Prof. Dr.

Bilinç BULUCU, Restorative Department

Dental Amalgam

An amalgam is defined as a special type of alloy in which mercury is one of the components.
Mercury is able to react with certain alloys to form a plastic mass, which is conveniently packed
into a prepared cavity in a tooth. This plastic mass hardens and is stronger than any dental
cement or anterior filling material. Dental amalgam is the most widely used filling material for
posterior teeth. The alloys before combining with mercury are known as dental amalgam alloys.
Strictly speaking, however, this is a misnomer as they are not dental amalgam alloys but alloys
from which dental amalgam is prepared.
In dentistry, amalgam has been successfully used for more than a century as a restoration
material for tooth decay. Over the years its quality has greatly improved, thanks to a lower
amount of mercury and the addition of new components which can reduce its corrosion in the
oral cavity.

History of Amalgam
Amalgam was introduced into the USA by the Crawcour brothers (from France) in 1833.
However, at that point the use of dental amalgam was declared to be malpractice, and the
American Society of Dental Surgeons (ASDS), the only US dental association at the time,
forced all of its members to sign a pledge to abstain from using the mercury fillings. This was
the beginning of what are known as the first dental amalgam war. The war ended in 1856 with
the rescission of the old association. The American Dental Association was founded in its place
in 1859, which has since then strongly defended dental amalgam from allegations of being too
risky from the health standpoint. Early amalgam was made by mixing mercury with the filings of
silver coins. 1
The early amalgams expanded on setting. In 1895, GV Black developed a balanced
formula (67% silver, 27% tin, 5% copper, 1% zinc) for modern amalgam alloy. Black’s formula
overcame the expansion problems of the existing amalgam formulations.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF AMALGAM RESTORATIONS

Advantages of Amalgam:
* Resistance to compressive stress is good.
* Anatomical form is given easily.
* It’s preparation and inserting to cavity is easy
* Not affected by oral fluids.
* Clinical life is long (Durable and long lasting. )
* Resists to chewing pressure.
* Has adequate resistance to fracture.
* Does not harm the pulp.
* It has less technical precision compared to composite filler.
* The process is finished in one session.
* Not overly technique sensitive.
* Self-sealing; minimal-to-no shrinkage and resists leakage.
* Wears well and causes minimal wear of natural teeth.
* More economic than other alternative posterior restorative materials like cast gold alloys and
composite.
Dısadvantages of Amalgam
* It is not esthetic (The color does not match tooth structure).
* It is not resistant to tension stress - breaking stresses.
* It does not adhere to tooth structure, has no adhesion property.
* It has mechanical retention on tooth.( They do not bond to tooth structure. Requires removal of
some healthy tooth structure for cavity designing)
* It is a suitable material to corrosion. Corrosion products may stain teeth over time
* It easily transmits heat and electric current.
* It is a material suitable for galvanic effect (Galvanic action; Contact with other metals may
cause occasional, minute electrical flow.)
* It has fluency.
* It changes color over time, darkens.(They are subject to corrosion and may darken as it
corrodes).
* Secondary caries, large fractures are seen.
* They eventually show marginal breakdown.
* Environmental mercury concerns.

The metals present in the alloy and their ratios are

Classic Amalgam Today’s Amalgam
%65 Silver % 40 - 70 Ag
%29 Tin % 12 - 30 Sn
% 6 Copper % 12 - 30 Cu
% 2 Zinc % 0 -1 Zn
2
% 0 - 4 indiyum
%0.5 palladium
Hg % 43 - 50.5

Function of Metals in Alloy on Physical Properties

SILVER (Ag) %65;

- Major element in the reaction.
- Decreases the creep.
- Shortens setting time.
- It is responsible for reducing fluency.
- Increases the expansion on setting.
- Increases the strength, hardness
- Increases tarnish resistance in the resulting amalgam.

TİN (Sn) %29;

- Tin controls the reaction between silver and mercury. Without tin the reaction would be too fast
and the setting expansion would be unacceptable.
- Reduces strength and hardness.
- Reduces expansion
- Extends curing time
- Facilitates amalgamation due to its affinity to mercury
- Reduces hardness and durability of amalgam
- Reduces the resistance to tarnish and corrosion, hence the tin content should be
controlled.

COPPER (Cu) %6;

- Increases expansion
- Resolution is low
- Prevents excessive fluency.
- Increases durability, stifness
- Increases hardness and strength.
- Increases setting expansion.

