Dee 401 Module I, II, V, Vi

BRAINWARE UNIVERSITY
DEE401 CLASS NOTES Electrical Machine-II
Induction Motors [Module I and II]
2022-23 Prepared by: Subhajit Mukherjee

Introduction
 Three-phase induction motors are the most
common and frequently encountered machines in
industry
- simple design, rugged, low-price, easy maintenance
- wide range of power ratings: fractional horsepower to
10 MW
- run essentially as constant speed from zero to full load
- speed is power source frequency dependent
• not easy to have variable speed control
• requires a variable-frequency power-electronic drive for
optimal speed control
2022-23 Prepared by: Subhajit

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Construction
 An induction motor has two main parts
- a stationary stator
• consisting of a steel frame that supports a hollow, cylindrical core
• core, constructed from stacked laminations (why?), having a
number of evenly spaced slots, providing the space for the stator
winding
Stator of IM
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Construction
- a revolving rotor
• composed of punched laminations, stacked to create a series of rotor
slots, providing space for the rotor winding
• one of two types of rotor windings
• conventional 3-phase windings made of insulated wire (wound-rotor) »
similar to the winding on the stator
• aluminum bus bars shorted together at the ends by two aluminum rings,
forming a squirrel-cage shaped circuit (squirrel-cage)
 Two basic design types depending on the rotor design
- squirrel-cage
- wound-rotor

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Construction
Squirrel cage rotor
Wound rotor
Notice the
slip rings

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Construction
Slip rings
Cutaway in a
typical wound-
rotor IM.
Notice the
brushes and the
slip rings
Brushes
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Rotating Magnetic Field
 Balanced three phase windings, i.e.
mechanically displaced 120 degrees form
each other, fed by balanced three phase
source
 A rotating magnetic field with constant
magnitude is produced, rotating with a speed
120 f e
nsync  rpm
P
Where fe is the supply frequency and P is the

no. of poles and nsync is called the
synchronous speed in rpm (revolutions per
minute)
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Rotating Magnetic Field

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Principle of operation
 This rotating magnetic field cuts the rotor windings and
produces an induced voltage in the rotor windings
 Due to the fact that the rotor windings are short circuited, for
both squirrel cage and wound-rotor, and induced current
flows in the rotor windings
 The rotor current produces another magnetic field
 A torque is produced as a result of the interaction of those
two magnetic fields
 ind  kBR  Bs
Where ind is the induced torque and BR and BS are the magnetic
flux densities of the rotor and the stator respectively
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Induction motor speed
 At what speed will the IM run?
- Can the IM run at the synchronous speed, why?
- If rotor runs at the synchronous speed, which is the
same speed of the rotating magnetic field, then the rotor
will appear stationary to the rotating magnetic field and
the rotating magnetic field will not cut the rotor. So, no
induced current will flow in the rotor and no rotor
magnetic flux will be produced so no torque is
generated and the rotor speed will fall below the
synchronous speed
- When the speed falls, the rotating magnetic field will
cut the rotor windings and a torque is produced
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Induction motor speed
 So, the IM will always run at a speed lower than
the synchronous speed
 The difference between the motor speed and the
synchronous speed is called the Slip
nslip  nsync  nm
Where nslip= slip speed
nsync= speed of the magnetic field
nm = mechanical shaft speed of the motor

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The Slip
nsync  nm
s
nsync
Where s is the slip
Notice that : if the rotor runs at synchronous speed
s=0
if the rotor is stationary
s=1
Slip may be expressed as a percentage by multiplying the above
eq. by 100, notice that the slip is a ratio and doesn’t have units
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Example 7-1
A 208-V, 10hp, four pole, 60 Hz, Y-connected
induction motor has a full-load slip of 5 percent
1. What is the synchronous speed of this motor?
2. What is the rotor speed of this motor at rated load?
3. What is the rotor frequency of this motor at rated load?
4. What is the shaft torque of this motor at rated load?

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Solution
120 f e 120(60)
1. nsync    1800 rpm
P 4
2. nm  (1  s)ns
 (1  0.05) 1800  1710 rpm
3. f r  sf e  0.05  60  3Hz
4.  load  Pout  Pout

m 2
nm
60
10 hp  746 watt / hp
  41.7 N .m
1710  2  (1/ 60)
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Problem 7-2 (p.468)

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Equivalent Circuit

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Torque equation
• The torque produced by three phase
induction motor depends upon the
following three factors:
1.The part of rotating magnetic field which
reacts with rotor and is responsible to
produce induced
• e.m.f. in rotor.
2. The magnitude of rotor current in running
condition.
3. The power factor of the rotor circuit in running
condition.
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Torque equation
• Combining all these factors, we get the
equation of torque as-
• Where,
• T is the torque produced by the induction motor, φ is
flux responsible for producing induced emf, I2 is rotor
current,
• cosθ2 is the power factor of rotor circuit.

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Torque equation
• The flux φ produced by the stator is
proportional to stator emf E1. i.e
• φ ∝ E1
• We know that transformation ratio K is defined as the
ratio of secondary voltage (rotor voltage) to that of
primary voltage (stator voltage).

