maintaining the output voltage.
Keywords— WPT, CPT, Class E inverter, GSSA, State
feedback controller
I. INTRODUCTION
In the midst of the technological competition, researchers
are seeking to present works in areas of increasing the comfort
and safety of human life. One of these areas is the wireless
power transfer (WPT). WPT offers attractive advantages over
physical connection, i.e., convenience, safety, and ease [1].
Indeed, the WPT technology is not a result of spur of the
moment, rather the idea was developed by Heinrich Hertz in
1888 [2]. Over the last few years, WPT has been widely
applied to many applications such as smartphones chargers [4]
[5], electrical vehicles battery charger (EV) [6] [7] [8], and
biomedical devices [9]. In the context of biomedical device
application for example, WPT is used to transmit energy
through the skin to supply to an applied pump [3]. This
generally provides better flexibility to the patient.
WPT can be classified into two methods, Inductive Power
Transfer (IPT), which is based on the electromagnetic field,
and Capacitive Power Transfer (CPT), which is based on
electric fields [10]. The CPT method provides several
advantages over IPT such as uncomplicated structure and
increased safety [10]. The CPT system mainly consists of
three parts: primary side, coupling capacitors (Cs1, Cs2), and
the secondary side. The distance between the coupling
capacitors is determined based on the compensation
978-1-6654-1224-7/21/$31.00 ©2021 IEEE
Shakir Saat
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering
Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka, Malaysia
Melaka, Malaysia
shakir@utem.edu.my
topologies of both sides [4] [11]. A simplified block diagram
of the CPT system is shown in “Fig. 1”.
This paper describes a CPT system based on a Class E
inverter (Series Resonant Converters (SRC)) which offers
increased sensitivity to parameters variation [12]. Class E
inverter is mainly used to establish high-frequency switching
and high-power efficiency capabilities[13]. The variation of
the circuit parameters, such as the load, makes it necessary to
also tune the switching frequency to maintain the output
voltage of the system. Therefore, it is important to present a
method that can modify the switching frequency according to
the load variation to present a high-efficiency system.
Primary Coupling Secondary
side Capacitors side
Cs1
DC DC/ AC/
Loa
supp AC Cs2 DC
d
ly Inver Recti
ter fier
Fig. 1. Typical diagram of CPT system
A mathematical model of the system was established to
analyse and understand the system's behaviour. The
Generalized State Space Average (GSSA) method is shown to
be useful in modeling the SRC and satisfy the small ripple
condition [15] [16] [17] [18] [19] and therefore, was used to
model the CPT system. There are several controllers that can
be used with the CPT system but the controllers that are most
used are the Proportional-Integral (PI) [20] and Linear
Quadratic Regulator (LQR) controllers [21]. However, not
many controllers are able to yield fast rapid parameter change.
The purpose of this work is to design SF controllers for the
CPT system to maintain the output voltage.
This paper is structured as follows: Class E power
amplifier was introduced and analysed in Section 2, then the
derivation of the state space model of the CPT system was
elaborated in Section 3. Section 4 provides the simulation and
validation of the CPT model followed by the design of the SF
controller in Section 5. Section 6 discussed the results and
finally, the conclusion of this work is given in Section 7.
 II. CLASS E INVETER ANALYSIS
The schematic of the proposed CPT system is shown in
“Fig. 2”. The schematic consists of Class E inverter which was
connected with a full wave rectifier. The equivalent circuit of
the system is illustrated in “Fig. 3” The resonant capacitor, Cs
is the equivalent of series capacitors, Cs1 and Cs2, while Re is
the equivalent resistance of the loaded full wave rectifier [25].
The calculation presented were given in details by [23] and
[24];
𝐶𝑠1 𝐶𝑠2
𝐶𝑠 = (1)
𝐶𝑠1 + 𝐶𝑠2
8𝑅𝑙
𝑅𝑒 = 2 (2) Fig. 2. Schematic of the proposed CPT system
𝜋
The following assumptions were made to simplify the
analysis [22]:
• Ideal switching MOSFET (zero on-resistance, infinity
off resistance and zero switching time).
