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Big Study Guide For AP Test
Big Study Guide For AP Test
Learning O Pos. Punishment: Add something bad to hidden until useful (rats in maze get
(7-9 %) O
decrease a behavior (spanking)
Neg. Punishment: Take away
reinforced half way through,
performance improved
● CLASSICAL CONDITIONING: something good to d ecrease a behavior ▪ Cognitive maps – mental
PAVLOV! (take away car keys) representation of an area, allows
o Unconditioned Stimulus (US): brings O Primary Reinforcers: innately navigation if blocked
about response w/o needing to be satisfying (food and water) O Insight learning (Kohler!) – some
learned (food) O Secondary Reinforcers: everything else learning is through simple intuition
o Unconditioned Response (UR): (stickers, high-fives) (chimps with crates to get bananas)
response that naturally occurs w/o ▪ Token Reinforcer: type of secondary- O Learned Helplessness (Seligman!) – no
training (salivate) can be exchanged for other stuff matter what you do you never get a
o Neutral Response (NS): stimulus that (game tokens or money) positive outcome so you just give up
normally doesn’t evoke a response O Generalization: respond to similar (word scrambles)
(bell) stimulus for reward
Cognition
o Conditioned Stimulus (CS): once
neutral stimulus that now brings about a
O Discrimination: stimulus signals when
behavior will or will not be reinforced (8 – 10%)
response (bell) (light on means response are accepted) ENCODING: Getting info into memory
o Conditioned Response (CR): response O Extinction / Spontaneous Recovery: ● Automatic encoding – requires no effort
that, after conditioning, follows a CS same as classical conditioning (what did you have for breakfast?)
(salivate) O Premack Principle: high probability ● Effortful encoding – requires attention
o Contiguity: Timing of the pairing, activities reinforce low probability (school work)
NS/CS must be presented immediately activities (get extra min at recess if you ● Shallow, intermediate, deep processing:
BEFORE the US everyone turns in their HW) the more emphasis on MEANING the
o Acquisition: process of learning the O Overjustification Effect: reinforcing deeper the processing, and the better
response pairing behaviors that are intrinsically remembered
o Extinction: previously conditioned motivating causes you to stop doing ● Imagery – attaching images to information
response dies out over time them (give a child 5$ for reading when makes it easier to remember (shoe w/
o Spontaneous Recovery: After a period they already like to read – they stop spaghetti laces)
of time the CR comes back out of reading) ● Self-referent encoding – we better
nowhere O Shaping: use successive approximations remember what we’re interested in (you’d
o Generalization: CR to like stimuli to train behavior (reward desired remember someone’s phone number who
(similar sounding bell) behaviors to teach a response – rat you found extremely attractive)
o Discrimination: CR to ONLY the CS basketball) ● Dual encoding – combining different
● CONTINGENCY MODEL: Rescorla & O Chaining: tie together several behaviors types of encoding aids in memory
Wagner – classical conditioning involves O Continuous Reinforcement schedule: ● Chunking – break info into smaller units
cognitive processes Receive reward for every response to aid in memory (like a phone #)
● CONDITIONED TASTE AVERSION O Fixed Ratio schedule: Reward every X ● Mnemonics – shortcuts to help us
(ONE-TRIAL LEARNING): John number of response (every 10 envelopes remember info easier
Garcia – Innate predispositions can allow stuffed get $$) o Acronyms – using letter to remember
classical conditioning to occur in one trial O Fixed Interval schedule: Reward every something (PEMDAS)
(food poisoning) X amount of time passed (every 2 weeks o Method of loci – using locations to
● COUNTERCONDITIONING: Little get a paycheck) remember a list of items in order
Albert and John Watson (father of O Variable Ratio schedule: Rewarded ● Context dependent memory – where
behaviorism) – conditioned a fear in a after a random number of responses (slot you learn the info you best remember
baby (only to countercondition – remove machine the info (scuba divers testing)
it- later on) O Variable Interval schedule: Rewarded ● State dependent memory – the
● OPERANT CONDITIONING: after a random amount of time has physical state you were in when
SKINNER! passed (fishing) learning is the way you should be when
O LAW OF EFFECT (Thorndike): O Variable schedules are most resistant to testing (study high, test high)
Behaviors followed by pos. outcomes extinction (how long will keep playing a STORAGE: Retaining info over time
are strengthened, neg. outcomes weaken slot machine before you think its ● Information Processing Model –
a behavior (cat in the puzzle box) broken?) Sensory memory, short term memory,
● PRINCIPLES OF OPERANT COND: ● SOCIAL (OBSERVATIONAL) long term memory model
LEARNING: BANDURA!