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Torque equation
• Rotor current I2 is defined as the ratio of rotor induced emf
under running condition , sE2 to total impedance, Z2 of rotor
side,
• and total impedance Z2 on rotor side is given by ,
• Putting this value in above equation we get,
 s = slip of Induction motor

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Torque equation
• We know that power factor is defined as ratio of
resistance to that of impedance. The power factor of
the rotor circuit is
• Putting the value of flux φ, rotor current I2, power factor

cosθ2 in the equation of torque we get,

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Torque equation
• Removing proportionality constant we
get,
• Where, ns is synchronous speed in r. p. s, ns = Ns /

60. So,
•finally the equation of torque becomes,

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Equation of Starting Torque
• Starting torque is the torque produced by induction motor

when it starts. We know that at the start the rotor speed,
N is zero.
• So, the equation of starting torque is easily obtained by

simply putting the value of s = 1 in the equation of
torque of the three phase induction motor,
• The starting torque is also known as standstill

torque.
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Maximum Torque
Condition
• In the equation of
torque,
•So, for torque to be

maximum,

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Maximum Torque
Condition

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Maximum Torque
Condition
• So, when slip s = R2 / X2, the torque will be maximum
and this slip is called maximum slip Sm ,and it is
defined as the ratio of rotor resistance to that of rotor
reactance.
• The equation of torque is
• The torque will be maximum when slip s = R2 / X2

,Substituting the value of this slip in above equation we
get the maximum value of torque as,

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Maximum Torque
Condition
• From the above equation it is concluded that The
maximum torque is directly proportional to square of
rotor induced emf at the standstill.
• The maximum torque is inversely proportional to rotor
reactance.
• The maximum torque is independent of rotor resistance.
• The slip at which maximum torque occur depends upon
rotor resistance, R2. So, by varying the rotor resistance,
maximum torque can be obtained at any required slip.

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Power losses in Induction machines
 Copper losses
- Copper loss in the stator (PSCL) = I12R1
- Copper loss in the rotor (PRCL) = I22R2
 Core loss (Pcore)
 Mechanical power loss due to friction and windage
 How this power flow in the motor?

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Torque-Slip Characteristics
•
• The curve drawn between torque and slip from start
(s=1) to Synchronous speed (s=0) is called torque slip
characteristics of the induction motor
Torque Equation
Input voltage is constant (E2=C)

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Three Regions:
Stable operating region
Unstable operating region
Normal operating region
• Stable Region (OA)

• ‘s’ is very small ( then, (sX2)2 <<< R22), Hence s2X22 is
neglected
in this region as load ↑, T↑, s↑

Characteristics is approximately straight line

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Unstable Region (AB)
When s increases further from sm the region is unstable region, s is
high (between sm and 1) , R22 can be neglected as compared to s2X22
in this region as load ↑, s↑, T↓

Characteristics is approximately rectangular hyperbola.
When load further increases, N↓, s↑, leads motor to
standstill condition, hence motor should not be operated
at any point in this region.

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Torque-speed characteristics
Typical torque-speed characteristics of induction motor

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Maximum torque
Effect of rotor resistance on torque-speed characteristic

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Power Flow Diagram

Power flow in induction motor

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Power relations
Pin  3 VL I L cos   3 Vph I ph cos 

PSCL  3 I12 R1
PAG  Pin  ( PSCL  Pcore )
PRCL  3I 22 R2
Pconv  PAG  PRCL
Pout  Pconv  ( Pf  w  Pstray )

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Equivalent Circuit
 We can rearrange the equivalent circuit as follows
Resistance
Actual rotor
equivalent to
resistance
mechanical load
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Power relations
Pin  3 VL I L cos   3 Vph I ph cos 

PSCL  3 I12 R1
R2 PRCL
PAG  Pin  ( PSCL  Pcore )  Pconv  PRCL  3I
2
2 
s s
PRCL  3I 22 R2
Pconv  PAG  PRCL  3I 22 R2 (1  s) PRCL (1  s)

s s
Pout  Pconv  ( Pf  w  Pstray )

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Torque, power and Thevenin’s Theorem
 Thevenin’s theorem can be used to transform the
network to the left of points ‘a’ and ‘b’ into an
equivalent voltage source V1eq in series with
equivalent impedance Req+jXeq

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jX M
V1eq  V1
R1  j ( X 1  X M )
Req  jX eq  ( R1  jX1 ) // jX M
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V1eq V1eq
I2  
ZT  R2 
2
 eq
R    ( X eq  X 2 ) 2
 s 
Then the power converted to mechanical (Pconv)
R2 (1  s)
Pconv I 2
2
s
And the internal mechanical torque (Tconv)
R2
Pconv Pconv I 22
Tconv    s
m (1  s )s s
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2
 
 
1  V1eq   R2 
Tconv     s 
s 
  
2
 R  R2   ( X  X ) 2
  eq s  eq 2 
 
 R2 
2
V   1eq
Tconv 
1  s 
s  R2 
2
 eq
R    ( X eq  X 2 ) 2
 s 

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Maximum torque
 Maximum torque occurs when the power
transferred to R2/s is maximum.
 This condition occurs when R2/s equals the
magnitude of the impedance Req + j (Xeq + X2)
R2
 Req2  ( X eq  X 2 )2
sTmax
R2
sTmax 
Req2  ( X eq  X 2 ) 2

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Maximum torque
 The corresponding maximum torque of an induction
motor equals
1  V 2 
Tmax 
eq

2s  Req  Req2  ( X eq  X 2 ) 2 
 
 The slip at maximum torque is directly proportional

to the rotor resistance R2
 The maximum torque is independent of R2

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Maximum torque
 Rotor resistance can be increased by inserting
external resistance in the rotor of a wound-rotor
induction motor.
 The value of the maximum torque remains
unaffected but the speed at which it occurs can be
controlled.

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Solution to Problem 7-5 (p.468)

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Problem 7-7 (pp.468-469)

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Solution to Problem 7-7 (pp.468-469)

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STARTER

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NEED OF STARTER
•• If a rated stator voltage is applied to the motor at the time of starting,
then the motor will draw heavy starting current.
•• This will lead to excess i2R losses in the winding which will overheat
the motor.
•• Secondly due to a heavy current drawn from the AC supply voltage
will reduce.
•• The heavy starting current may damage the motor windings.
•• In order to avoid these problems, we can use some kind of a
starter to start the induction motor safely.