• The value of choke inductance, Lc is high enough to
deliver current with low ripple factor. In other words,
the ac component of the input current is much lower
than the dc component.
• To allow sinusoidal current, io, through the resonant
circuit, the loaded quality factor, Q of the resonate
RLC circuit must be assumed high enough
• The duty cycle ratio of switching, D, is 0.5.
To obtain the values for the components shown in “Fig. 3”, Fig. 3. Equivalent circuit of the CPT system
the calculation was done according to [26]. The output
power, Po, of the system was calculated using; III. MODEL OF CPT SYSTEM
8 𝑉𝑐𝑐2 The mathematical model for the proposed CPT system,
𝑃𝑜 = (3) illustrated in “Fig. 2” is described. The energy storing
𝜋2 + 4 𝑅𝑒 elements, L and C, are represented by differential equations.
where Vcc is the dc supply voltage. The GSSA method was used to model resonate converters.
The resonant inductance, Lt, was divided into two parts, A. Large Signal Model of CPT System
Lext and Lres were calculated using; The large signal model is a method used to describe the
𝐿𝑡 = 𝐿𝑒𝑥𝑡 + 𝐿𝑟𝑒𝑠 (4) nonlinear signal with respect to nominal time in terms of the
1.153 𝑅𝑒 underlying nonlinear differential equations. Based on the
𝐿𝑒𝑥𝑡 = (5) circuit of the CPT system and by applying Kirchhoff’s voltage
𝑤 law (KVL), Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL) on the Class E
𝑄 𝑅𝑒
𝐿𝑟𝑒𝑠 = (6) inverter the following differential equations were obtained;
𝑤
where w is the switching frequency, and Q is the loaded 𝑑𝑖
quality factor. 𝑣𝐴𝐵 = 𝐿𝑡 + 𝑣𝑐𝑠 + 𝑠𝑔𝑛(𝑖)𝑣𝑓 (11)
𝑑𝑡
The shunt capacitance, Cp is given as; 𝑑𝑣𝑐𝑠
𝑖 = 𝑐𝑠 (12)
𝑝𝑜 𝑑𝑡
𝐶𝑝 = (7) where, sgn(x) is symbol function for the reasonable base
𝜋 𝑤 𝑉𝑐𝑐 2 wave approximation [27] as follows;
The resonant capacitance, Cs can be calculated using; 1, 𝑥 > 0
1
𝐶𝑠 = (8) 𝑠𝑔𝑛(𝑥) 0, 𝑥 = 0 (13)
𝑤 𝑄 𝑅𝑒
The minimum value of choke inductor, 𝐿𝑐 can be calculated
{−1, 𝑥 < 0
as; vcs is the voltage of capacitor Ccs, i is the resonant current
𝜋2 𝑅𝑒 through inductor, Lt, and 𝑣𝐴𝐵 is the voltage across the shunt
𝐿𝑐 (𝑚𝑖𝑛) = 2 ( + 1) (9)
4 𝑓 capacitor as expressed in “(10)”.