ZİNC (Zn) %2;

- In small amounts, it does not influence the setting reaction or properties of amalgam. Zinc
acts as a scavenger or deoxidizer during manufacture, thus prevents the oxidation of affect the
properties of the alloy and amalgam. Alloys without zinc are more brittle, and amalgam formed
by them are less plastic.
- It has deoxidizing properties.
- Allows easy machining of alloy
- Helps cleanability
- If zinc contacts with moisture it causes excessive expansion
- Zinc causes delayed expansion if the amalgam mix is contaminated with moisture during
manipulation.
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PALLADIUM ( Pd) %0.5;
- It causes an increase in the mechanical properties of amalgam. It causes an increase to
resistance to corrosion.
- Provides less creep (permanent deformation) property to amalgam.
- Hardens and whitens the alloy.
INDIUM (In) (% 0 – 4);
- Indium when added to the mercury reduces mercury vapor and improves wetting. Indium can
also added to the powder. Though it reduces early strength it increases the final strength. It
reduces creep. (This material reduces the required mercury, as it wets the powder particles
more easily).

MERCURY (Hg)
- In some brands, a small amount of mercury (up to 3%) is added to the alloy. They are known
as pre-amalgamated alloys. Pre-amalgamation produces a more rapid reaction.
- It aids in the hardening, placement and shaping of the filling material.
- It ensures the filling to be strong against the pressures during chewing.
- Excessive mercury content causes expansion.

Amalgamation:
It is the name of the amalgam alloy being powdered and mixed with mercury until the particles
are wetted and thus initiation of the reaction between mercury and alloy. In traditional amalgam,
the main event is based on the reaction of the Gamma phase with Hg.
LOW COPPER ALLOYS
Historically amalgam alloys were low copper alloys. The composition recommended by
GV.Black in the late 18th century remained virtually unchanged until the late 1960s when the
high copper amalgams were introduced.

Constituents Percent

Silver 63–70%

Tin 26–29%

Copper 2–5%

Zinc 0–2%

Setting Reaction
When alloy powder and mercury are triturated, the silver and tin in the outer portion of the
particles dissolve into the mercury. Simultaneously, the mercury diffuses into the alloy particles
and starts reacting with the silver and tin within forming crystals of silver-mercury (Ag2Hg3) and
tin-mercury compounds (Sn8Hg). Silver-tin compound (unreacted alloy powder) is known as the
gamma (γ) phase. The silver mercury compound is known as gamma 1 (γ1) phase and the tin-
mercury as the gamma 2 (γ2) phase.
A simplified reaction is outlined below
Ag Sn + Hg  Ag Hg + Sn Hg + Ag Sn (unreacted)
Gamma(γ) + Hg  Gamma 1 (γ1) + Gamma 2 (γ2) + Gamma(γ)
AgHg (main reaction in hardened amalgam) 4

SnHg (weak phase, corroded)

AgSn (mechanically strongest phase)

The alloy particles do not react completely with mercury. About 27% of the original Ag 3Sn
remains as unreacted particles, which as previously mentioned is known as the gamma (γ)
phase. The properties of the hardened amalgam depends on the proportion of the reaction
phases. If more unconsumed Ag3Sn (γ phase) is present, the stronger the amalgam. The γ2
phase is the weakest component and is least stable to corrosion.

Amalgam reaction phases and symbols

Phases Symbol Chemically
Gamma γ Ag3Sn

Beta β AgSn

Gamma 1 γ1 Ag2Hg3

Gamma 2 γ2 Sn8Hg

Eta η Cu6Sn5

Epsilon ε Cu3S
Basic Phase and Properties of Amalgam:
1– Original gama phase: It is composed of Ag-Sn particles which are not dissolved in mercury.
Since it is the most mechanically resistant phase, it is desirable to keep the restoration in
maximum volume.
2– Gama 1 phase: It is the Ag – Hg phase that forms the matrix that binds the particles that
make up the gamma phase. Gamma 1 phase; Since it is the most resistance matrix phase
against darkening and corrosion, it must be kept in maximum amount.
3– Gama 2 phase: It forms only a part of the matrix. (Sn Hg). It is the weakest phase against
darkening and corrosion. The gamma 2 phase, has about %10 of the strength of the gamma 1
phase. It is tried to be eliminated.

