Saati CD Seri̇grafi̇

STENCIL PRODUCTION – For ceramic tiles printing
Edition October 2004
BIOGRAPHY
André M. Peyskens was born in Belgium on the
7th July 1944. He joined SaatiPrint in 1985 with
established credits as a technical expert in the
area of screen stencil systems. His outstanding
reputation had been shaped during his 12 years
as technical executive with an international
company specialising in the manufacture of light
sensitive film products for the screen printing
industry.
André M Peyskens was schooled in Belgium and

England in graphic art and printing technology
studies. Since graduating he has spent more than
30 years in printing and associated industry
holding various management positions.
At SaatiPrint, his in-depth studies have focused on all factors that impact printing
results. He has worked closely with production teams to fine tune weaving and
product developments.
In his second role as a teacher André M Peyskens has travelled the world
participating and organizing seminars and providing technical consultations to
individual printers. This in addition to lecturing groups from all over the world at
SaatiPrint International Training Center.
As a technical writer, André M Peyskens received the “Swormstedt Award”. His

contribution to the screen printing industry won him to be inducted in 1990, as a
member of the US “Academy of Screen Printing Technology”.
The manual “Stencil Making – Technical Fundamentals” written by André M

Peyskens was first published in 1989 and in 2001 for the 2nd edition; it has been
translated in Italian, French, German, Spanish, Polish, Hungarian, Chinese,
Russian, Arab and Iranian and it is also used as a text book by graphic and
colleges.
2
CREDITS
Published by SaatiPrint S.p.A., Appiano Gentile, Como, Italy
Written by Andrè M. Peyskens
Technical Consultant Maurizio Riccò, Assoprint, Italy

Art Consultant, graphics Elisabetta Ghibaudi, SaatiPrint, Italy
and layout by
English text editing: Tina McCugan
Photos SaatiPrint S.p.A. would like to thank the Companies that

have contributed to the make-up of this manual by sending
the relevant documentation.
Antonio Lampecco, Belgium (Fig. 1a - 1b)

Assoprint, Fiorano Modenese, Italy (Fig. 23b – 32b –
42a – 43 – 47b – 49 – 50 – 64 – 68 – 69 – 70 – 71 – 87a – 87b
– 95 – 100 – 111 – 112b –115)
Iris ceramica SpA, Fiorano Modenese, Italy (Fig. 5 -
6b)
Stretch Devices Inc., Philadelphia, USA (Fig. 36a)
Nobil Bioricerche, Villafranca d’Asti, Italy (Tutte le foto
fatte con il microscopio elettronico)
SRS, Fiorano Modenese, Italy (Fig. 48 – 112a – 113d –
113e)
System SpA, Fiorano Modenese, Italy (Fig. 6a)
Tecno Italia Srl, Sassuolo, Italy (Fig. 5)
Illustrations Studio grafico Maderna, Milano, Italy
Date September 2004
Thanks to The author thanks SaatiPrint, SaatiChem and

Assoprint’s sales and technical team for the useful
support in the compilation of this manual.
No parts of this manual may be reproduced

without the written consent of the publisher.
3
FOREWORD
The scientific community believes that fifteen billion years ago, a physiological
phenomenon triggered off what is known today as the ‘Big Bang’. This exceptional
event is believed to be responsible for the creation of the Universe and above all,
the formation of our planet.
Over time, Man came into existence and instinctively realised that with minimal of
ingenuity and some help from water and fire, a handful of earth could be
transformed into useful objects such as drinking cups or bowls to handle his food.
Further motivated by the results of his creativity, he took advantage of this
convenient raw material, the clay, to model statues of a particular divinity or other
objects to delight the eyes, and also for trade purposes.
From the crust of the planet, Man found pigments and could not resist enhancing
the quality of his work, skilfully decorating his productions and extending his newly
developed ‘artistic expression’ to the embellishment of his ‘dwelling’. Examples of
this are the famous Lascaux grottoes, discovered in the nineteenth century,
displaying on their walls colourful pictures of prehistoric animals believed to date
back ten to fifteen thousand years ago.
Now let us move forward from the Ice Age to more modern times. Printing, a
modern technique for reproducing images on a large scale, played an important
part in the decoration of hardware. During the second half of the 19th century, the
original lithographic method was used to reproduce multicolour designs by a
transfer process referred to as decalcomania. Today, the finest porcelain is nearly
exclusively decorated by a process called screen printing. In the mid 70’s, tile
manufacturers recognised the potential of this ‘new’ imaging system and, with great
success, began decorating the millions of tiles that give panache to our
environment.
This manual is dedicated to ceramic tile decorators and is about creating images
from a stencil, a process dating back several centuries. More specifically, it
examines the preparation of stencils and some essential aspects closely related to
printing on ceramic tiles. The objective is first to guide the novice towards becoming
a successful pre-press technician, and secondly, to help the Manager to better
understand the importance of correct procedures in order to reach maximum
technical and economical efficiency.
Finally, this manual will allow the person in charge of Total Quality Management
sufficient perspective to create harmony between various production departments
through a better overall understanding of the production process. This is
fundamental for the growth of any business and any industry.
The Author
4
SUMMARY
BIOGRAPHY 2
CREDITS 3
FOREWORD 4
SUMMARY 5
CHAPTER I 11
1 PROCESS COMPONENTS 11
1.1 INTRODUCTION 11
1.2 THE SCREEN PRINTING PROCESS - its origins 12
1.3 THE SCREEN PRINTING PROCESS - today 13
1.4 SCREEN PRINTING PROCESS COMPONENTS 15

1.4.1 The screen 15
1.4.2 The stencil 17
1.4.3 Printing 17
1.4.4 The press operator 19
1.5 THE SCREEN FABRIC – essential requirements 19
1.6 TYPES OF FABRICS 20

1.6.1 SaatiPrint screen fabrics for the ceramic industry 21
21
Saatilene HITECH 21
21
Saatilene HIBOND 21
21
SAATILON 21
1.6.2 Fabric identification 21
1.6.3 The mesh count 22
1.6.4 The thread diameter 23
1.6.5 The mesh opening 25
1.6.6 The fabric thickness 26
1.6.7 Theoretical ink volume 26
5
1.6.8 Fabric weaving structure 27
1.7 GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF SYNTHETIC FABRICS 28

1.7.1 Polyester fibre 28
Tensile strength and elongation 28
Influence of temperature 28
Friction resistance 28
Electrical properties 28
Moisture content and swelling 28
Resistance to chemicals and solvents 28
1.7.2 Nylon fibre. 29
Tensile strength and elongation 29
Influence of temperature 29
Friction resistance 29
Electrical properties 29
Moisture content and swelling 29
Resistance to chemical and solvents 29
Table 1.1 - Saatilene HITECH – Fabric technical specifications 29
32
Table 1.2 - Saatilene HIBOND – Fabric technical specifications 32
33
Table 1.3 - SAATILON – Fabric technical specifications 33
CHAPTER II 36
2 THE STENCIL DEPARTMENT 36
2.1 INTRODUCTION 36
2.2 STENCIL PRODUCTION – Basic requirements 36

2.2.1 Designing the work place – flat screens 36
2.2.2 Designing the work place – rotary screens 39
2.3 INSTRUMENTATION 40
2.3.1 The screen fabric tension meter 40
2.3.2 The thickness gauge 41
2.3.3 The roughness meter 42
2.3.4 The radiometer 43
2.3.5 The Contact Moisture Meter 44
2.3.6 Exposure calculator and photographic step wedge 45
CHAPTER III 46
3 INTRODUCTION TO SCREEN MAKING 46
3.1 GENERAL CARE OF SCREEN FABRICS 46

3.1.1 Storage and care of the screen fabric 46
6
3.1.2 Storage and care of tensioned screens 47
3.2 SCREEN PREPARATION – essential requirements 47

3.2.1 Frame characteristics 47
3.2.2 The correct choice of frame 48
Table 3.1 – Guide for the selection of aluminium frames 50
3.2.3 Checking frame suitability 50
3.2.4 Preparation and cleaning of screen frames 51
3.3 SCREEN ADHESIVES 52
3.4 ROTARY SCREEN - characteristics 52