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TYPES OF STARTER
••  Stator resistance starter
•• Auto transformer
•• starting Star-delta
•• starter
••  Rotor resistance starter
•• Variable frequency
starting Direct on line
(DOL) starter

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STATOR RESISTANCE STARTER

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••
•• A starter resistance is connected in each line in series with

each phase winding of the stator.
••
Initially all the starter resistance are kept in “Start” position so
that they offer their maximum resistance .
••
The switch is turned ON to connect the three phase AC supply
to the stator winding.
Due to starter resistance in series, each phase winding will
•• receive a reduced voltage. Due to reduction in the value of V1 ,
the starting current is limited to a safe value.
As the motor accelerates, the starter resistance is reduced by
••
moving the variable contact of the resistance towards the
“Run” position.
In the “Run” position, the starter resistance is shorted out and
full stator voltage is applied across the stator winding.
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AUTO-TRANSFORMER
STARTER
•• An autotransformer is used to apply a low voltage to the stator
winding at the time of starting. When the motor speed reaches the
desired level, autotransformer is disconnected and motor is
connected directly across the supply.
•• The stator of the motor is connected through a 6-way double throw

switch.
While starting, the switch is thrown to ‘Start’ side so that a reduced
••
voltage is applied to stator. This keeps the starting current safe
limits.
Once motor take up the speed, the switch is throw to ‘Run’ side so
•• that full supply voltage is applied to stator.
A specific advantage of this starter is that reduction in voltage
•• during starting, can be done to any desired level by selecting proper
tapping of the autotransformer.
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ROTOR RESISTANCE STARTER.
•• This starter is used with a wound rotor induction motor. It uses an

external resistance/phase in the rotor circuit so that rotor will
develop a high value of torque.
•• High torque is produced at low speeds, when the external resistance
is at its higher value.
At start, supply power is connected to stator through a three pole
••
contactor and, at a same time, an external rotor resistance is added.
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•• The high resistance limits staring current and allows the motor to
start safely against high load.
•• Resistors are normally of the wire-wound type, connected through
brushes and slip rings to each rotor phase. They are tapped with
points brought out to fixed contactors.
•• As the motor starts, the external rotor resistance is gradually cut out
of circuit ; the handle or starter is turned and moves the three
contacts simultaneously from one fixed contact to the next.
•• The three moving contacts are interconnected to form a start point
for the resistors.

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STAR DELTA STARTER
•• Most induction motors are started directly on line, but when

very large motors are started that way, they cause a
disturbance of voltage on the supply lines due to large starting
current surges.
•• To limit the starting current surge, large induction motors are
started at reduced voltage and then have full supply voltage
reconnected when they run up to near rotated speed.

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STAR-DELTA CONNECTION IN
MOTOR

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STAR DELTA POWER CIRCUIT

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 As we discussed earlier in the DOL starter, the three-phase induction motor
draw’s high amount of current at the time of starting. The flow of higher current
causes motor failure as well as a sudden voltage drop in the power system for a
few milliseconds. The main purpose of the start-delta starter is to reduce the
starting current of the motor.
 You know the 3 phase induction motor Torque equation such as
 Consider,
 I1= Starting Current of the Induction motor
 V1 = Input phase Voltage
 T => Starting torque
 Here, full load torque can be achieved at the delta connection. In star delta
starter, Delta connection indicates the motor terminals are directly connected to
the three-phase power the same as DOL connection.

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 At the time of starting the motor runs in star connection, therefore the phase
current is equal to line current. But the phase voltage will be 1/1.732 times of
line voltage due to star configuration.

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By referring to equation 10,
The staring current at star delta connection
will be reduced by 57% of the direct delta
connection.

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MOTOR STARTING CHARACTERISTICS OF STAR-DELTA STARTER:
•• •Available starting current: 33% Full Load

Current.
•• •Peak starting current: 1.3 to 2.6 Full Load
Current.
•• •Peak starting torque: 33% Full Load
Torque.

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ADVANTAGES OF STAR-DELTA STARTER:
•• The operation of the star-delta method is simple

and rugged
•• It is relatively cheap compared to
voltage methods.
•• other reduced Good Torque/Current Performance
•• . draws 2 times starting current of the full
It
load ampere of the motor connected

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DISADVANTAGES OF STAR-
DELTA STARTER:
•• Low Starting Torque, only 33% starting torque Break In Supply –
•• Possible Transients
•• Six Terminal Motor Required (Delta Connected). It requires 2 set of
•• cables from starter to motor.
•• The delta of motor is formed in starter and not on motor terminals.
Applications with a load torque higher than 50 % of the motor rated
•• torque will not be able to start using the start-delta starter.
Low Starting Torque: reduction of the line voltage by a factor of

••
1/√3 (57.7%) to the motor and the current is reduced to 1/3 of the
current at full voltage, but the starting torque is also reduced 1/3 to
1/5 of the DOL starting torque .

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MOTOR STARTING CHARACTERISTICS ON DOL STARTER :
•• Available starting current: •100%.

•• Peak starting current: •6 to 8 Full Load Current.
•• Peak starting torque: •100%

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ADVANTAGES OF DOL STARTER:
•• Most Economical and Cheapest Starter Simple to

•• establish, operate and maintain Simple Control
•• Circuitry
•• Easy to understand and trouble‐shoot.
•• It provides 100% torque at the time of starting.
•• Only one set of cable is required from starter to motor.
•• Motor is connected in delta at motor terminals.