Set amalgam consists of unreacted particles (γ) surrounded by a matrix of the reaction products
(γ 1 and γ 2). The properties of the hardened amalgam depends upon the proportion of each 5of
the reaction phases. If more unconsumed Ag3Sn (γ phase) is present, the stronger the
amalgam. The γ2 phase is the weakest component and is least stable to corrosion process.
Also present are Cu3Sn phase (ε or epsilon) formed from the small amounts of copper present
in the composition.

HIGH COPPER ALLOYS (Copper rates are between 10-30%)

High copper alloys contain between 10 to 30% weight copper. The majority of amalgam
restorations placed currently are high copper. They are preferred because of their improved
mechanical properties, resistance to corrosion and better marginal integrity.

Setting Reaction:
When the components are mixed the mercury begins to dissolve the outer portion of the
particles. Silver from the silver-copper eutectic alloy particles, and both silver and tin from the
silver-tin alloy particles enter the mercury. The tin dissolved in the mercury reacts with the
copper of the silver-copper particles and forms the Cu6Sn5 (η or Eta). The η crystals form
around the unreacted silver-copper particle. At the same time γ1 phase is also formed. As in the
low copper alloys γ1 surrounds everything forming the matrix. γ2 is also formed at the same
time but is later replaced by η. Thus in admixed alloy the undesirable γ2 phase is greatly
reduced.

Ag Sn + Cu + Hg  Ag Hg + Cu Sn + Ag Sn
Gamma + Cu + Hg  Gamma 1 + Cu Sn (η ) + gamma
The difference is; Sn Hg (gamma 2, γ2) has been eliminated and is replaced by copper- tin (Cu-
Sn, η) phase. To accomplish this, it is necessary to have a net copper content of at least 12
percent in the alloy powder.

Microstructure of Set High Copper Admixed Amalgam

The Cu6Sn5 is present as a ‘halo’ surrounding the Ag-Cu particles.
The final set material consists of Core particles of
- Unreacted Ag3Sn, (γ phase) and
- Unreacted Ag-Cu surrounded by a halo of Cu6Sn5 (η).
Embedded in a matrix made up of
- γ1 (Ag2Hg3).

Schematic representation of setting reaction and microstructure of admixed amalgam.

Amalgam properties can also be affected due to the shape of amalgam cut during production.
Amalgam can be spherical, lathe cut or hybrid type. 6

Spherical alloys Lathe-cut alloys

Particles are spherical Particles are irregular

Manufactured by atomization of Manufactured by milling an annealed

molten alloy ingot of alloy

More plastic (a contoured matrix is Less plastic and resists condensation

essential to establish proximal contour) pressure

Requires less mercury hence has More mercury required hence has
improved properties inferior properties

Spheric cut Lathe cut Hybrid (Mix) type

Advantages/disadvantages of Spherical high-copper amalgam

Advantages
1. Faster set.
2. Lower residual mercury.
3. Lower creep (slow progressive permanent deformation of set amalgam) during condensation.
4. Faster finishing.
5. Higher early strength.
6. Low condensation pressure.
Disadvantages
1. Less working time.
2. Condensation pressure not sufficient to displace matrix during condensation (while
restoring proximal cavities). Contouring of matrix band required.
GENERAL PROPERTIES OF AMALGAM
Amalgam is used in the clinic through the following steps:
1 - Adjusting the amount of mercury with amalgam powder
2 - Mixing amalgam powder with mercury
3 - Condansation
4 - Shaping
5 - Polishing
Each step can affect the quality of amalgam. The clinical success of amalgam restorations is
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highly dependent on the correct cavity design and selection and manipulation of the alloy. If a
restoration is defective, it is usually the fault of the operator and not the material.

1 - Adjusting the amount of mercury with amalgam powder. The ratio of alloy to mercury ranges
from 5: 8 to 10: 8. This proportioning is generally for hand mixed types. Mixtures containing
excess mercury are wet. Mixtures containing small amounts of mercury are dry and are
generally obtained by mechanical mixing.
In our date, the powder/mercury ratio is adjusted with automatic tools named amalgamators.

2 - Mixing amalgam powder with mercury

Trituration
The objective of trituration is to wet all the surfaces of the alloy particles with mercury. For
proper wetting, the alloy surface should be clean. Rubbing of the particles mechanically
removes the oxide film coating on alloy particles.
Trituration is achieved either by
- Manually by hand
- Mechanical mixing

Glass mortar and pestle.