3.4.1 Rotary screen – principle and types 53
3.4.2 Preparation for screen making 55
CHAPTER IV 56
4 EQUIPMENT FOR SCREEN PRODUCTION 56
4.1 INTRODUCTION 56
4.2 Type of equipment 56

4.2.1 Pneumatic clamps system 56
4.2.2 Optimised pneumatic system for multi screens tensioning 57
4.2.3 SaatiPrint TOP 14 System 58
4.2.4 Mechanical tensioning system 58
4.3 ROTARY SCREENS 59

4.3.1 System diversification 60
4.3.2 Dual Ring ® Concept 60
4.3.3 The in direct system 61
CHAPTER V 62
5 TENSIONING PROCEDURES AND PRACTICAL RECOMMENDATIONS 62
5.1 SCREEN TENSION 62

5.1.1 What are the optimum qualities of a screen for tile printing? 62
5.1.2 Screen tension and tile printing 63
5.1.3 What is a High Modulus screen fabric? 64
5.1.4 What are the drawbacks of insufficient tension? 65
5.2 HOW TO MEASURE AND CONTROL FABRIC TENSION 65

5.2.1 The Newton tension meter 66
5.2.2 The manometer gauge 67
5.2.3 Measurement by percentage of fabric elongation 67
5.3 HANDLING THE SAATIPRINT TENSION METER 68

5.3.1 Zeroing the tension meter 68
5.3.2 Verification of the meter calibration 70
5.3.3 Master screen for checking tension meter calibration 70
7
5.3.4 Procedure for controlling calibration 71
5.4 TENSIONING PROCEDURES 72

5.4.1 Getting started with mechanical stretcher 72
5.4.2 Tensioning recommendations 72
5.4.3 Elongation method 73
5.4.4 Getting starter with pneumatic clamps 75
5.5 ROTARY SCREEN PREPARATION–general considerations 76

5.5.1 Tension recommendation – direct system 77
5.6 ADHERING SCREEN FABRIC TO THE FRAME 78

5.6.1 SaatiChem screen adesive - Ultrafix SB1/2 Plus 79
5.6.2 Handling SaatiChem Ultrafix SB1/2 Plus Screen Adhesives 80
CHAPTER VI 81
6 SCREEN FABRIC PRETREATMENT 81
6.1 INTRODUCTION 81
6.1.1 Factors affecting stencil adhesion 81
6.1.2 Fabric roughening 82
6.1.3 Fabric degreasing 83
6.1.4 Consideration on alternative fabric degreasing agent 84
6.2 FACTORY TREATED FABRIC – Saatilene HIBOND 85

6.2.1 Recommendations for the handling of Saatilene HIBOND 86
CHAPTER VII 87
7 SCREEN COATING AND PHOTOSTENCIL PROCESSING 87
7.1 INTRODUCTION 87
7.1.1 Basic stencil requirements 87
7.2 PHOTOSTENCIL CHARACTERISTICS 88

7.2.1 Diazo sensitised emulsions 88
7.2.2 Diazo photopolymer emulsion 89
7.2.3 Pure photopolymer emulsion 90
7.2.4 SaatiChem photoemulsions for ceramic tile decoration 91
Table 7.1 SAATICHEM stencil emulsions for ceramic tile decoration 91
7.3 PREPARING FOR SCREEN COATING 91

7.3.1 Storage recommendations 92
7.3.2 Screen coating and stencil prerequisites 92
7.3.3 Factors affecting coating thickness variations 95
Table 7.2 – Stencil thickness parameters – manual and automatic coating 95
7.3.4 Drying the coated screen 97
7.4 CONSIDERATIONS ON STENCIL PARAMETERS 98

7.4.1 Stencil thickness and drying method 98
8
Table 7.3 – Processing guide for SAATICHEM CERAMIC emulsions 100

7.4.2 Alternative coating techniques 100
7.5 ROTARY SCREEN – preparing for stencil processing 101

7.5.1 Coating rotary screens 102
7.5.2 Drying coated rotary screens 103
CHAPTER VIII 104
8 PHOTOSTENCILS EXPOSURE AND FINISHING 104
8.1 INTRODUCTION 104
8.2 DEFINITION OF LIGHT 104
8.3 SPECTRAL SENSITIVITY OF PHOTOSTENCIL EMULSIONS 105
8.4 LIGHT SOURCES 106

8.4.1 Light sources’ spectral characteristics 106
8.4.2 Light source geometry 107
8.4.3 The correct distance for stencil exposure 109
8.4.4 The light integrator 110
8.5 PRACTICAL CONSIDERATION ON PHOTOSTENCIL EXPOSURE 111

8.5.1 Litho film 111
8.5.2 Stencil characteristics and influence on exposure parameters 112
8.5.3 Screen fabric 113
8.6 ESTABLISHING CORRECT EXPOSURE 115

8.6.1 SaatiPrint Sensitivity Guide 116
Table 8.1 – Exposure correction guide 116
8.7 STENCIL WASHOUT 117
8.8 PROCESSING ROTARY STENCILS 117

8.8.1 Exposure of rotary stencil 118
8.8.2 Developing rotary stencils 118
8.9 STENCIL POST HARDENING 119

8.9.1 Stencil catalysing – FLAT AND ROTARY SCREEN 119
8.9.2 Catalysing procedure 119
8.9.3 Types of catalysers 121
Table 8.2 – SAATICHEM catalysers 121
8.9.4 Filling and retouching 121
8.10 The “EVOLUTION System” 121
CHAPTER IX 124
9 PRE-PRESS CONSIDERATIONS FOR HALFTONE PRINTING 124
9.1 INTRODUCTION TO HALFTONE CONCEPT 124
9
9.2 WHAT IS COLOUR? 125
9.3 HALFTONE ORIGINATION 127
9.4 HALFTONE PRINTING ON CERAMIC TILE 129

9.4.1 The ink and the screen fabric 129
9.4.2 Halftone ruling and the screen fabric 130
9.4.3 Halftone ruling and density range 131
Table 9.1 – Guide for the selection of halftone screen ruling and tonal range. 132
9.4.4 Stencil influence on halftone reproduction 133
9.4.5 Halftone screen angle 133
9.4.6 Halftone dot shape 134
9.4.7 Litho details resolution 135
CHAPTER X 137
10 THE PRINTING SQUEEGEE 137
10.1 INTRODUCTION 137

10.1.1 The squeegee function 137
10.2 SQUEEGEE COMPONENTS 137

10.2.1 Squeegee blade profile 138
10.3 FUNCTIONAL PARAMETERS OF THE SQUEEGEE 139

10.3.1 The squeegee durometer 140
10.3.2 Influence of the squeegee durometer on print quality 140
Table 10.1- Recommendations in squeegee selection* 141
10.3.3 Squeegee angle 141
10.3.4 Squeegee length 142
10.4 SQUEEGEE CARE AND MAINTENANCE 142

10.4.1 Measuring hardness of the squeegee 143
10.4.2 Blade storage and rotation 143
10.4.3 Squeegee sharpening 144
10.5 DURALIFETM SQUEEGEE 144