The voltage on the drain of the MOSFET, 𝑉𝐴𝐵 is expressed as; Similarly, by applying Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL)
𝑉𝐴𝐵 on the rectifier, the current passing through is given by;
𝐼0 3𝜋 𝜋 𝑑𝑣𝑓 𝑣𝑓
[𝑤𝑡 − − cos(𝑤𝑡) − sin(𝑤𝑡)] 𝜋 < 𝑤𝑡 < 2𝜋 |𝑖| = 𝐶𝑓 + (14)
= {𝑤𝐶𝑝 2 2 (10) 𝑑𝑡 𝑅𝑙
0 0 < 𝑤𝑡 < 𝜋
 From “(11), (12) and (14)”, the state vectors were B. Steady State Model of CPT System
determined, namely, 𝑖, 𝑣𝑐𝑠 and 𝑣𝑓 . Although the shunt In the steady state, there is no variation in the state
capacitor, Cp is an energy storing element, it is not considered vector with respect to time, which means that the partial
as a state variable since its waveform is not differentiable and differential “(22)” in the large signal model with respect to
its dynamic behaviour is completely defined by the energy time is equal to zero. Therefore, the steady state of 𝑖𝑝 and 𝑣𝑓
stored in Lt and series capacitor, Ccs. is as follows;
The coefficients of the first-order Fourier series of the 𝜋𝑉𝑓
voltage and current signal of each part is taken as the state 𝐼𝑝 = (23)
2𝑅𝑙
variables. Thus, the decomposition of the Fourier series Substitute (23) into (22) yield
expansion is required. The Fourier series expansions of i (the 𝑑𝐼𝑠 8𝑅𝑙 1 𝜋𝑉𝑐𝑐
series current going via Lt and Cs) and vcs (the voltage applied = − 𝐼 + 𝑤𝐼𝑐 − 𝑉−
𝑑𝑡 𝐿𝑡 𝜋 2 𝑠 𝐿𝑡 𝑠 2𝐿𝑡 2
on capacitor Cs) can be simplified as; 𝑑𝐼𝑐 8𝑅𝑙 1 (8 − 𝜋 2 )𝑉𝑐𝑐
𝑖 = 𝑖𝑠 sin(𝑤𝑡) + 𝑖𝑐 cos(𝑤𝑡) = − 𝑤𝐼𝑠 − 2 𝐼𝑐 − 𝑉𝑐 −
} (15) 𝑑𝑡 𝐿𝑡 𝜋 𝐿𝑡 4𝐿𝑡
𝑣𝑐𝑠 = 𝑣𝑠 sin(𝑤𝑡) + 𝑣𝑐 cos(𝑤𝑡) (24)
𝑑𝑉𝑠 1
= 𝐼𝑠 + 𝑤𝑉𝑐
By differentiating both sides of (15) we get 𝑑𝑡 𝐶𝑠
𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑉𝑐 1
= ( 𝑠 − 𝑤𝑖𝑐 ) sin(𝑤𝑡) + ( 𝑐 + 𝑤𝑖𝑠 ) cos(𝑤𝑡) = 𝐼𝑐 − 𝑤𝑉𝑠
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝐶𝑠 }
𝑑𝑣𝑐𝑠 𝑑𝑣𝑠 𝑑𝑣 } (16)
=( − 𝑤𝑣𝑐 ) sin(𝑤𝑡) + ( 𝑐 + 𝑤𝑣𝑠 ) cos (𝑤𝑡) From “(24)”, the steady state model for the system obtained
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 is;
Then, by exerting Fourier decomposition expansion for the −8𝑅𝑙 −1
2
𝑤 0
voltage vAB represented in “(9)”, the simplified Fourier series 𝐿𝑡 𝜋 𝐿𝑡
expansion of the voltage vAB (considering only the first −8𝑅𝑙 −1
−𝑤 0
harmonic) can be written as; 𝐿𝑡 𝜋 2 𝐿𝑡
𝑣𝐴𝐵 = 𝑎1 sin(𝑤𝑡) + 𝑏1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑤𝑡) (17) 𝐴𝑠𝑠 = ,
1
The first harmonic of the Fourier coefficients was obtained 0 0 𝑤
𝐶𝑠
by the following;
1
1 2𝜋 𝜋𝑉 0 −𝑤 0
𝑎1 = 𝑣 sin(𝑤𝑡) 𝑑(𝑤𝑡) = − 𝑐𝑐
𝜋 ∫𝜋 𝐴𝐵 2 [ 𝐶𝑠 ]
1 2𝜋 (8 − 𝜋 2 )𝑉𝑐𝑐 } (18) 𝜋𝑉𝐶𝐶
𝑏1 = ∫ 𝑣 cos (𝑤𝑡) 𝑑(𝑤𝑡) = −
𝜋 𝜋 𝐴𝐵 4 2𝐿𝑡
The current through the rectifier is the dc current, therefore it (8 − 𝜋 2 )𝑉𝐶𝐶
can be approximated with sufficient accuracy with the dc 𝐵𝑠𝑠 = 4𝐿𝑡
coefficient of the complex Fourier series [27];
2 0
|𝑖| ≈ 𝑖𝑝 (19)
𝜋
[ 0 ]
𝑖𝑝 = √𝑖𝑠 2 + 𝑖𝑐 2 (20)
C. Small Signal Model of CPT System
Sgn(i) can be expressed as; For the controller design, the large signal model needs to
4𝑖𝑠 4𝑖𝑐 be linearized at the operating point of the nonlinear model.