Manual mixing
A glass mortar and pestle is used. The mortar has its inner surface roughened to increase the
friction between amalgam and glass surface. A rough surface can be maintained by occasional
grinding with carborundum paste. A pestle is a glass rod with a round end.
The three factors to obtain a well-mixed amalgam mass are
1. The number of rotations,
2. The speed of rotation and
3. The magnitude of pressure placed on the pestle. Typically a 25 to 45 second period is
sufficient.

Mechanical trituration
Mechanical amalgamators are more commonly used to triturate amalgam alloy and mercury.
- The disposable capsule serves as a mortar. Some capsules have a cylindrical metal or plastic
piece in the capsule which serves as the pestle. The capsule is inserted between the arms on
top of the machines. When switched on, the arms holding the capsule oscillate at high speed
thus triturating the amalgam. Most amalgamators have hoods that cover the arms holding the
capsule in order to confine mercury spray and prevent accidents.
- Reusable capsules are available with friction fit or screw-type lids. This type uses alloy in tablet
form and capsulated mercury. At one time not more than two pellets alloy should be mixed in a
capsule.

A) Mechanical amalgamator for preproportioned capsules.

B) Close-up of the mechanical arm that grips and vibrates the capsules (right).

With either type, the lid should fit the capsule tightly, otherwise, the mercury can spray out from
the capsule, and the inhalation of fine mist of mercury droplets is a health hazard.
Amalgamators have automatic timer and speed control device. The speed ranges from 3200 to
4400 cycles per minute. High copper alloys require higher mixing speeds.
Mixing time; The mixing time can vary depending on the speed, oscillating pattern, and capsule
designs. Spherical alloys usually require less amalgamation time than do lathe-cut alloys. A
large mix requires slightly longer mixing time than a smaller one. Manufacturer’s
recommendations should be followed when determining mixing speed and time.

Advantages of mechanical trituration

1. Shorter mixing time.
2. More standardized procedure.
3. Requires less mercury when compared to hand mixing technique.
Under-triturated mix
- It is rough and grainy and may crumble.
- It gives a rough surface after carving and tarnish and corrosion can occur.
- Strength is less.
- Mix hardens too rapidly and excess mercury will remain.

Normal mix
- It has a shiny surface and a smooth and soft consistency.
- It may be warm (not hot) when removed from the capsule.
- It has the best compressive and tensile strength.
- The carved surface retains its lustre after polishing, hence increased resistance to tarnish
and corrosion.

Over-triturated mix
- The mix is soupy, difficult to remove from capsule and too plastic to manipulate.
- Working time is decreased.
- Results in higher contraction of the amalgam.
- Strength increases for lathe-cut alloys, whereas it is reduced in high copper alloys.
- Creep is increased.

Three possible mixes.

(A) An under-triturated mix. (B) Correct mix. (C) An over-triturated mix.

MULLING
Mulling is actually a continuation of trituration. It is done to improve the homogeneity of the
mass and get a single consistent mix. It can be accomplished in two ways;
- The mix is enveloped in a dry piece of rubber dam and vigorously rubbed between the first
finger and thumb, or the thumb of one hand and palm of another hand for 2–5 seconds.
- After trituration the pestle is removed and the mix is triturated in the pestle-free capsule for 2–3
seconds. Mulling is not required for mechanical triturated amalgams.

3 - Condensation
The amalgam is placed in the cavity after trituration, and packed (condensed) using suitable
instruments.
Aims
1. To compact the mass to increase the density of the restoration.
2. To reduce voids.
3. To remove excess mercury.
4. To adapt the amalgam to the preparation walls and margins.
Proper condensation increases the strength and decreases the creep of the amalgam.
Condensation must always be done within the four walls and floor. If one or more walls of the
cavity are missing, a steel matrix may be used to compensate for it. Failure to use a matrix can
result in a poorly condensed and weak restoration. Amalgam can also escape into the
interdental space (amalgam overhang) resulting in inflammation, bleeding and pain.

Condansation of amalgam is an important stage of amalgam restoration. Press & turn.

10

Matrix retainers and bands. Their proper usage prevents overhang restoration. They support
amalgam material inside the cavity. Wooden wedges help to seal the embrasure area and
contain the amalgam.