Table 10.2 – Color coding of DuralifeTM squeegees 144
10
CHAPTER I
1 PROCESS COMPONENTS
1.1 INTRODUCTION
The word ceramic is derived from the Greek keramos, meaning “clay”. In modern
times, it is used to describe all kinds of earth-based products that have undergone a
transformation through a firing process. Typical examples are: pottery, porcelain,
three-dimensional decorative objects, utility housewares and tiles.
After a first firing process the product has reached an irreversible solid state, but
may have retained some level of porosity and surface roughness which, depending
on the intended use may render the object unusable. For example, a flower vase or
bathroom sink must be able to hold water for a specific amount of time. A process
called glazing resolves the porosity problem and from a hygienic perspective, will
make the ware easier to clean, as well as to keep clean.
The glaze is a substance of a special formulation consisting of a suspension of

ground glass in water that can be applied using different methods shortly before the
object is to be fired (Fig.1). The result of firing is a highly smooth and glossy finish
with mechanical and heat-resistant properties. At this stage, the product is perfectly
usable. The ceramic product’s aesthetic and monetary value are further enhanced
with the addition of decorative designs of various processes.
a c
Fig. 1 - Glazing renders the ceramic ware

usable and durable while the decoration
process enhances the visual appearance
of the product.
Whilst all kinds of ceramics can be hand painted with the appropriate colours, mass
product decoration is best achieved with the screen printing process, a versatile
11
printing method that offers tremendous potential for specialized printing

applications. Screen printing is the only printing process with the ability to print
directly onto uneven surfaces, either concave or convex. It is also possible to
decide on the quantity of printable paste to be transferred, in function of the surface
porosity of the ware or the final effect to be achieved. The ceramic tile industry is
seeing a global increase in production output, as well as greater pressure to
produce the required quality within budgeted cost, and to deliver the jobs on time.
It is the aim of this manual to establish a strong foundation with respect to stencil
making and press set up, in order to help the operator in his tasks. The stencil that
breaks down during printing, fails to fulfil expectations, or does not faithfully
reproduce the original art work is not worth considering. If it were, it would soon
disrupt the course of normal production activities. It would be counterproductive and
would compromise a company’s competitive position.
1.2 THE SCREEN PRINTING PROCESS - its origins
Screen printing is not a new printing process. In fact, it is probably the most ancient
one if we consider that the stencil principle dates back to the Roman times in
Europe. An early forerunner of our modern-day screen printing stencil was
developed in the Far East around the 17th century. Human hair was used to tie up
pieces of specially treated vegetable leaves to outline the pattern to be reproduced.
However, we had to wait for the turn of the 20th century and the development of
suitable fibres for the process to become established and flourish as we know it
today. In its simplest form, the screen printing process relies on a screen produced
from a rigid outer structure, the frame, over which a special fabric has been tightly
stretched and fixed. Embedded over the surface of this screen is an image
identified by areas that have been filled in or left open accordingly (fig.2-3).
Fig. 2 - The
elements of the
screen printing
process: the frame
(a); the stencil (b);
the squeegee (c);
the ink and print
(d); the off-contact
(e); the support (f).
a b c
Fig. 3 - Stencil development (a); hand printing table for test printing on tiles (b); final product (c).
12
These elements combine to form the stencil. With the help of a squeegee, a
printable paste or ink, (compatible with the substrate being decorated) is deposited
through the stencil on the substrate, reproducing the original art work with a certain
degree of faithfulness.
While it is reported that the process originated from the Far East, Anglo-Saxon
countries were the greatest promoters, and labelled this novel image-making
system silk screen printing. Northern European countries made it a literal translation
by calling it siebdruck in Germany or zeefdruk in the Netherlands. Latin countries
created a name for the process deriving from the Greek words sericon for silk, and
graphein for writing: sérigraphie for the French speaking, and serigrafia for the
Spanish and Italians.
Fig. 4 - Serigraphy; screen printing reproduction of the artist’s

original is often supervised by the artist himself.
The word serigraphy was adopted by English-speaking
countries only to differentiate the same process used
as an artistic expression. Indeed, screen printing is
also used as an art form (fig.4). Artists would create
images to be reproduced by the screen printing
process under their own supervision. They would often
use unconventional techniques and would produce
limited editions of their work, thereafter numbered and
signed by the artist himself. These can reach quite a
high price when produced by famous artists.
1.3 THE SCREEN PRINTING PROCESS - today
Screen printing is an extremely adaptable reproduction process. It can be used to

imprint any type of shape or substrate, and unlike other printing processes, the
investment need not be high. While this is of great interest in general, it may also
turn into a trap. Screen printing should be seen as a system, meaning that it is
made of several elements that work synergistically. If one of these elements is
missing or not performing correctly, the system will not yield expected results,
qualitatively or economically. Within the context of ceramic tile production, any kind
of failure during printing will interrupt the production line, slowing down productivity
while creating some degree of production coordination difficulties. This is to say that
the process components and their capabilities must be fully understood in order to
produce an end product that reaches the objectives of quality and competitiveness.
13
Fig. 5 - Screen printing heads

introduced into single firing
tile producrion line.
Ceramic tiles are manufactured according different processes known as single

firing, double firing, third and even fourth firing for “lustro” applications. Screen
printing modules or presses are introduced within the production lines (fig.5) with
the purpose of embellishing the product (in this case, the tile), and increase its
market value. When screen printing was first introduced in the ceramic industry, flat
screens were used to produce the stencils, as no other techniques were known at
the time. In the early 1970’s, the first rotary screen was developed by “System” in
Italy, a manufacturer of equipment for the decoration of ceramic tiles. This stencil
type was and is still known today as the ‘Rocket’ and had a positive impact on the
growth of the screen process in the ceramic industry (Fig.6). Over the last five
years, further development in the makeup of rotary screens renewed the popularity
of the system, although flat screens continue to be utilized by the majority of tiles
producers.
a b
Fig. 6 - The ‘ Rocket’ (from System SpA) as a ready for the press stencil (a); a modern rotary
screen printing line (b).
! Since flat and rotary stencil making each have specific procedures,
individual sections will be dedicated to both, with the exception of aspects
they have in common. A yellow coloured background will make it easy to
trace the paragraphs dealing with rotary screen making..
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1.4 SCREEN PRINTING PROCESS COMPONENTS
Essentially, the process consists of a number of components which are all

instrumental in the success of the printing operation. It could be argued that any
printing technique follows suit. Nevertheless, it is a fact that screen printing
encompasses a rare number of interfacing players, each one of them being a great
potential source of variables. Following are just a few examples. Consider screen
fabrics that are produced in more than 300 types of specifications; squeegees that
come in many different configurations and hardnesses; the frame itself, from its
inconsistent make up and base material, etc. The following paragraphs give a brief
explanation for each one of these components, which will be further developed in
the context of the subject being addressed.
Thus, the essential components of the screen printing system are:
- the frame
The screen - the fabric > the stencil
- the photoemulsion
- the ink
Printing - the squeegee > the operator
- the press
1.4.1 The screen
The screen refers to the frame covered with the specific screen fabric at a given
tension (fig.7). It supports the stencil, which is produced at a later stage.
The frame: the function of the frame is to provide the outer limits of the screen and
give it the required rigidity. It is a most important element since it will have a direct
influence on screen tension stability and uniformity. Its profile conception and
material composition will greatly
influence its efficiency. While iron/steel
frames are common, aluminium is the
base material for the great majority of
screens, as it offers versatility in
features and the best compromise
between cost and quality.
Fig. 7 - Typical screen produced for a flatbed
screen printing machine.
The fabric: screen fabrics are woven for
specific purposes. They are produced
from the highest quality extruded yarn of
synthetic origin. Two types are used:
nylon (polyamide) and polyester. Today, polyester fabric is preferred by ceramic
printers due to its superior stability compared to nylon (fig.8). While nylon offers
better abrasion resistance, it is affected by hygrometric changes that are likely to
create dimensional stability problems. However, due to its greater elasticity (fig.8c)
15
it is sometimes chosen for special applications in the ceramic industry with