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DISADVANTAGES OF DOL STARTER:
•• It does not reduce the starting current of the motor.

••
High Starting Current: Very High Starting Current
(Typically 6 to 8 times the FLC of the motor).
••
Mechanically Harsh: Thermal Stress on the motor, thereby
reducing its life.
••
Voltage Dip: There is a big
voltage dip in the electrical
••
installation
High starting Torque: Unnecessary high starting
torque, even when not required by the load.
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SUITABILITY
•• DOL is Suitable for:

•• •Small water pumps, compressors,
•• fans and conveyor belts. Motor rating up to
•• 5.5KW
•DOL is not suitable for:
••
•The peak starting current would result
in a serious voltage drop on the supply
system
•Motor rating above 5.5KW

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VARIABLE FREQUENCY DRIVE
(VFD)
•• A variable-frequency drive (VFD), also termed adjustable-
frequency drive, variable speed drive, AC drive, micro drive
or inverter drive is a type of adjustable-speed drive used in
electro-mechanical drive systems.
•• It controls AC motor speed and torque by varying motor input
frequency and voltage.

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PRINCIPLE OF VFD
••
 Variable frequency Drive,principle of thesam
••
is by regulating the frequency, we
••
can regulate the speed of drive
•• Example - n=120f/p Where,
•• n - speed
•• f - frequency
 p – nos. of poles

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VFD FLOW DIAGRAM

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APPLICATION
•• Cane Carrier Drive, Feeder Table Drive, Milling Plant
•• Drive, Raw juice Pumps, Sulphited Juice Pumps, Molasses
•• Pumps, Injection Pumps,
•• Cooling Tower Pumps and
•• Centrifugals for a Sugar Curing and Chemical Dosing pump.
••
••
••
••

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DIFFERENCE BETWEEN DOL/STAR
DELTA /AUTOTRANSFORMER
•S r •DOL Starter Star delta starter •Auto
transformer
starter
•1 •Used up to 5 HP Used 5 HP to 20HP •Used above 20
HP
•2 •Does not decrease •Decreases the starting current •Decreases the starting
the starting current by 1/3 times current as required
•3 •It is cheap •It is costly •It is more costly
•4 •It connects
•It connects the motor first •It connects the motor
in star at the time of according to the taping
directly the motor
starting in delta for running taken out from the auto
with supply for
transformer
starting as well as
for running 2022-23 Prepared by: Subhajit
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Speed Control of an Induction Motor
 There is a various method of speed control of an Induction Motor. The

rotor speed of an induction motor is given by the equation shown
below. From the equation (1) it is clear that the motor speed can be
changed by a change in frequency f, a number of poles P, and slip s.

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A three phase induction motor is basically a constant speed motor so it’s

somewhat difficult to control its speed. The speed control of induction motor is
done at the cost of decrease in efficiency and low electrical power factor.
Before discussing the methods to control the speed of three phase induction
motor one should know the basic formulas of speed and torque of three phase
induction motor as the methods of speed control depends upon these formulas.

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Speed
SpeedControl
Controlofofan
anInduction
InductionMotor
Motor

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Induction Motor
Breaking

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Single – Phase Induction Motor
We use the single-phase power system more widely than three phase system
for domestic purposes, commercial purposes and some extent in industrial
uses. Because, the single-phase system is more economical than a three-
phase system and the power requirement in most of the houses, shops,
offices are small, which can be easily met by a single phase system.
The single phase motors are simple in construction, cheap in cost, reliable
and easy to repair and maintain. Due to all these advantages, the single
phase motor finds its application in vacuum cleaners, fans, washing
machines, centrifugal pumps, blowers, washing machines, etc.
The single phase AC motors are further classified as:
1.Single phase induction motors or asynchronous motors.
2.Single phase synchronous motors.
3.Commentator motors.
This article will provide fundamentals, description and working principle
of single phase induction motor.

Module – V

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Why Single Phase Induction Motor is
not Self Starting?

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Methods for Making Single Phase Induction as Self Starting Motor
From the above topic, we can easily conclude that the single-phase
induction motors are not self-starting because the produced stator flux is
alternating in nature and at the starting, the two components of this flux
cancel each other and hence there is no net torque. The solution to this
problem is that if we make the stator flux rotating type, rather than
alternating type, which rotates in one particular direction only. Then the
induction motor will become self-starting.
Now for producing this rotating magnetic field, we require two
alternating flux, having some phase difference angle between them.
When these two fluxes interact with each other, they will produce a
resultant flux. This resultant flux is rotating in nature and rotates in
space in one particular direction only.
Once the motor starts running, we can remove the additional flux. The
motor will continue to run under the influence of the main flux only.
Depending upon the methods for making asynchronous motor as Self
Starting Motor, there are mainly four types of single phase induction
motor namely,
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Split Phase Induction Motor
The Split Phase Motor is also known as a Resistance
Start Motor. It has a single cage rotor, and its stator has
two windings known as main winding and starting winding.
Both the windings are displaced 90 degrees in space. The
main winding has very low resistance and a high inductive
reactance whereas the starting winding has high
resistance and low inductive reactance. The connection
diagram of the motor is shown below:

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A resistor is connected in series with the auxiliary winding. The current
in the two windings is not equal as a result, the rotating field is not
uniform. Hence, the starting torque is small, of the order of 1.5 to 2
times the stated running torque. At the starting of the motor both the
windings are connected in parallel.
As soon as the motor reaches the speed of about 70 to 80 % of the
synchronous speed the starting winding is disconnected automatically
from the supply mains. If the motors are rated about 100 Watt or more,
a centrifugal switch is used to disconnect the starting winding and for
the smaller rating motors relay is used for the disconnecting of the
winding.
A relay is connected in series with the main winding. In the starting,
the heavy current flows in the circuit, and the contact of the relay gets
closed. Thus, the starting winding is in the circuit, and as the motor
attains the predetermined speed, the current in the relay starts
decreasing. Therefore, the relay opens and disconnects the auxiliary
winding from the supply, making the motor runs on the main winding
only.
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Applications of Split Phase Induction Motor
This type of motor is cheap and is suitable for easily starting
loads where the frequency of starting is limited. This type of motor
is not used for drives that require more than 1 KW because of the
low starting torque. The various applications are as follows:
•Used in the washing machine, and air conditioning fans.
•The motors are used in mixer grinders, floor polishers.
•Blowers, Centrifugal pumps.
•Drilling and lathe machine.
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Capacitor Start Induction Motor
Capacitor Start Motors are single-phase Induction Motors that employ a
capacitor in the auxiliary winding circuit to produce a greater phase
difference between the current in the main and the auxiliary windings. The
name capacitor starts itself shows that the motor uses a capacitor for the
purpose of starting. The figure below shows the connection diagram of a
Capacitor Start Motor.

Mukherjee
Contents:
•Phasor Diagram
•Characteristics of the Capacitor Start Motor
•Applications of the Capacitor Start Motor
The capacitor start motor has a cage rotor and has two windings on the stator.
They are known as the main winding and the auxiliary or the starting winding.
The two windings are placed 90 degrees apart. A capacitor CS is connected in
series with the starting winding. A centrifugal switch SC is also connected to
the circuit.

Mukherjee
Applications of the Capacitor Start Motor
The various applications of the motor are as follows:
•These motors are used for the loads of higher inertia where
frequent starting is required.
•Used in pumps and compressors
•Used in the refrigerator and air conditioner compressors.
•They are also used for conveyors and machine tools.

Mukherjee
Capacitor Start Capacitor Run Motor
The Capacitor Start Capacitor Run Motor has a cage rotor, and its
stator has two windings known as Main and Auxiliary Windings. The two
windings are displaced 90 degrees in space. There are two capacitors in
this method one is used at the time of the starting and is known as starting
capacitor. The other one is used for continuous running of the motor and is
known as RUN capacitor.

Mukherjee
There are two capacitors in this motor represented by CS and CR. In the
starting, the two capacitors are connected in parallel. The capacitor Cs is
the Starting capacitor is short time rated. It is almost electrolytic. A large
amount of current is required to obtain the starting torque. Therefore, the
value of the capacitive reactance X should be low in the starting winding.
Since, XA = 1/2πfCA, the value of the starting capacitor should be large.
The rated line current is smaller than the starting current at the normal
operating condition of the motor. Hence, the value of the capacitive
reactance should be large. Since, XR = 1/2πfCR, the value of the run
capacitor should be small.

Mukherjee
As the motor reaches the synchronous speed, the starting capacitor Cs is
disconnected from the circuit by a centrifugal switch Sc. The capacitor CR is
connected permanently in the circuit and thus it is known as RUN Capacitor. The
run capacitor is long time rated and is made of oil-filled paper.
The figure below shows the Phasor Diagram of the Capacitor Start Capacitor Run
Motor.

Mukherjee
Shaded Pole Induction Motor
A shaded pole induction motor is a type of self-starting 1-phase induction
motor. It consists of a stator and a squirrel cage type rotor. The stator of the
shaded pole motor is made up of salient poles and each pole is slotted on a
side and a copper ring is fitted on the smaller part of the slot as shown in the
figure. The part with copper ring is known as shaded pole and the copper
ring is known as shading coil which is usually a single turn coil.

Mukherjee
Operation of Shaded Pole Induction
Motor
In order to understand that how the shading coil helps the shaded-pole
induction motor to set up rotating magnetic field. To do so, consider the changes
in the magnetic flux produced by the main winding at three intervals, which are
given as follows:
•When the magnetic flux is increasing from zero to maximum.
•When the flux is maximum.
•When the flux is decreasing from maximum to zero.
Any change in the magnetic flux in each pole of the motor induces an EMF in
the shading coil and this induced EMF circulates a current in it. This induced
current always sets up a magnetic flux that opposes the change in the flux in
the shaded portion (according to Lenz’s law).

Mukherjee
Case I – When the magnetic flux is
increasing from zero to maximum
Refer the waveform of the AC supply, during the portion OA of the waveform,
the magnetic flux in the pole is increasing and so is the current induced in the
shading coil. The shading coil produces a magnetic flux that opposes the
increase in the magnetic flux linking the coil. Consequently, most of the
magnetic flux passes through the unshaded portion of the pole as shown in
the figure below. Therefore, the magnetic axis of the flux is the centre of the
unshaded portion of the pole.

Mukherjee
Case II – When the magnetic flux is
maximum
At point A of the current waveform, the magnetic flux has reached at its
maximum value. Therefore, the rate of change of the flux is zero. Thus, the
induced EMF and the current in the shading coil being zero. As a result of it, the
distribution of the magnetic flux across the pole is uniform as shown in the
figure below. Consequently, the magnetic axis of the flux shifts to the centre of
the pole.

Mukherjee
Case III – When the magnetic flux is
decreasing from maximum to zero
During the portion AB of the current waveform, the magnetic flux produced by the
main winding begins to decrease. The current induced in the shading coil reverses the
direction in order to oppose the decrease in the flux produced by the main winding i.e.
the shading coil produces a magnetic flux which passes through the shaded portion of
the pole as shown in the figure below. Therefore, the magnetic axis of the flux is
shifted to the centre of the shaded portion of the pole.