Condensers
Condensers are instruments with serrated tips of different shapes and sizes. The
shapes are oval, crescent, trapezoidal, triangular, circular or square. The condenser type is
selected as per the area and shape of the cavity. Smaller the condenser, greater is the pressure
exerted on the amalgam. Condensation can be done manually or mechanically. For spherical
amalgams, a large condenser tip should be selected to reduce punching through and improve
condensation.

Condenser

Manual condensation
The mixed amalgam is held in an amalgam well. The mixed material is packed in increments.
Each increment is carried to the prepared cavity by means of a small forceps or an amalgam
carrier. Once inserted, it should be condensed immediately with sufficient pressure
(approximately 3 to 4 pounds). Condensation is started at the center, and the condenser point is
stepped sequentially towards the cavity walls. The smaller the condenser the greater the force.
Serrated condensers are preferable. The shape of the condenser should conform to the area
under condensation. A large circular condenser may be ineffective for cavity corners. For
corners a smaller point or a triangular or rectangular condenser is more effective. As the mix is
condensed some mercury rich material rises to the surface. Some of this can be removed, to
reduce the final mercury content and improve the mechanical properties. The remainder will
assist bonding with the next increment. Modern amalgams are fast setting and so working time
is short. Therefore, condensation should be as rapid as possible. A fresh mix of amalgam
should be ready if condensation takes more than 3 or 4 minutes. Long delays between mixing
and condensation, results in weaker amalgam. Spherical alloys have little ‘body’ and thus offer
only mild resistance to the condensation. When condensing these alloys, a larger condenser is
recommended. The cavity is overfilled so that the excess mercury rich layer can be
subsequently trimmed away during the carving process.

4-SHAPING & 5-FINISHING

Precarve Burnishing
Some operators perform a precarve burnishing. This condenses and smooths the surface
amalgam and reduces the voids and irregularities caused by the serrated condenser. It also
removes some of the overfilled mercury rich surface layer from the surface.
Carving
The restoration is carved to reproduce the tooth anatomy. Carving also removes the 11
weaker mercury rich surface layer. The carving should not be started until the amalgam is hard
enough to offer resistance to the carving instrument. A scraping or ringing sound should be
heard when it is carved. If the carving is started too soon, the amalgam may be so plastic that it
may pull away from the margins. Sharp carvers are used with strokes proceeding from tooth
surface to amalgam surface. Various carving instruments are shown in the picture.

Various amalgam carving instruments. Frahm, Cleoid, Discoid, Ward 2, Hollenback

Burnishing
After the carving, the restoration is smoothened, by burnishing the surface and margins of the
restoration. Burnishing is the plastic deformation of a surface caused by sliding contact with
another object. Fast setting alloys gain sufficient strength by this time to resist rubbing pressure.
Burnishing slow setting alloys can damage the margins of the restoration. Burnishing is done
with various types of burnishers using light stroke proceeding from the amalgam surface to the
tooth surface. Final smoothing can be done by rubbing the surface with a moist cotton pellet.

Ball Ovate T-ball Acorn

Various types of amalgam burnishers

Polishing
Polishing minimizes corrosion and prevents adherence of plaque. The polishing should be
delayed for at least 24 hours after condensation, or preferably longer. Wet
polishing is advised, so a wet abrasive powder in a paste form is used. Dry polishing powders
can raise the temperature above 60°C. If the temperature rises above 60°C, mercury is
released which may cause corrosion and fracture at the margins. High copper unicompositional
alloys with high early strength may be polished at the same sitting after the materials has
12
hardened sufficiently. However, polishing should be carried out delicately using soft abrasives
and gentle pressure.

PROPERTIES OF SET AMALGAM

Microleakage
Penetration of fluids and debris around the margins may cause secondary caries. Dental
amalgam has an exceptionally fine record of clinical performance because of its tendency to
minimize marginal leakage (see tarnish and corrosion).

Self sealing
The small amount of leakage under amalgam restorations is unique. If the restoration is properly
inserted, leakage decreases as the restoration ages in the mouth. This may be due to the
formation of corrosion products in the tooth-restoration interface. Over a period of time they seal
the interface and reduce leakage. Thus amalgam is a self sealing restoration. Both low and high
copper amalgams are capable of sealing against microleakage but the accumulation of
corrosion products is slower with the high-copper alloys. Initial leakage can be reduced through
the application of varnish on the cavity walls. Use of dentin bonding agents (bonded amalgam
technique) also show promise.