particularly low mesh counts when printing over uneven surfaces .
a b c
Fig.8 - Spool of monofilament polyester yarn for the production of screen printing fabric
(a); nylon and polyester yarns’ reaction to moisture (b); nylon and polyester yarns’
elongation and tensile strength (c).
The fabric performs many
functions. The stencil image relies
on it for supporting its finest details Polyester #
Most commonly PET or Poly-Ethylene-
whilst it greatly contributes to
Terephthalate polymer. A synthetic
stencil durability. Furthermore, yarn first introduced to the screen
screen fabric is the major process printing industry as multifilament fabric
component with respect to in the 1950’s and in the late 1960’s as
controlling ink flow and deposit on monofilament polyester fabric, a
substitute for nylon (polyamide) with
the surface of the tile. Screen
lower moisture absorption. Can be
fabrics, commonly called meshes stabilized at high tension levels.
are produced in a range of different
specifications to suit particular
requirements (fig. 9). Mesh #
Nylon / Polyamide
Most commonly Nylon 6 or Nylon 6,6, a
selection for tile decoration is based
synthetic polyamide polymer. Nylon
mostly on ink characteristics such fabric is strong and very elastic.
as granulometry and viscosity, but
also on the nature of the art work.
The originator of the art work and the stencil laboratory must keep these
requirements in mind.
Fig. 9 - Coarse
fabric for dry
printing ‘graniglia’
(a); medium mesh
count for wall and
floor tiles (b);
higher mesh count
for third firing (c).
a b c
16
The photoemulsion: the photoemulsion is the element that produces the stencil
image. It consists of a specially formulated synthetic liquid, of a desired viscosity
and solids content, and is rendered light sensitive by the addition of a sensitizer
salt. This enables the creation of an image on the screen through a
photomechanical process. Today, photoemulsions are formulated for particular
printing applications and production conditions.
1.4.2 The stencil
The stencil could be considered as the processed photoemulsion that reproduces

de artwork, supported by the tensioned screen fabric (Fig. 10). Since the ink
transfers through the stencil to the tile, stencil parameters together with the fabric
are instrumental in controlling print quality. For that reason a large part of this
manual will be dedicated to this aspect of the process.
Fig.10 - The stencil is made from

a special photoemulsion that
outlines the shape of the original
artwork.
1.4.3 Printing
In addition to practical experience which is an essential part of the trade, a skilled

press operator must possess a thorough knowledge of the following process
components:
The ink: in the graphic world, the word ink is used indiscriminately to describe the
pigmented base that ultimately results in a printed image, with the aid of a printing
plate (in this case, the stencil) and a printing press. The formulation of an ink is
based on the nature of the printing process and the substrate to be printed on. An
ink formulated for litho-offset is drastically different from that used for screen
printing. A screen printing ink for printing onto paper will also differ from that used to
print a PVC substrate or T-shirt and likewise for printing on ceramic tiles. While
English speaking countries rightly or wrongly use the term ink for the medium used
to print tiles, ceramic ink composition has little in common with other printing inks.
They are produced from various components such as frits (special ceramic glass),
pigments (oxide dyes), and other various raw materials. In order to be screen
printable, this mixture of powders needs to be mixed into a specific substance
generically known as “medium” or screen printing “vehicle”. As with other screen
printing applications, it is essential when preparing the screen printing paste to take
17
into account such factors as rheology, thixotropy, viscosity and particle size, to
ensure adequate flow through the mesh and acceptable behaviour on the surface of
the tile.
The components selected plays an

important role in the composition of the
printing paste. Other than determining # Rheology
A description of the flow properties
its viscosity, they prevent the paste
of a liquid, normally relating the
from drying prematurely into the mesh, change in measured viscosity with
or drying too slowly once deposited applied shearing force
onto the tile. Finally, the components
ensure that all solid particles are evenly # Thixotropy
Discribes a state by which a gel or
suspended and distributed to avoid
possible decantation, blocking of the emulsion (or ink) becomes thinner
with higher applied shear, then
screen which creates defects in the setting again when left at rest.
print.
The squeegee: the squeegee’s main function is to help the ink through the stencil
to create the image on the tile and then move the ink back across the screen in
preparation for the next print stroke. A typical screen printing squeegee consists of
a special polyurethane or rubber blade, affixed firmly into a rigid holder. The
squeegee and holder assembly can be designed for manual use or for fitting into a
printing press. The polyurethane or rubber blade material must offer a certain level
of elasticity, resilience and mechanical resistance. Squeegee blades are marketed
under several brand names and in a range of blade hardness. While the harder
blade will offer better print consistency and better mechanical resistance, a softer
one often needs to be used in the tile industry because tiles are not always perfectly
flat. The blade is a contributor to print sharpness. Pressure, hardness, angle, and
speed are all parameters that need to be understood and monitored.
Fig. 11 - Printing blades

come in different
grades and shapes and
are selected for the way
they will function in
particular applications.
The press: screen printing presses for tile decoration are modules that have been
engineered to fit within a production line, with each colour requiring its own printing
head. While a flatbed printing press is always used for the third firing process, either
flat or rotary screens are used in a single and double firing production line, with a
trend towards increased usage on single firing lines. It is obvious that if a problem
occurs at the printing stage and requires stoppage of the printing head to carry out
corrective actions, the entire production line will also be idled. It is therefore
18
essential to install printing equipment that is reliable, precision built, and easy and
quick to set up.
In addition to the printing presses

# Polyurethane
Polymer produced by the reaction of
described above, there are simple hand
printing benches intended for use by
isocyanate with polyol. Urethane QC or R&D technicians to conduct
linkage produces very resistant and small scale testing or verifications.
resilient polymers with backbones While these will produce good results, it
based mainly on polyether and should be remembered that any results
polyester polyols. Used in
adhesives and also in moulded form
produced by hand printing on a smaller
to produce squeegee. scale may not be reproduced to the
exact specifications on a production
line. This is due to the lack of process
control encountered during hand printing, such as squeegee pressure, squeegee
angle, speed of printing and flood coating.
1.4.4 The press operator
It is not disrespectful to consider the press operator as a component of the process.

While stencil making requires adequate experience from the stencil maker,
processing is more easily controlled with the help of modern processing equipment
and a certain degree of automation. While today’s screen presses are
technologically at their best, they need to be set up to optimise the performance of
the stencil and the printing medium’s characteristics. To some extent, this function
requires experience, flair and a sharp eye to evaluate the potential for print
problems that may occur suddenly or very gradually, and which may sometimes be
difficult to detect.
1.5 THE SCREEN FABRIC – essential requirements
Screen printing fabric possesses many product components that interact with each
other. And because the fabric is so intimately connected with all the other screen-
process components, we have to conclude that the fabric is arguably the most
influential factor on print quality. Therefore the general characteristics that are
expected from a high quality screen printing fabric are as follows:
• It must be evenly woven.

• It must possess high friction and abrasion resistance. This will enable the fabric
to cope with the mechanical stresses imposed by the squeegee friction
interfacing with the tile surface and the roughness of the ceramic ink.
• It must possess sufficient tensile strength, primarily to withstand the stresses
involved in screen making.
• It must be of a particular weave construction to enhance print quality.
• It must be resilient to maintain long term stability.
• It should be as insensitive as possible to pressure and impact.
19
• It should have the lowest possible swelling rate, as swelling would result in a
reduction of the open area of the fabric. Consequently, ink penetration into the
fabric would change if the fabric were affected by humidity during the printing
process.
• It should offer perfect adhesion to photostencil systems.
SaatiPrint has developed a wide range of screen fabrics to print on all kinds of
substrates. Some of them have been produced with specific screen printing
applications in mind. Ceramic inks or screen printable pastes are formulated for a
particular type of effect or surface typology and the granulometry needs to be taken
into consideration when selecting the fabric. In the same line of thought, ink
manufacturers must be aware of some of the limitations of the screen fabrics in
terms of mesh opening and thread count. Other than affecting print quality, the
screen fabric has a direct influence on the following factors:
• ink consumption
• ink flow through the mesh/stencil openings
• ink deposit
• print register
• stencil durability
1.6 TYPES OF FABRICS
Today, all SaatiPrint meshes are of synthetic origin. Since woven silk was rendered
obsolete by synthetic fibres in the '60's, screen fabrics have been produced either
from a monofilament polyester or nylon yarn. The fabrics are manufactured under
strictly controlled conditions in order to meet the weavers’ and end users’
expectations (fig. 12).
a b
Fig.12 - SaatiPrint carry out stringent Quality Control in all stages of mesh manufacturing
(a); QC report on mesh specification in conformity to ISO specifications (b).
Nylon fabrics have undergone few technological changes throughout the years and
have been nearly displaced by the more stable polyester. In very few cases, nylon
20
meshes are still selected for their greater ability to conform to uneven surfaces. It is
not unusual to come across the use of nylon mesh in cases of very low mesh
counts for special printing applications.
In the course of the last decade, there have been interesting developments with
respect to the molecular structure of the polyester used to produce screen fabrics.
The result is the production of a yarn that offers higher tensile strength with a lower
rate of elongation. Fabrics produced from this yarn are identified as HIGH
MODULUS. For the screen printing industry, this technological improvement
represents an important step forward benefiting all applications where consistency,
precision and stability are essential requirements.
1.6.1 SaatiPrint screen fabrics for the ceramic industry
Saatilene HITECH
This is a precision woven fabric made of high modulus polyester monofilament yarn
and is recommended for a wide variety of screen printing applications. As it is
almost impervious to changes in climatic conditions and offers a standard feature of
low elongation, Saatilene HITECH is an excellent choice for multi-colour and other
types of close tolerance work (Table 1.1).
Saatilene HIBOND
Saatilene HIBOND belongs to the family of high modulus monofilament polyester