Mukherjee
From the about discussion it is clear that the presence of the shading coil
forces the magnetic axis to shift from unshaded to shaded part of the pole.
This shifting flux is just like rotating magnetic field which rotates from
unshaded to shaded portion of the pole.
As the rotor of the shaded pole induction motor is of the squirrel cage type
and is under the influence of rotating magnetic field. As a result, a small
starting torque is developed. As soon as the starting torque starts to
revolve the rotor, an additional torque is produced by the single-phase
induction motor action. Hence, the motor accelerates to a speed slightly
below the synchronous speed and runs as a 1-phase induction motor.

Mukherjee
Applications of Shaded Pole
Induction Motor
As the shaded pole induction motors have low starting torque, efficiency and power
factor, so these motors are only suitable for low power applications such as −
To drive the loads which require low starting torque.
In table fans
In exhaust fans
Hair driers
Fans for refrigeration & air-conditioning equipment
In electronic equipment, etc.

Mukherjee
Comparison between Single Phase
and Three Phase Induction Motors
1.Single phase induction motors are simple in construction, reliable and
economical for small power rating as compared to three phase induction
motors.
2.The electrical power factor of single phase induction motors is low as
compared to three phase induction motors.
3.For the same size, the single-phase induction motors develop about 50% of
the output as that of three phase induction motors.
4.The starting torque is also low for asynchronous motors/single phase
induction motor.
5.The efficiency of single phase induction motors is less compared to that of
three phase induction motors.

What is a Permanent Split Capacitor
Motor?
A permanent split capacitor motor (also known as a single value capacitor motor or
PSC motor) is defined as a type of split-phase induction motor in which the capacitor
is connected permanently.
A split capacitor motor is an AC motor. It is a type of single-phase induction motor.
Similar to other AC motors, a split capacitor motor consists of a stator and a cage-type
rotor.
In a split capacitor motor, a capacitor is permanently connected to the circuit
in both starting and running conditions. Therefore, this motor is known
permanent split capacitor motor.
As the capacitor always remains in the circuit, this motor does not require a
centrifugal switch to connect and disconnect the capacitor.
This motor produces uniform torque. Because the auxiliary winding is always
connected in a circuit, this motor operates in the same way as a balanced two-
phase motor.

Mukherjee
How Does a Permanent Split
Capacitor Motor Work?
A permanent split capacitor motor is a single-phase AC motor. Hence, we need a
single-phase AC supply to run this motor.
Two windings are connected in stator;
Main winding
Auxiliary winding (Starting winding)
The single-phase power supply is given to the main winding. And secondary winding
is connected via a capacitor C.
A capacitor is connected in auxiliary winding. Hence, the auxiliary winding is highly
capacitive, and the main winding is highly inductive.
Therefore, it creates a 90˚ electrical angle between main winding and auxiliary
winding.
When a single-phase supply is given to the main winding, Im current will flow through
it. Due to the capacitor, a short delay occurs in auxiliary winding. And Ia current will
flow through the auxiliary winding after delay.

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The current waveform passes through the main winding and auxiliary winding, as
shown in the figure below.

Mukherjee
The currents that pass through the stator produce a rotating magnetic field. This field
generates torque in the rotor, and the rotor starts rotating.
In auxiliary winding, a counter EMF is produced as the speed of the motor increases. And
this EMF will limit the current passes through the auxiliary winding.
When the motor operates at rated speed, a very small current passes through the auxiliary
winding. Hence, auxiliary winding (starting winding) will not be overheated.
When the load increases, the speed reduces slightly. A decrease in rotor speed causes a
reduction in counter EMF. And it creates a significant potential difference between counter
EMF and applied voltage.
The large potential difference causes an increase in the current of auxiliary winding, which
will cause an increase in torque of the rotor. Hence, the motor tries to operate at a constant
speed under varying load conditions.

Mukherjee
Split Phase Induction Motor
In addition to the main winding or running winding, a single-phase induction

motor’s stator carries another winding called auxiliary winding or starting winding.
A centrifugal switch is connected in series with auxiliary winding.
This switch aims to disconnect the auxiliary winding from the main circuit when the
motor attains a speed up to 75 to 80% of the synchronous speed.
We know that the running winding is inductive in nature. We aim to create the phase
difference between the two winding, and this is possible if the starting winding
carries high

Mukherjee
Advantages
The advantages of a permanent split capacitor motor are as listed below.
•This motor does not require a centrifugal switch. It also reduces the maintenance
of the motor.
•The efficiency of a motor is high.
•The capacitor is permanently connected to the circuit. Hence, this motor has the
advantage of a higher power factor.
•The pull-out torque of this motor is high.
Disadvantages
The disadvantages of a permanent split capacitor are as listed below.
•In this motor, a capacitor is used for continuous running. Hence, an electrolytic
capacitor cannot be used in this motor. For continuous running applications,
paper-spaced oil-filled type capacitors are required. And this type of capacitor is
costly and larger.
•A single value capacitor has low starting torque.

Mukherjee
Crawling of Induction Motor
It has been observed that squirrel cage type induction motor has a tendency to run at
very low speed compared to its synchronous speed, this phenomenon is known as
crawling. The resultant speed is nearly 1/7th of its synchronous speed. Now the question
arises why this happens? This action is due to the fact that harmonics fluxes produced in
the gap of the stator winding of odd harmonics like 3rd, 5th, 7th etc. These harmonics
create additional torque fields in addition to the synchronous torque.
The torque produced by these harmonics rotates in the forward or backward direction at
Ns/3, Ns/5, Ns/7 speed respectively. Here we consider only 5th and 7th harmonics and rest
are neglected. The torque produced by the 5th harmonic rotates in the backward
direction.