Dimensional Change
The earliest amalgams exhibited expansion while setting. This was because of the
greater mercury/alloy ratio used. Amalgams may expand or contract, depending on its
manipulation. Ideally, dimensional change should be small. Excessive contraction
can lead to microleakage, sensitivity and secondary caries. Excessive expansion can produce
pressure on the pulp and postoperative sensitivity. Protrusion of the restoration can also occur
(amalgam should not expand more than 0.15% or contract less than –0.1% at 37 °C, during
hardening). Mechanically, triturated modern amalgams, both low and high copper, prepared
from low mercury/alloy ratios show a slight contraction.
Theory of dimensional change Contraction When the alloy and mercury are mixed contraction
results initially as the particles dissolve and the γ1 grows. The final volume of γ1 is less than the
initial volumes of silver and mercury that go into making the γ1. Therefore, contraction will
continue as long as growth of γ1 continue.

Expansion
The γ1 crystals as they grow, impinge against one another, and produce an outward pressure
tending to oppose contraction. If there is sufficient mercury present to provide a plastic matrix,
an expansion will occur when γ1 crystals impinge on each other. After a rigid γ1 matrix has
formed, growth of γ1 crystals cannot force the matrix to expand. Instead γ1 crystals will grow
into interstices containing mercury, consuming mercury, and producing continued reaction.
Therefore, reducing mercury in the mix will favor contraction.
Thus, factors favoring contraction are
- Low mercury/alloy ratio
- Higher condensation pressure (squeezes out mercury)
- Smaller particles (consumes more mercury because of increased surface area)
- More trituration (accelerates setting) Modern amalgams show a net contraction, whereas older
amalgams always showed expansion.
Two reasons for this difference are
- Older amalgams contained larger alloy particles and were mixed at higher mercury/
alloy ratios. 13
- Hand trituration was used before. Modern amalgams are mixed with high speed
amalgamators (equivalent to increase in trituration time).

Effect of Moisture Contamination (Delayed Expansion)

If a zinc-containing-low-copper or high-copper amalgam is contaminated by moisture during
trituration or condensation, a large expansion can take place. It usually starts after 3-5 days and
may continue for months, reaching values greater than 400 μm (4%). This is known as delayed
expansion or secondary expansion. The expansion is caused by the releases of hydrogen gas
from the reaction of zinc with water.

H2O + Zn → ZnO + H2 (gas)

This hydrogen gas does not combine with the amalgam, but collects within the restoration,
creating extreme internal pressure and expansion of the mass. This causes protrusion of the
restoration out of the cavity, increased creep, increased microleakage, pitted surfaces and
corrosion. Dental pain, recurrence of caries, and fracture of the restoration are seen as a result
of these poorly inserted restorations.

Note
Moisture contamination after the cavity has been filled does not cause delayed expansion. Non-
zinc alloys do not show this type of expansion when contaminated with water. However,
moisture contamination of the mix of any alloy results in inferior physical properties.
Indications for zinc free alloys
Amalgam without zinc tends to be less plastic and less workable. These alloys are used only for
cases where it is difficult to control moisture, e.g. patients having excessive salivation,
retrograde root canal filling, subgingival lesions, etc.

Strength
Well designed amalgam restorations have sufficient compressive strength to withstand normal
intraoral masticatory forces.

Tensile Strength
Amalgam cannot withstand high tensile or bending stresses and can fracture easily in
improperly designed restorations. Therefore, the cavity should be designed so that
the restoration will receive minimal tension or shear forces in service.

Factors affecting strength

Effect of rate of hardening Amalgams do not gain strength as rapidly as might be desired. After
20 minutes, compressive strength may be only 6% of the one week strength. ISO specifications
stipulates a minimum of 100 MPa at one hour and 350 MPa after 24 hours. Since the initial
strength of amalgam is low, patients should be cautioned not to bite too hard for a least 8 hours
after placement, the time at which at least 70% of its strength is gained. The one hour
compressive strength of high-copper single-composition amalgams is exceptionally high (262
MPa), so the chances of accidental fracture is less. Even after six months, some amalgams may
still be increasing in strength, suggesting that the reactions between the matrix phases and the
alloy particles may continue indefinitely.
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Clinical significance: The rate of hardening should be considered during the placement of
amalgam. In class II restorations where a supporting matrix has been placed, removal of the
matrix should be done at the appropriate time. Early removal can result in fracture. Excessive
pressure on the restoration by the patient prematurely to test the occlusion can also result in
fracture.