𝑠𝑔𝑛 (𝑖)𝑣𝑓 = sin(𝑤𝑡) 𝑣𝑓 + cos(𝑤𝑡)𝑣𝑓 (21)
𝜋𝑖𝑝 𝜋𝑖𝑝 The operating point can be obtained by setting the “(22)” to
From the above decomposition of Fourier series expansion, zero, and solving for the variable of the state variables;
the new obtained state vector consisted of five variables;
0 = 𝐴𝑋𝑒 + 𝐵𝑉𝑐𝑐 → 𝑋𝑒 = 𝐴−1 𝐵 𝑉𝑐𝑐
𝑥 = [ 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑐 𝑣𝑠 𝑣𝑐 𝑣𝑓 ]𝑡
The small signal model is obtained by applying Taylor series
Substituting “(16), (18), (19)” and “(21)” into “(11), (12)” linearization method to the large signal model. The state space
and “(14)”, and separate sine and cosine expressions to obtain representation is then written as
the large signal model, we arrive at;
𝜋𝑉𝑐𝑐 𝑑𝑖𝑠 4𝑖𝑠 𝑥̂̇ = 𝐴𝑙 𝑥̂ + 𝐵𝑙 𝑢̂
= 𝐿𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑐 − 𝐿𝑡 − 𝑣𝑠 − 𝑣 } (25)
2 𝑑𝑡 𝜋𝑖𝑝 𝑓 𝑦̂ = 𝐶𝑙 𝑥̂
(8 − 𝜋 2 )𝑉𝑐𝑐 𝑑𝑖𝑐 4𝑖𝑐 where, 𝐴𝑙 , 𝐵𝑙 , and 𝐶𝑙 are the state, input and output matrices,
= 𝐿𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑐 − 𝐿𝑡 − 𝑣𝑐 − 𝑣
4 𝑑𝑡 𝜋𝑖𝑝 𝑓 respectively. While, 𝑥̂ is the state vector, 𝑢̂ is the input vector
𝑑𝑣𝑠 and 𝑦̂ is the output vector. They are;
𝑖𝑠 = 𝐶𝑠 − 𝐶𝑠 𝑤𝑣𝑠 (22)
𝑑𝑡 𝑥̂ = [𝑖̂𝑠 , 𝑖̂𝑐 , 𝑣̂𝑠 , 𝑣̂𝑐 , 𝑣̂𝑓 ]𝑡 , 𝑢̂ = 𝑤
̂, 𝑦̂ = 𝑣̂𝑓
𝑑𝑣𝑐 The matrices of 𝐴𝑙 , 𝐵𝑙 , and 𝐶𝑙 were derived from the small
𝑖𝑐 = 𝐶𝑠 − 𝐶𝑠 𝑤𝑣𝑐 signal model
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑣𝑓 2 𝑣𝑓 𝐵𝑙 = [𝐼𝑐 − 𝐼𝑠 𝑉𝑐 − 𝑉𝑠 0]𝑡
𝐶𝑓 = 𝑖𝑝 −
𝑑𝑡 𝜋 𝑅𝑙 }
𝐶𝑙 = [0 0 0 0 1]
 4𝐼𝑐𝑒 2 𝑉𝑓𝑒 4𝐼𝑐𝑒 𝐼𝑠𝑒 𝑉𝑓𝑒 1 4𝐼𝑠𝑒
− 𝑤0 + − 0 −
𝜋𝐿𝑡 𝐼𝑝𝑒 3 𝜋𝐿𝑡 𝐼𝑝𝑒 3 𝐿 𝜋𝐿𝑡 𝐼𝑝𝑒
4𝐼𝑐𝑒 𝐼𝑠𝑒 𝑉𝑓𝑒 4𝐼𝑠𝑒 2 𝑉𝑓𝑒 1 4𝐼𝑐𝑒
−𝑤0 + 3 − 0 − −
𝜋𝐿𝑡 𝐼𝑝𝑒 𝜋𝐿𝑡 𝐼𝑝 𝑒 3 𝐿 𝜋𝐿𝑡 𝐼𝑝𝑒
𝐴𝑙 = 1
0 0 𝑤0 0
𝐶𝑠
1
0 − 𝑤0 0 0
𝐶𝑠
2𝐼𝑠𝑒 2𝐼𝑐𝑒 −1
0 0
[ 𝜋𝐶𝑝 𝐼𝑝𝑒 𝜋𝐶𝑝 𝐼𝑝𝑒 𝑅𝑙 𝐶𝑓 ]

IV. MODEL VALIDATION

The model was validated using the MATLAB software
to simulate the behaviour of the CPT system using various
loads. The system parameters were calculated based on the
assumptions and analysis of Class E inverter as explained in
Section 2. The values for the input voltage, 𝑉𝑐𝑐 = 24 V, series
resonant capacitance, Cs = 122.72 pF, resonant inductance, Lt
= 54.57 µH, at switching frequency f = 2 MHz, output
capacitance, 𝐶𝑓 = 20 µF, choke inductance, Lc = 112.48 µH,