Mukherjee
This torque produced by fifth harmonic which works as a braking action is
small in quantity, so it can be neglected. Now the seventh harmonic produces a
forward rotating torque at synchronous speed Ns/7. Hence, the net forward
torque is equal to the sum of the torque produced by 7th harmonic and
fundamental torque. The torque produced by 7th harmonic reaches its maximum
positive value just below 1/7 of Ns and at this point slip is high. At this stage
motor does not reach up to its normal speed and continue to rotate at a speed
which is much lower than its normal speed. This causes crawling of the motor at
just below 1/7 synchronous speed and creates the racket. The other speed at
which motor crawls is 1/13 of synchronous speed.

Mukherjee
Cogging of Induction Motor
This characteristic of induction motor comes into picture when motor refuses to
start at all. Sometimes it happens because of low supply voltage. But the main
reason for starting problem in the motor is because of cogging in which the slots of
the stator get locked up with the rotor slots. As we know that there is series of slots
in the stator and rotor of the induction motor. When the slots of the rotor are equal
in number with slots in the stator, they align themselves in such way that both face
to each other and at this stage the reluctance of the magnetic path is minimum and
motor refuse to start.
This characteristic of the induction motor is called cogging. Apart from this, there
is one more reason for cogging. If the harmonic frequencies coincide with the slot
frequency due to the harmonics present in the supply voltage then it causes torque
modulation. As a result, of it cogging occurs. This characteristic is also known as
magnetic teeth locking of the induction motor

Mukherjee
Induction Generator
Working Principle of an Induction Generator:
Let us see, What is the working principle of an Induction generator?
For a three-phase Induction motor if the rotor is coupled to the prime mover
and if the Prime-mover is capable of driving the induction machine rotor at a
speed higher than the synchronous speed, it will be observed that energy is
returned to the AC Mains. The machine will then work as an Induction
generator.

Mukherjee
For induction generators, the value of the slip is negative as the prime mover rotates the
rotor at a speed higher than the synchronous speed. An induction generator is also called
an Asynchronous generator. Since the speed of the rotor is different from the synchronous
speed.
Operation of an Induction Generator:
The torque-speed characteristic curve of an induction motor is shown in the figure below.
The machine will work as a motor when the rotor speed is below synchronous speed and
the generator when speed is above synchronous speed.
The operating range of the machine as a generator is limited to the maximum value of
torque corresponding to a slip of OP as indicated in the figure.
There is a practical upper limit to the speed at which an induction generator can be
operated above synchronous speed. The speed of the generator should be
below breakaway torque. If the speed crosses above the breakaway torque the real power
generates quickly to a low value.

Mukherjee
Mukherjee
Protection required for an Induction Generator:
Over speed protection usually by governors or speed limit switches is required to

prevent the generator from reaching the pushover point and to generate real power
efficiently.
Reverse power relays are required to prevent the motor operation. These relays sense
the direction of power flow and disconnect the induction generator when it begins to
operate as a motor.
Under/over speed conditions the power factor capacitors must be disconnected from
the generator using a separate breaker to prevent over excitation and causes to
generate uncontrolled high voltages.
Induction Generator Types:

Grid connected Induction generator
Isolated Self-Excited Induction generator
Doubly fed Induction generator-DFIG

Mukherjee
Linear Induction Motor: Working
Principle, Applications and Design
What is Linear Induction Motor
A Linear Induction Motor (or LIM) is a special type of induction motor used to
achieve rectilinear motion rather than rotational motion as in the case of conventional
motors. Linear induction motors are quite an engineering marvel, to convert a
general motor for a special purpose with more or less similar working principle, thus
enhancing its versatility of operation. Let us first look into the construction of a
linear induction motor.

Mukherjee
Linear Induction Motor Design
The basic design and construction of a linear induction motor is similar to a three
phase induction motor, although it does not look like a conventional induction motor.
If we cut the stator of a poly phase induction motor and lay on a flat surface, it forms
the primary of the linear induction motor system. Similarly, after cutting the rotor of
the induction motor and making it flat, we get the secondary of the system.

Mukherjee
There is another variant of LIM also being used for increasing efficiency known as
the Double Sided Linear Induction Motor or DLIM, as shown in the figure below. It
has primary on either side of the secondary, for more effective utilization of the flux
from both sides.
When the primary of a LIM gets excited by a balanced three-phase power supply, a
flux starts traveling along the entire length of the primary. This linearly traveling
magnetic field is equivalent to the rotating magnetic field in the stator of a three
phase induction motor or a synchronous motor. Electric current gets induced in the
conductors of the secondary due to the relative motion between the traveling flux and
the conductors. Then the induced current interacts with the traveling flux wave to
produce linear force or thrust.

Mukherjee
If the primary is fixed and the secondary is free to move, the force will pull
the secondary in the direction of the force and will result in the required
rectilinear motion. When we give supply to the system the developed field
will result in a linear traveling field, the velocity of which is given by the
equation,
Where fs is the supply frequency in Hz, Vs is the velocity of the linear

traveling field in meter per second, and t is the linear pole pitch i.e. pole to
pole linear distance in meter.
For the same reason as in the case of an induction motor, the secondary or runner
cannot catch the speed of the magnetic field. Hence there will be a slip. For a slip of s,
the speed of the linear induction motor will be

Mukherjee
Application of Linear Induction Motor
A linear induction motor is not that widespread compared to a conventional motor,
taking its economic aspects and versatility of usage into consideration. But there are
quite a few instances where the LIM is indeed necessary for some specialized
operations.
Few of such applications are listed below.
Automatic sliding doors in electric trains.