fabrics. However, while other screen fabrics need thorough surface preparation
before applying any type of photostencil emulsion, this product is ready to use. Its
special factory finishing renders the use of degreasing chemicals or other adhesion
promoters unnecessary. Stencils produced with Saatilene HIBOND are guaranteed
to be of extremely high durability, a welcome feature where the printing conditions
are unusually harsh, due to the nature of the substrate or the ink system (Table
1.2).
SAATILON
SAATILON represents a range of fabrics woven exclusively with a nylon

monofilament yarn. Due to its inherent elastic properties SAATILON is traditionally
known to be particularly well suited for printing on uneven surfaces. In addition, it
offers excellent abrasion resistance and good permeability, both of which are key
features of the nylon fibre. SAATILON is, however, not suited for multi-colour
printing or close tolerance applications (Table 1.3).
1.6.2 Fabric identification
Mesh manufacturers produce a wide range of products that enable the user to
select fabrics that are compatible with one or even several printing parameters.
Screen fabrics are identified by the nature of the fibre and the number of threads
per unit of measurement (per centimetre or per inch), thread diameter, weave
structure and colour. The norm in the identification of screen fabrics is to name first
21
the brand name that symbolizes the nature of yarn, such as Saatilene HITECH,
HIBOND for polyester fibre, or SAATILON for nylon fibre followed by:
• the number of threads per linear centimetre (or inch).

• the thread diameter in microns (µm).
• the weaving structure (plain weave, twill weave)
• the colour of the fabric.
Because of the powerful influence of the fabric on the printing parameters, it is

imperative to have a good understanding of fabric basics. This knowledge will help
the operator identify the fabric grade most compatible with the nature of the task. In
selecting the screen fabric, one should also keep economics in mind. For instance,
high mesh counts are sold at higher prices than lower mesh counts. The final
decision should therefore take into consideration the complexity of the artwork and
the granulometry of the printing paste. When in doubt, the chemical company
producing screen printable pastes should be able to give specific information on the
nature of the product as an aid in identifying the correct mesh specifications.
Example:
Fig. 13 - Screen fabric identification
1.6.3 The mesh count
When selecting a screen fabric for a specific task, the first thing to consider is the
mesh count. Since the introduction of monofilament fabrics, the practice has been
to identify the product by quoting the number of threads per linear centimetre or
inch. Screen fabrics produced in Europe are woven to metric measurements. The
USA and some countries in the Far-East have not yet fully adopted the metric
system and for that reason the mesh count is converted into imperial
measurements. Most screen fabric specification tables will list the mesh counts
both in metric and imperial measurements. All figures referring to product
identification in this publication are expressed in metric, since it has been adopted
by a great majority of countries in the world. For those countries using imperial
measurements, a conversion can be found on the fabric technical specifications at
the end of the Chapter.
22
To some degree, the mesh count is an

indicator of ink volume and consumption,
as well as fabric strength. Due to the #
Metric to imperial
The factor to convert centimetre to
inherent nature of the screen printing inch is 2.54. Example: to convert a
pastes and substrates, printing on 62/cm mesh count into a mesh
ceramic tiles requires a range of fabrics count/inch, multiply 62 x 2.54 and
with adequate mesh openings as well as obtain 157.48. The result will be
optimum mechanical resistance. A large rounded up to 158/in in the mesh
specification chart.
amount of “low” mesh counts are
therefore used to achieve a high
percentage of all screen printing applications. Typical mesh counts for floor and wall
tile decoration are Saatilene HITECH 55.64 to 71.55/cm. Third firing technique
recourses also to higher mesh counts for the printing of fine decors. The mesh
selected will mostly be based on the design definition or technical requirement from
the screen printing paste when dealing with precious metals. It is not unusual to
select mesh counts up to 140.34/cm. In all cases it should be taken into account
that the fabric is the only support for the stencil image and must offer adequate
support for the finest details that need to be reproduced (fig. 14). A compromise
needs to be found between mesh count and percentage of open area to guarantee
optimum ink flow and detail reproduction.
a b
Fig. 14 - The mesh must adequately support the finest stencil details.
Correct selection (a); incorrect selection (b).
1.6.4 The thread diameter
The higher the mesh count the smaller the thread diameter, and vice versa. Each
mesh count offers the choice of at least two thread sizes, and sometimes more.
While the thread diameter has a direct influence on the print definition, it also
contributes to the fabric's overall strength. It is the nature of the screen printing
process to subject screen fabrics to great mechanical stresses, while the user
expects the fabric to perform consistently for as long a period as possible. The
measurement of the thread diameter is always stated in microns (µm), as the
extrusion equipment to produce and process the yarn is calibrated in microns.
23
Fig. 15 - Two screen fabrics identical by their mesh count but different in thread diameter; Saatilene
HITECH 90.40/cm (a) and 90.48/cm (b).
A quick and useful way to evaluate the fabric's relative strength is to calculate its
“specific cross section” (SCS). The SCS can be obtained by working out the area of
the cross-section of the thread and multiplying the result by the number of threads
per linear centimetres (fig.16). The result is expressed in mm²/cm. The higher the
figure, the stronger the material in relative terms.
a b
Fig. 16 - Calculating fabric Specific Cross-Section (a); specific cross section of the
most common mesh counts used in the tile industry.
Example:
Saatilene HITECH 43.80/cm

πr 2
x mesh count/cm
3.14 x (0.080)² x 43 = 0.216 mm²/cm
Saatilene HITECH 43.80 = 0.216 mm²/cm

24
From this simple example it is clear that Saatilene HITECH 43.80/cm mesh is
physically the strongest. The graphic in fig. 16b displays a mix of different mesh
counts' SCS. The higher the figure, the greater the strength.
When trying to identify the ideal thread diameter for a given mesh count, one should
consider the nature of the printed substrate, the length of the print run, and the ink
viscosity and granulometry. The thicker thread diameter may increase the strength
of the screen, and reduce accidental tearing, but may well hinder print definition of
the finest stencil. The selection of the thread diameter is therefore based on
common sense and experience.
1.6.5 The mesh opening
The figures given for the mesh opening correspond

to the space between the facing edges of two
adjacent threads (fig.17). High quality screen
fabrics are woven to ensure that the finished
product offers maximum accuracy in mesh opening
characteristics. The mesh opening is also
expressed in percentage of open area. In this
case, it is the ratio of the area covered by the
threads against the open area, and is calculated on
the basis of one square metre.
Fig. 17 - Screen fabric opening expressed in microns and in percentage of free area
Example:
Saatilene HITECH 55.64/cm PW:
120 µm aperture,
41 % open area.
Saatilene HITECH 55.80/cm PW:

95 µm aperture,
27 % open area.
Mesh opening measurement is useful when dealing with screen printing pastes with
large size particles.
Example:
If a ceramic ink is known to have particles up to 30
microns in diameter, any mesh count equal to and below
62.64/cm can be used. The opening has to be at least
three to four times greater in size than the largest
particles contained in the screen printing paste. If this
proportion is ignored, mesh blocking will invariably occur
(fig.18). The percentage of open area will be more useful
when making a relative comparison between different
mesh counts or fabric types.
Fig. 18 - In cases of insufficient mesh open area, ink particles will readily block the mesh opening.
25
1.6.6 The fabric thickness
Fabric thickness is the result of the combination of the number of threads, the
thread diameter and the woven structure of the fabric. Major changes in fabric
thickness result mostly from changes in thread diameter. Because it is not obvious
that a thicker or thinner fabric will give a higher or lower ink deposit (a thicker mesh
may have a lower relative open area) one less frequently considers this factor when
selecting a mesh count. That said, the total fabric thickness is needed to calculate
the theoretical ink volume of a mesh.
1.6.7 Theoretical ink volume
Fig. 19 - Fabric theoretical ink

volume: fabric thickness (th)
multiplied by percentage o
open area (%).
The ink layer deposited (printed) on the tile will vary from one mesh to another. As
long as all other parameters have remained the same, the major influencing factors
on ink deposit will be the percentage of open area combined with the fabric
thickness. From this it is possible to work out a theoretical volume of ink deposit.
This would correspond to the maximum amount of ink needed to fill the fabric
between its two planes (fig.19). For ease of reference, such data has already been
calculated and is expressed in cubic centimetre per square metre (cm³/m²).
This information can be found on the fabric specification tables of the mesh
manufacturer. Nevertheless if some of the composition of the printing ink changes,
it will affect the volume of ink deposited on the tile. The following factors will affect
the deposit.
from the ink point of view:
• percentage of thinner
• solids content
• granulometry
• viscosity
From the stencil point of view:
26
• change in fabric specifications

• variations in stencil thickness
• variations in fabric tension
From the printing point of view:
• the printing press – flat bed automatic, flat bed manual, rotary
• the squeegee hardness, profile, pressure and angle
• the print stroke velocity
• the flood coater profile, pressure, angle and velocity
• the off-contact distance
The tables of theoretical ink volumes can be helpful when selecting the mesh,
provided one is accustomed to one or several sets of job parameters that do not
vary too widely. However, since ceramic printing pastes contain large size
particles, it is more usual to look at mesh count and mesh opening (µm) when
selecting the fabric.
1.6.8 Fabric weaving structure
The weaving structure refers to the various ways the fabric’s threads are made to
cross and bypass one another during the manufacturing process (fig. 20a-c).
Screen fabrics are woven in plain or twill weave. In a technical data sheet the two
processes are universally expressed as ‘PW’ (Plain Weave) or ‘TW’ (Twill Weave).
In a PW fabric each thread crosses over and under one only (a) and has become a
first choice for fine details printing. In a TW mesh, one thread crosses over one and
under two (b) or over two and under two (c) and so forth in both directions of the
bolt.
Mesh counts from 120/cm and finer have been traditionally woven as twill weave
for technical reasons in the weaving process. Aided by technological improvements
in modern weaving looms, today’s screen fabrics can now be woven as fine as
180/cm in plain weave.
a b c
Fig. 20 - Plain weave mesh PW 1:1 (a); Twill weave mesh TW 1:2 (b); Twill weave mesh 2:2.
The tile decorator does not need to concern himself with this specification, since all
mesh counts below 120 th/cm are woven in PW. Higher mesh counts are produced
27
in both weaves, and the preference should go the PW types as long as the selected
mesh produces an adequate open area.
1.7 GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF SYNTHETIC FABRICS
This section describes the major mechanical, physical and chemical properties of
both nylon (polyamide) and polyester fabrics.
1.7.1 Polyester fibre
Tensile strength and elongation
The tensile strength of today's high modulus polyester fabric is higher than that of
nylon, while the elongation is appreciably lower.
Influence of temperature
Polyester fabrics offer good resistance to heat, remaining impervious to the hot
water spray used to process the stencil (35 to 45°C) or to similar drying cabinet
temperatures. However it is advisable to avoid persistent sources of heat above
45°C in close proximity to the mesh. When catalysing stencils, temperatures up to
70°C are accepted as long as the heat can be controlled and the timing does not
exceed 30 to 45 minutes.
Friction resistance
The friction resistance is essentially the same in wet and dry conditions.
Electrical properties
As polyester has a strong tendency to charge under friction, working under low
relative humidities should be avoided.
Moisture content and swelling
Typically, the moisture content of polyester at 65% RH at 20°C is 0.3 to 0.4%. At

100% RH it is 0.5%. As a result of low moisture absorption, polyester dries much
faster than nylon.
Resistance to chemicals and solvents
Polyester possesses very good resistance to mineral and organic acids. The effect
of alkalis, on the other hand, depends greatly on specific conditions. For example,
with soda or weak caustic soda solutions, the fibres suffer only slightly. Polyester is
considerably more sensitive to alkalis than is nylon, but on the other hand, has
considerable resistance to oxidising media. Solvents generally associated with the
screen printing process have no effects on the tensile strength of polyester and can
be safely used.
28
1.7.2 Nylon fibre.
Tensile strength and elongation
Resistance to tearing depends primarily on the degree of extension of fibre. The

relative wet strength of Nylon is equal to 80-90% of the dry value. Also when wet,
elongation values increase by 10-30%.
Influence of temperature
Nylon’s tensile strength and elongation capacity decrease with rising temperatures.
The strength of nylon will be adversely affected by the time factor and continuous
exposure to daylight.
Friction resistance
Nylon possesses the highest wet and dry friction resistance of any textile fibre
known today.
Electrical properties
Since the electrostatic charge decreases with increasing relative humidity, screen
production should not be carried out in excessively dry premises. A relative air
humidity of 65% is recommended.
Moisture content and swelling
The moisture content is strongly influenced by relative air humidity. At a relative air
humidity of 65% and a temperature of 20-22°C, the moisture content will be
approximately 4.2%. At a relative air humidity of 97% and a temperature of 20-
22°C approximately 8%. Moisture absorption involves a simultaneous swelling of
the material. Due to its sensitivity to climatic conditions, nylon fabric is not selected
for screen printing applications that require a relatively high degree of precision.
Resistance to chemical and solvents
Nylon offers good resistance to all solvents associated to the screen printing
process. It has a good resistance to alkalis but may be affected by some acid
chemicals.
Table 1.1 - Saatilene HITECH – Fabric technical specifications
MESH WEAVE NOMINAL MESH FREE FABRIC THEORETICAL SPECIFIC MAXIMUM
COUNT THREAD OPENING OPENING THICKNESS INK CROSS- RECOMMENDED
DIAMETER VOLUME SECTION TENSION
FROM-TO
cm inch µm µm % µm cm3/m2 mm2/cm N/cm
6.5 17 PW 385 1180 58 715 415 0.756 35-60

6.5 17 PW 500 1000 44 1000 440 1.276 35-60
7.5 19 PW 460 890 44 875 385 1.245 35-60
8 20 PW 400 870 47 745 350 1.005 35-60
9 23 PW 280 850 55 530 292 0.553 35-60
9.2 23.5 PW 385 701 41 693 284 1.070 35-60
29