and Quality factor, Q = 20. “Fig. 4” shows the waveform of
the drain voltage and switching voltage obtained from the
simulation. From the figure, it can be seen that zero voltage
switching was obtained. The drain voltage waveform is
shown as a half-cycle waveform while the switch voltage as
square wave with the zero voltage portion in-sync with the
positive half-cycle waveform of the drain voltage.
Fig. 5 Output voltage for CPT system with load variations.
V. STATEFEEDBACK CONTROLLER DESIGN
In the design of the SF controller, two established
methods were used, i.e., the Linear Quadratic Regulator
(LQR) and the pole placement approach. The system control
block diagram is shown in “Fig. 6”. The switching frequency,
i.e. the input vector of the Class E inverter, is regulated by the
gain of the SF controller to maintain the output voltage and
minimize the switching loss which can occur owing to the
load variations. The integrator was introduced to reduce the
steady state error.

Fig. 6 Block diagram of the SF controller.

A. Linear Quadratic Regulator Controller

Fig. 4 Drain voltage and switch voltage waveforms.
The output voltage of the CPT system is illustrated in
“Fig. 5”. The simulations were carried out with the initial load
resistance, 𝑅𝑙 = 40 Ohms at t = 0.0 ms, then, it was increased
to 60 ohms at t = 6 ms. The solid line shows the simulation
result, whereas the dashed markers show the behavioral of the
model outcome. The output voltage increased from 18.17 V
to 20.9 V when the load resistance varied from 40 Ohms to
60 Ohms. The results of the CPT simulation and the
behavioral model are similar, which shows that the
established state space model can be used to represent the
CPT system and to design the corresponding SF controller.
For LQR controller design, the minimum value of
the cost function “(26)” can be obtained based the weighting
matrixes Q and R, which will be used for the calculation of
the gain matrix, k.
∞
𝐽 = ∫ 𝑥(𝑡)𝑇 𝑄𝑥(𝑡) + 𝑢(𝑡)𝑇 𝑅𝑢(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 (26)
0
where Q is positive semi-definite matrix and R is positive
definite matrix, generally they are taken diagonal.