Effect of trituration: Either undertrituration or overtrituration will decrease the strength for both
low-copper, and high-copper amalgams.

Effect of mercury content: Sufficient mercury should be mixed with the alloy to wet each
particle of the alloy. Insufficient mercury produces a dry, granular mix which can
result in a rough and pitted restoration which is prone to corrosion.
Excess mercury in the mix can produce a marked reduction in strength because of the higher γ2
content (which is the weakest phase—see setting reaction).

Effect of condensation: Higher condensation pressure results in higher compressive strength

(only for lathe-cut alloys).
Reason; A good condensation technique will minimize porosity and remove excess mercury
from lathe-cut amalgams. If heavy pressures are used in spherical amalgams, the condenser
will punch through. However, spherical amalgams condensed with lighter pressures produce
adequate strength.

Effect of porosity Voids and porosities reduce strength. Porosity is caused by

1. Decreased plasticity of the mix (caused by too low Hg/ alloy ratio, under trituration and over
trituration).
2. Inadequate condensation pressure.
3. Irregularly shaped particles of alloy powder.
4. Insertion of too large increments.
Increased condensation pressure improves adaptation and decreases voids. Fortunately, voids
are not a problem with spherical alloys.

Effect of cavity design

- The cavity should be designed to reduce tensile stresses.
- Amalgam has strength in bulk, therefore, the cavity should have adequate depth and width.

Creep
It is defined as a time dependent plastic deformation. Creep of dental amalgam is a slow
progressive permanent deformation of set amalgam, which occurs under constant stress (static
creep) or intermittent stress (dynamic creep).

Significance of creep
Creep is related to marginal breakdown of low-copper amalgams. The higher the creep, the
greater is the degree of marginal deterioration.

Creep values
In general lathe-cut low-copper alloys show the highest creep values, often exceeding ADA
limits. The lowest creep values are shown by the high copper amalgams.

Factors affecting creep 15

Microstructure The γ1 (Ag-Hg) phase has a big effect on low-copper amalgam creep
rates.Increased creep rate is shown by larger γ1 volume fractions. Decreased creep rate is
shown by larger γ1 grain sizes. The γ2 phase is associated with higher creep rates.
Single composition high-copper amalgams have very low creep rates, due to absence of γ 2
phase and due to the presence of η (Cu6Sn5) rods, which acts as barrier to deformation of the γ1
phase. Increased zinc content reduces creep.

Effect of manipulative variables: For increased strength and low creep values
- Mercury/alloy ratio should be minimum.
- Condensation pressure should be maximum for lathe-cut or admixed alloys.
- Careful attention should be paid to timing of trituration and condensation. Either under or over-
trituration or delayed condensation tend to increase the creep rate.

Tarnish and Corrosion:

Amalgam restorations often tarnish and corrode in the mouth. Black silver sulfide can form on
the surface of an amalgam restoration in some patients. Both high and low-copper amalgams
show corrosion. However corrosion in high-copper amalgams is limited because η phase is less
susceptible.

Factors related to excess tarnish and corrosion

- High residual mercury.
- Surface texture—small scratches and exposed voids.
- Contact of dissimilar metals, e.g. gold, and amalgam.
- Patients on a high sulphur diet.
- Moisture contamination during condensation.
- Type of alloy—low copper amalgam is more susceptible to corrosion (due to higher γ2 content)
than high copper. Also η -eta-(Cu6Sn5) phase of high copper is less susceptible to corrosion.
- A high copper amalgam is cathodic in respect to a low-copper amalgam. Therefore, mixed
high copper and low copper restorations should be avoided.

Corrosion of amalgam can be reduced by:

- Smoothing and polishing the restoration.
- Correct Hg/alloy ratio and proper manipulation.
- Avoid dissimilar metals including mixing of high and low copper amalgams.

Biological considerations:
Two types of potential biological effects can occur.
1. Adverse systemic effects of the mercury component.
2. Contact reaction of the mucosa with amalgam or amalgam corrosion products. (Oral lichenoid
reaction).
References
1- Basic Dental Materials, 4th Edition John J Manappallıl

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