Mechanical handling equipment, such as propulsion of a train of tubs along a certain
route.
Metallic conveyor belts.
Pumping of liquid metal, material handling in cranes, etc.

Mukherjee
AC Series Motor
The AC series motor is designed to work on AC and DC both. The stator is made of
laminations of silicon steel to reduce the hysteresis and eddy current losses. The
armature of the universal motor is the same as that of the ordinary series motor.

Mukherjee
Construction of AC Series Motor
An AC Series Motor is electrically almost similar to a D.C series motor. But there is a
very slight difference in the construction of AC series motor and D.C series motor. The
AC series motor, uses special metals in the pole pieces such as, silicon steel, which easily
reverses its magnetic polarity without causing residual magnetism to remain after the
reversal. Lamination is also done in AC series motor, in order to reduce the amount of
eddy currents generated in the pole pieces. By the use of special metals and laminations
in windings, the hysteresis and eddy currents are reduced. The AC series motor is shown
in the following Figure 2.

Mukherjee
Working of AC Series Motor
Whenever supply is given, the current carrying conductors are placed in the
magnetic field and a torque will develop to rotate in a particular direction. The
direction of rotation can be changed by changing the direction of current in series
field or in armature winding.
Generally, all AC series motors are provided with commutating poles to get
improved commutation (as in case DC motors).
Advantages of AC Series Motor

The motor is simple, less expensive and generally used for lower ratings. It is used
where high starting torque is required.

Mukherjee
Disadvantages of AC Series Motor
Because of the high eddy currents produced due to the alternating flux, the
efficiency of the motor is considerably reduced.
As the inductance in the field and armature circuits is high, power factor is low.
Starting torque is very less due to low power factor.
Due to high voltage and current induced in the short circuited armature coils in the
commutation period, sparking takes place at the brushes.
Applications of AC Series Motor
The applications of AC series motor are as follows.
They can be used in applications which require high speed.

Due to high starting torque they are widely used for driving excavators, hoists,
locomotives, electric traction.
They can also be used to drive permanently connected load.
It is used for sewing machine, table fan, vacuum cleaner, portable drill machines,
blowers and kitchen appliances etc.

Mukherjee
Construction of Deep Bar Double Cage Induction Motor
In deep bar double cage rotor bars are there in two layers.
Outer layer has the bars of small cross sections. This outer winding has
relatively large resistance. The bars are shorted at the both ends. The flux
linkage is thus very less. And hence inductance is very low. Resistance in
outer squirrel cage is relatively high. Resistance to inductive reactance
ration is high.
Inner layer has the bars of large cross section comparatively. The resistance is very
less. But flux linkage is very high. The bars are thoroughly buried in iron. As flux
linkage is high the inductance is also very high. The resistance to inductive
reactance ration is poor.

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Mukherjee
Operational Principle Construction of Deep Bar Double Cage Induction
Motor
At the stand still condition the inner and outer side bars get induced with
voltage and current with the same frequency of the supply. Now the case is
that the inductive reactance (XL = 2πfL) is offered more in the deep bars or
inner side bars due to skin effect of the alternating quantity i.e. voltage and
current. Hence the current tries to flow through the outer side rotor bars.

Mukherjee
The outer side rotor offers more resistance but poor inductive reactance.
The ultimate resistance is somewhat higher than the single bar rotor
resistance. The higher valued rotor resistance results more torque to be
developed at the starting. When the speed of the rotor of the deep bar
double cage induction motor increases, the frequency of the induced EMF
and current in the rotor gets gradually decreased. Hence the inductive
reactance (XL) in the inner side bars or deep bars gets decreased and the
current faces less inductive reactance and less resistance as a whole. Now
no need for more torque because the rotor already has arrived to its full
speed with running torque.

Mukherjee
Mukherjee
Comparison between Single Cage and Double Cage Motors
1.A double cage rotor has low starting current and high starting torque.
Therefore, it is more suitable for direct on line starting.
2.Since effective rotor resistance of double cage motor is higher, there is
larger rotor heating at the time of starting as compared to that of single
cage rotor.
3.The high resistance of the outer cage increases the resistance of double
cage motor. So full load copper losses are increased and efficiency is
decreased.
4.The pull out torque of double cage motor is smaller than single cage
motor.
5.The cost of double cage motor is about 20-30 % more than that of single
cage motor og same rating.

Mukherjee

Dee 401 Module I, II, V, Vi

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BRAINWARE UNIVERSITY

DEE401 CLASS NOTES Electrical Machine-II

Induction Motors [Module I and II]

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Where fe is the supply frequency and P is the

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4.  load  Pout  Pout

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• and total impedance Z2 on rotor side is given by ,

• Putting this value in above equation we get,

 s = slip of Induction motor

• Putting the value of flux φ, rotor current I2, power factor

2022-23 Prepared by: Subhajit

• Where, ns is synchronous speed in r. p. s, ns = Ns /

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• Starting torque is the torque produced by induction motor

• So, the equation of starting torque is easily obtained by

• The starting torque is also known as standstill

•So, for torque to be

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• The torque will be maximum when slip s = R2 / X2

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Input voltage is constant (E2=C)

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• Stable Region (OA)

in this region as load ↑, T↑, s↑

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in this region as load ↑, s↑, T↓

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Typical torque-speed characteristics of induction motor

Effect of rotor resistance on torque-speed characteristic

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Pin  3 VL I L cos   3 Vph I ph cos 

PAG  Pin  ( PSCL  Pcore )

Pout  Pconv  ( Pf  w  Pstray )

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Pin  3 VL I L cos   3 Vph I ph cos 

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 The slip at maximum torque is directly proportional

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