The cost function has a unique minimum solution
obtained by solving the algebraic Riccati equation;
𝑃𝐴 + 𝐴𝑇 𝑃 + 𝑄 − 𝑃𝐵𝑅 −1 𝐵𝑇 𝑃 = 0 (27)
The solution of the Riccati equation, P, was used to
calculate the optimal gain matrix, k. The optimal gain matrix
was calculated by;
𝑘 = −𝑅−1 𝐵𝑇 𝑃 (28)
B. Pole Placement Controller
In pole placement approach, the existing poles of the
system were determined, followed by the calculation of the
gain matrix of the SF controller. The existing poles were
calculated by solving the polynomial equation of the
denominator of the system’s transfer function. For “(28)”, if
the system is fully controllable, the SF control law can be SF controllers was reduced from 1.79 ms to 26.5 µs and 27.4
represented as; µs using the LQR and pole placement method respectively as
𝑢̂ = −𝑘𝑥̂ (29) shown in zoomed view in “Fig. 8”. Furthermore, to ensure
where, k is the state feedback gain matrix. By substituting the robustness of the designed SF controller, the system was
“(29)” into “(25)”, the closed loop CPT system was obtained subjected to two values of disturbance, shown in “Fig. 9”. It
as; was also observed that when the two disturbances occurred in
𝑥̂̇ = (𝐴𝑙 − 𝐵𝑙 𝑘)𝑥̂ the form of the CPT output at time 0.05 ms and 0.09 ms, the
} (31) SF controller maintained the CPT output close to the
𝑦̂ = 𝐶𝑙 𝑥̂ reference value in real time with zero steady state error. This
disturbance corresponded to the load variation.
VI. SIMULATION AND RESULTS
Based on the specifications of the CPT system, which was
presented in Section 4, MATLAB application was used to
simulate the designed SF controller. The weighting matrices
Q and R and the desired poles of the SF controllers were
arbitrary selected based conventional ‘trial and error’ method.
A. LQR Simulation
According to the state vector dimensions of the proposed
CPT system, the Q matrix with a dimension of a 5-by-5
diagonal matrix, while the R matrix is a single element matrix
for a single input. The weighting matrices were selected as
following;
0 0 0 0 0
Fig. 7. CPT system with and without control
0 0 0 0 0

𝑄= 0 0 0 0 0 𝑅 = [1]

0 0 0 0 0

[0 0 0 0 80 ]
By using the introduced weighting matrices and the small
signal model”(26)”, the SF controller gains for LQR
controller were;
k = [0.525 -0.262 -3.89e-04 -7.67e-04 8.82]
B. Pole Placement Simulation
Based on the specifications of the CPT system in Section
4, the transfer function of the CPT system obtained was;
7.792 ∗ 1015 𝑠 2 − 8.049 ∗ 1022 𝑠
𝐺(𝑠) = + 2.394 ∗ 1030
𝑠 + 5.954 ∗ 105 𝑠 4 + 6.145 ∗ 1014 𝑠 3
5
Fig. 8. Zoomed view of the controllers’ time response
+1.833 ∗ 1020 𝑠 2 + 7.423 ∗ 1025 𝑠 + 1.619 ∗ 1029
In the same context, the root locus of the system involved
with five existing poles, Pe they are listed as;
Pe = {-1.49×105+2.48×107i -1.49×105-2.48×107i
-1.48×105+3.14×105i -1.48×105- 3.15×105i -2.19×103}
Obviously, the proposed CPT system involved one
dominant pole with real number; this dominant pole
determined the dynamic performance of the system, so the
system can be regarded as first order system as shown in “Fig.
5”.
The result of the state feedback gain matrix was;
𝑘 = [ 2.8 − 1.77 − 2.64 × 10−3 − 4.06 × 10−3 6.8 × 10]
with the desired closed-loop poles, Pd at;
Pd = { -1.49×105+2.48×107i -1.49×105-2.48×107i
-1.66×105 + 3.59×105i -1.66×105- 3.59×105i -2.23×105}
The result of the CPT system output voltage with and
without SF control system simulation is presented in “Fig. 7”.
The time response of the proposed system was better
compared to the open-loop system; the settling time with the
Fig. 9. CPT system with disturbances
 VII. CONCLUSION
This paper described a CPT system designed based
on Class E inverter and the dynamic model of the CPT system
based on the GSSA approach. The MATLAB software
application was used to validate and simulate the CPT model.
The SF controllers in this model were designed to maintain
the output voltage when there is load variations. The SF
controllers was created based on LQR and pole placement
methods. To ensure the robustness of the designed SF
controllers, the system was subjected to two different
disturbances. The simulation results showed that, the
designed SF controllers improved the time specifications of
the CPT system from 1.79 ms to 21.5 µs and 23.4 µs using
the LQR method and the pole placement controller,
respectively. Furthermore, both methods produced SF
controllers with similar response and the system's output
voltage remain the same despite the load variations.
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