FROM-TO
9.5 24 PW 280 810 55 533 293 0.585 35-60

10 25 PW 260 740 53 465 246 0.530 35-60
10 25 PW 350 650 42 750 315 0.961 35-60
11 28 PW 260 650 51 475 242 0.583 35-60
11 28 TW 400 550 33 880 290 1.382 35-60
12 30 PW 260 580 47 485 228 0.637 35-60
13.6 35 PW 280 455 38 504 191 0.837 35-60
14 35.5 PW 160 555 60 290 174 0.281 35-60
14 35.5 PW 200 515 52 410 213 0.440 35-60
15 38 PW 160 506 57 310 177 0.301 35-60
15 38 PW 200 475 50 365 183 0.471 35-60
15 38 PW 260 400 35 460 161 0.796 35-60
16.4 42 PW 260 349 33 468 154 0.870 35-60
18 46 PW 160 400 52 285 148 0.362 35-60
19 48 PW 160 370 50 290 145 0.382 35-60
20 51 PW 120 380 58 210 122 0.226 35-60
20 51 PW 160 340 46 280 129 0.402 35-60
20 51 PW 200 300 35 355 124 0.628 35-60
21 54 PW 160 330 46 275 127 0.422 35-60
22 56 PW 150 305 45 260 117 0.388 35-60
24 61 PW 120 290 50 216 108 0.271 35-60
24 61 PW 145 275 43 245 105 0.396 35-60
24 61 PW 160 250 37 274 101 0.482 35-60
25 63 PW 150 250 39 265 103 0.441 35-60
26 66 PW 100 285 55 170 93 0.204 35-60
26 66 PW 120 265 47 200 94 0.294 35-60
27 68 PW 120 250 44 227 100 0.305 35-60
27 68 PW 145 220 35 255 89 0.445 35-60
28 71 PW 145 212 35 280 98 0.462 35-60
29 74 PW 120 220 41 218 89 0.328 35-60
29 74 PW 145 190 32 240 77 0.513 35-60
29 74 PW 160 184 28 290 81 0.583 35-60
30 76 PW 120 213 41 200 82 0.339 35-60
30 76 PW 150 183 30 315 94 0.530 35-60
32 81 PW 70 245 61 110 67 0.123 24-26
32 81 PW 100 200 43 160 69 0.251 35-40
32 81 PW 120 190 38 205 78 0.362 35-40
34 86 PW 100 185 41 173 71 0.267 35-40
36 91 PW 100 178 41 175 72 0.282 35-40
36 91 PW 120 145 26 215 56 0.406 40-60
38 96 PW 90 170 42 161 68 0.242 35-40
40 102 PW 90 160 40 148 59 0.254 35-40
43 110 PW 80 150 43 132 57 0.216 35-37
43 110 PW 90 140 35 157 55 0.273 35-40
43 110 PW 100 132 32 180 58 0.337 40-50
45 114 PW 70 148 47 115 54 0.173 30-34
30

FROM-TO
45 114 PW 80 145 40 134 54 0.226 35-37

49 125 PW 70 130 40 116 46 0.188 30-34
49 125 PW 80 120 35 132 46 0.246 37-40
51 129 PW 70 120 38 118 45 0.196 30-35
51 129 PW 80 110 31 129 40 0.296 37-40
55 140 PW 64 120 41 105 43 0.176 26-31
55 140 PW 70 105 33 114 38 0.211 30-34
55 140 PW 80 95 27 140 38 0.276 40-45
62 158 PW 64 90 32 106 34 0.199 30-34
62 158 PW 70 80 24 121 29 0.238 35-37
67 170 PW 70 70 21 117 25 0.258 37-40
68 173 PW 55 89 36 89 32 0.161 25-30
68 173 PW 70 65 20 120 24 0.261 38-42
71 180 PW 55 80 33 91 30 0.168 25-30
73 185 PW 55 75 29 92 27 0.173 28-32
73 185 TW 64 68 24 115 28 0.235 32-35
77 196 PW 48 78 36 80 29 0.139 24-26
77 196 PW 55 70 28 90 25 0.182 27-32
77 196 PW 64 64 24 115 28 0.247 32-35
77 196 TW 80 45 12 175 21 0.386 35-40
90 230 PW 40 68 38 62 24 0.113 20-24
90 230 PW 48 55 27 81 22 0.162 27-29
95 241 PW 40 65 37 65 24 0.119 22-24
100 255 PW 40 55 31 64 20 0.125 26-28
100 255 PW 48 40 16 81 13 0.181 30-34
100 255 TW 48 45 20 87 17 0.181 30-34
100 255 TW 64 35 12 115 14 0.321 35-40
110 280 PW 34 53 35 56 20 0.099 22-24
110 280 PW 40 47 26 69 18 0.138 25-30
120 305 PW 31 53 40 48 19 0.090 21-24
120 305 PW 34 45 29 54 16 0.108 24-26
120 305 TW 34 47 31 64 20 0.108 24-26
120 305 PW 40 38 20 67 13 0.150 27-32
120 305 TW 40 41 23 70 16 0.150 27-32
130 330 PW 34 39 26 55 14 0.118 24-27
130 330 TW 34 41 28 60 17 0.118 24-27
130 330 PW 40 25 11 63 7 0.163 27-32
140 355 PW 27 43 36 42 15 0.080 16-18
140 355 PW 31 38 28 48 13 0.105 20-22
140 355 TW 31 42 34 54 19 0.105 20-22
140 355 PW 34 29 16 56 9 0.127 23-26
140 355 TW 34 32 20 60 12 0.127 23-26
140 355 TW 40 27 14 70 10 0.175 28-32
150 380 PW 27 35 27 44 12 0.085 17-20
150 380 PW 31 29 20 49 10 0.113 22-24
150 380 TW 31 34 27 55 15 0.113 22-24
31

FROM-TO
150 380 PW 34 25 13 56 7 0.136 25-27

150 380 TW 34 28 17 61 10 0.136 25-27
165 420 PW 27 30 25 46 12 0.094 17-21
165 420 PW 31 25 17 49 8 0.125 24-26
165 420 TW 31 30 24 60 14 0.125 24-26
165 420 TW 34 25 16 66 10.5 0.149 24-28
180 460 PW 27 25 20 43 8 0.103 18-22
180 460 TW 31 23 17 56 9.5 0.136 23-27
200 508 TW 31 18 13 60 8 0.151 23-27
Table 1.2 - Saatilene HIBOND – Fabric technical specifications

FROM-TO
cm inch µm µm % µm cm3/m2 mm2/c N/cm

m
43 110 PW 80 150 43 132 57 0.216 35-37

49 125 PW 70 130 40 116 46 0.188 30-34
49 125 PW 80 120 35 132 46 0.246 37-40
51 129 PW 70 120 38 118 45 0.196 30-35
51 129 PW 80 110 31 129 40 0.296 37-40
55 140 PW 64 120 41 105 43 0.176 26-31
55 140 PW 80 95 27 140 38 0.276 40-45
62 158 PW 64 90 32 106 34 0.199 30-34
68 173 PW 55 89 36 89 32 0.161 25-30
68 173 PW 70 65 20 120 24 0.261 38-42
71 180 PW 55 80 33 91 30 0.168 25-30
77 196 PW 48 78 36 80 29 0.139 24-26
77 196 PW 55 70 28 90 25 0.182 27-32
90 230 PW 40 68 38 62 24 0.113 20-24
90 230 PW 48 55 27 81 22 0.162 27-29
95 241 PW 40 65 37 65 24 0.119 22-24
100 255 PW 40 55 31 64 20 0.125 26-28
100 255 PW 48 40 16 81 13 0.181 30-34
110 280 PW 34 53 35 56 20 0.099 22-24
110 280 PW 40 47 26 69 18 0.138 25-30
120 305 PW 31 53 40 48 19 0.090 21-24
120 305 PW 34 45 29 54 16 0.108 24-26
120 305 TW 34 47 31 64 20 0.108 24-26
120 305 PW 40 38 20 67 13 0.150 27-32
120 305 TW 40 41 23 70 16 0.150 27-32
130 330 PW 34 39 26 55 14 0.118 24-27
130 330 TW 34 41 28 60 17 0.118 24-27
32

FROM-TO

m
140 355 PW 27 43 36 42 15 0.080 16-18

140 355 PW 31 38 28 48 13 0.105 20-22
140 355 PW 34 29 16 56 9 0.127 23-26
140 355 TW 34 32 20 60 12 0.127 23-26
150 380 PW 27 35 27 44 12 0.085 17-20
150 380 PW 31 29 20 49 10 0.113 22-24
150 380 TW 31 34 27 55 15 0.113 22-24
150 380 PW 34 25 13 56 7 0.136 25-27
150 380 TW 34 28 17 61 10 0.136 25-27
165 420 PW 27 30 25 46 12 0.094 17-21
165 420 PW 31 25 17 49 8 0.125 24-26
165 420 TW 31 30 24 60 14 0.125 24-26
165 420 TW 34 25 16 66 10.5 0.149 24-28
180 460 PW 27 25 20 43 8 0.103 18-22
180 460 TW 31 23 17 56 9.5 0.136 23-27
200 508 TW 31 18 13 60 8 0.151 23-27
Table 1.3 - SAATILON – Fabric technical specifications