● Sensory Memory – stores all incoming ● Encoding failure: forget info b/c you o Inborn universal grammar: theory
stimuli that you receive (first you have never encoded it (paid attention to it) in the comes from NOAM CHOMSKY –
to a pay attention) first place (which is the real penny) says that language is innate and we are
o Iconic Memory – visual memory, ● Encoding specificity principle: the more predisposed to learn it
lasts 0.3 seconds closely retrieval cues match the way we o Critical period: period of time where
o Echoic Memory – auditory memory, learned the info, the better we remember something must be learned or else it
lasts 2-3 seconds the info (like state dependent memory) cannot ever happen (language must be
● Short Term Memory – info passes ● Forgetting curve: recall decreases rapidly learned young – Genie the Wild Child)
from sensory memory to STM – lasts at first, then reaches a plateau after which o Linguistic determinism: language
30 secs, and can remember 7 ± 2 items little more is forgotten (EBBINGHAUS) influences the way we think (Hopi
o Rehearsal (repeating the info) resets people do not have words for the past,
the clock thus cannot easily think about the past)
● Working Memory Model splits STM developed by WHORF
into 2 – visual spatial memory (from THINKING
iconic mem) and phonological loop ● Concepts: mental categories used to group
(from echoic mem). A “central objects, events, characteristics
executive” puts it together before ● Prototypes: all instances of a concept are
passing it to LTM compared to an ideal example (what you
● Long term memory – lasts a life time ● Proactive interference: old info blocks first think of)
o Explicit (Declarative): Conscious new ● Algorithms: step by step strategies that
recollection ● Retroactive interference: new info blocks guarantee a solution (formula)
▪ Episodic: events old ● Heuristics: short cut strategy (rule of
▪ Semantic: facts ● Misinformation effect: distortion of thumb)
o Implicit (Nondeclarative): memory by suggestion or misinformation o Representative Heuristic: make
unconscious recollection (Loftus – lost in the mall, Disney land) inferences based on your experience
▪ Classical conditioning ● Anterograde amnesia: amnesia moves (like a stereotype) – assume someone
▪ Priming: info that is seen earlier forward (forget new info – 50 first dates) must be a librarian b/c they’re quiet
“primes” you to remember ● Retrograde amnesia: amnesia moves o Availability heuristic: relying on
something later on (octopus, backwards (forget old info) availability to judge the frequency of
assassin, climate, bogeyman) ● ALZHEIMER’S DISEASE: caused by something (over estimating death due to
▪ Procedural: skills destruction of acetylcholine in plane crashes due to recent events)
● Memory organization hippocampus ● Functional Fixedness: keep using one
o Hierarchies: memory is stored strategy – cannot think outside of the box
according to a hierarchy ● Belief bias: tendency of one’s preexisting
o Semantic networks: linked beliefs to distort logical reasoning by
memories are stored together making invalid conclusions
o Schemas: preexisting mental concept LANGUAGE ● Belief perseverance: tendency to cling to
of how something should look (like a ● Phonemes: smallest unit of sound (ch our beliefs in the face on contrary evidence
restaurant) sound in chat) ● Inductive reasoning: data driven
● Memory storage ● Morpheme: smallest unit that caries decisions, general specific
o Acetylcholine neurons in the meaning (syllable) ● Deductive reasoning: driven by logic,
hippocampus for most memories ● Grammar: rules in a language that enable specific general
o Cerebellum for procedural us to communicate ● Divergent thinking: ability to think about
memories ● Semantics: set of rules by which we many different things at once
o Long-term potentiation: neural basis of derive meaning (adding –ed makes Motivation & Emotion
memory – connections are strengthened
over time with repeated stimulation (more
something past tense)
● Syntax: rules for combining words into (6-8%)
firing of neurons) sentences (white house vs casa blanca) THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
RETRIEVAL: Taking info out of storage ● Babbling stage: infants babble 1st stage of ● INSTINCT: complex behaviors have fixed
● Serial Position Effect: tendency to speech patterns and are not learned (explains
remember the beginning and the end of the ● One-word stage: duh animal motivation)
list best ● Two-word stage: duh duh ● DRIVE REDUCTION: physiological need
● Recall: remember what you’ve been told ● Theories of language development: creates aroused tension (drive) that
w/o cues (essays) o Imitation: Kids repeat what they hear – motivates you to satisfy the need (driven by
● Recognition: remember what you’ve been but they don’t do it perfectly homeostasis: equilibrium)
told w/ cues (MC) ▪ Overregularization: grammar o Primary drive: unlearned drive based
● Flashbulb memories: particularly vivid mistake where children over use on survival (hunger, thirst)
memories for highly important events certain morphemes (I go-ed to the o Secondary drive: learned drive (wealth
(9/11 attacks) park) or success)
● Repressed memories: unconsciously o Operant conditioning: reinforced for
buried memories – are unreliable language use
● OPTIMUM AROUSAL: humans aim to ▪ Causes: same as anorexia o Exhaustion: body/you cannot take any
seek optimum levels of arousal –easier tasks SEXUALITY more, give up
requires more arousal, harder tasks need less ● Biology of sex:
o Hypothalamus: stimulation increases ● Type A Personality: rigid, stressful person,
sexual behavior, destruction leads to perfectionist. At risk for heart disease
sexual inhibition ● Type B Personality: laid back, nonstressed.
o Pituitary gland: monitors, initiates, and INDUSTRIAL/ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCH
restricts hormones ● Industrial / Organizational Psych:
▪ Males – testosterone psychological of the workplace – focuses on
▪ Females - estrogen employee recruitment, placement, training,
o Sexual Response Pattern: Excitement satisfaction, productivity
phase, plateau, orgasm, refractory period ● Ergonomics / Human Factors: intersection
(resolution phase) (cannot “fire” again of engineering and psych – focuses on
● HIERARCHY OF NEEDS: theory derived until you reset, guys only) safety and efficiency of human-machine
by MASLOW – needs lower in the pyramid o Alfred Kinsey: 1st researcher to conduct interactions
have priority over needs higher in the studies in sex, suggested that people were ● Hawthorne effect: productivity increases
pyramid very promiscuous. Studies lacked a when workers are made to feel important
representative sample, created scale of ● Theory X management: manager controls
● Intrinsic motivation: inner motivation – homosexuality employees, enforces rules. Good for lower
you do it b/c you like it o Homosexuality: biological roots: level jobs
● Extrinsic motivation: motivation to obtain differences in the brain, identical twins ● Theory Y management: manger gives
a reward (trophy) more likely to both be gay, later sons employees responsibility, looks for input.
more likely to be (hormones from mom) Good for high level jobs
Colleen.thompson@fortbendisd.com
(Missouri City, Texas)