MESH WEA NOMINAL MESH FREE FABRIC THEORETICAL SPECIFIC MAXIMUM
COUNT VE THREAD OPENING OPENING THICKNESS INK CROSS- RECOMMENDED
FROM-TO

m
6.5 17 PW 400 1170 55 715 393 0.816 25

6.5 17 PW 500 1000 44 970 427 1.276 25
7.5 19 PW 325 1030 57 600 342 0.622 25
8 20 PW 325 940 55 590 325 0.663 25
8 20 PW 400 900 47 780 367 1.005 25
9 23 PW 280 830 55 510 281 0.554 25
9.5 24 PW 280 790 54 515 278 0.585 25
10 25 PW 350 620 39 650 254 0.962 25
10.5 27 PW 250 730 55 450 247 0.515 25
11 28 PW 250 660 52 450 234 0.540 25
12 30 PW 250 600 50 465 233 0.589 25
12 30 PW 300 500 38 560 213 0.848 25
12.5 32 PW 225 590 52 420 218 0.497 25
13 33 PW 180 600 59 310 183 0.331 25
13.5 34 PW 225 530 49 422 207 0.536 25
14 36 PW 150 590 63 265 167 0.247 25
14 36 PW 225 500 47 432 203 0.556 22
15 38 PW 195 475 49 355 174 0.448 25
15 38 PW 225 440 42 427 179 0.596 25
15 38 PW 250 410 37 460 170 0.736 25
33

FROM-TO

m
15.5 39 PW 195 450 48 360 173 0.463 25

16 41 PW 195 440 46 360 166 0.478 25
17 43 PW 195 400 46 365 168 0.507 25
18 46 PW 195 365 43 350 151 0.537 25
18 46 PW 225 330 35 430 151 0.715 25
20 51 PW 150 355 51 264 135 0.353 22
20.5 52 PW 150 345 50 270 135 0.362 22
21 54 PW 150 335 49 266 130 0.371 22
21 54 PW 195 275 33 370 122 0.627 22
22 56 PW 140 325 49 256 125 0.338 25
23 58 PW 140 300 46 265 122 0.354 22
23.5 60 PW 140 290 45 262 118 0.362 22
24 61 PW 140 280 43 258 111 0.369 22
24 61 PW 150 270 41 280 115 0.424 22
26 66 PW 120 265 47 223 105 0.294 22
27 68 PW 100 275 54 182 98 0.212 22
27 68 PW 120 255 46 226 104 0.305 22
27 68 PW 140 235 39 260 101 0.415 22
28 71 PW 120 240 44 225 99 0.317 22
29 74 PW 120 225 42 230 97 0.328 22
29 74 PW 140 215 37 260 96 0.446 22
32 81 PW 100 220 47 180 85 0.251 22
32 81 PW 120 185 37 210 77 0.362 22
34 86 PW 100 195 43 180 78 0.267 22
34 86 PW 120 165 32 230 74 0.384 22
36 91 PW 120 153 30 240 72 0.407 22
36 91 TW 120 155 31 264 82 0.407 22
38 96 PW 90 175 42 170 71 0.242 20
40 102 PW 90 170 42 165 69 0.254 20
40 102 TW 120 135 27 261 70 0.452 22
43 110 PW 80 160 43 144 62 0.216 20
43 110 PW 90 140 36 175 63 0.273 20
45 114 PW 70 155 49 120 59 0.173 20
46 117 PW 80 135 39 135 53 0.231 20
49 125 PW 70 135 42 127 53 0.188 20
49 125 PW 80 125 38 145 55 0.246 20
51 129 PW 80 115 35 140 49 0.256 20
55 140 PW 50 140 55 84 46 0.108 20
55 140 PW 61 120 44 110 48 0.161 17
55 140 PW 70 115 37 120 44 0.212 17
55 140 PW 80 105 32 140 45 0.276 17
62 158 PW 61 100 38 104 40 0.181 17
62 158 PW 70 90 30 127 38 0.238 17
62 158 PW 80 75 23 140 32 0.311 17
66 168 PW 61 90 35 108 38 0.193 17
71 180 PW 61 80 32 111 36 0.207 17
34

FROM-TO

m
77 196 PW 50 80 37 83 31 0.151 17
77 196 PW 61 64 25 109 27 0.225 17
81 206 PW 37 85 49 64 31 0.087 17
81 206 PW 50 79 39 87 34 0.159 17
90 230 PW 44 68 37 75 28 0.137 17
90 230 PW 50 60 29 93 27 0.177 17
100 255 PW 30 70 49 53 26 0.071 16
100 255 PW 37 62 40 66 26 0.107 16
100 255 PW 44 56 31 81 25 0.152 16
110 280 PW 38 52 32 70 23 0.125 16
120 305 PW 30 55 43 55 24 0.085 15
120 305 PW 38 42 25 67 17 0.136 16
120 305 TW 38 44 27 72 19 0.136 16
130 330 TW 38 40 26 74 19 0.147 16
140 355 PW 30 38 28 53 15 0.099 16
140 355 TW 37 32 20 68 14 0.150 15
150 380 TW 30 35 27 57 15 0.106 15
150 380 TW 37 31 21 68 14 0.161 15
165 420 TW 30 30 25 59 15 0.117 15
165 420 TW 37 25 15 73 11 0.177 15
180 460 TW 30 25 21 60 14 0.127 15
200 508 TW 30 21 17 65 11 0.141 15
35
CHAPTER II
2 THE STENCIL DEPARTMENT
2.1 INTRODUCTION
For industrial applications such as tile decoration, the screen printing processes has
some unique features. First, there is the nature of the substrate, in this case the tile.
Second, the printing process is often integrated into the product manufacturing line.
The substrate is therefore characterized by its cost, nearly always high in contrast
to that for graphic/point of sale screen printing applications (papers, cardboard etc.)
Thus, correct stencil processing is a key concern, as stencil-processing errors will
destabilize the economics of the manufacturing process.
This chapter will provide an overview of stencil processing, including the facilities
and instrumentation required to produce stencils with the attributes that ensure the
desired quality of the final product.
2.2 STENCIL PRODUCTION – Basic requirements
The importance of a good stencil-production setup cannot be understated.

Production requirements from the printing department often place the stencil
laboratory under great strain. This is why workflow must be fine tuned, operators be
well trained, tasks should not overlap, and the equipment should be in good
working order and laid out in a logical floor plan. Such an environment will help
define clear working procedures so that staff substitution does not create a major
problem for the efficiency of the department.
Before production can begin, the following areas need careful consideration:
• practical laboratory layout for screen and stencil processing

• equipment reliability;
• adequate instrumentation for stencil processing and quality control
• staff training
2.2.1 Designing the work place – flat screens
A busy stencil laboratory is responsible for producing a large volume of stencils

within a limited timeframe. This emphasizes the importance of setting up the
screen/stencil production area with a view to maximizing production efficiency and
production costs. A well-planned screen laboratory will also provide a smooth
running environment for the staff. A model screen making department is suggested
in fig. 21 where three zones are dedicated to specific tasks:
Zone A: Dry zone for screen tensioning and storage.
36
Zone B: Wet zone for stencil processing: degreasing, washout and catalysing.
Zone C: Dry zone for screen coating, exposure and final inspection.
Fig.21 - Suggested layout for a flat screen production and stencil processing laboratory.
ZONE A
This area should be reserved for screen tensioning and, if desired, the storage of
screens ready for production. It should consist of the following:
• Frame storage (1);

• Loose fabric storage cabinet and dispenser (2) conveniently positioned in line
with the tensioning units (3);
• Storage cupboard/work top for chemicals, small working gears, tools, precision
balance (scale); wash basin (4);
• Double-access screen storage from zone A through to zone B for successive
production stages (5);
• For health and safety, this zone should have an efficient fume
extractor/ventilation system;
• White lighting.
ZONE B
This area should be reserved for degreasing and rinsing screens and thereafter,
developing and catalysing the stencils. Dual-access drying/storage cabinets will
separate zone B and C. Zone B should accommodate the following equipment:
• Washout booth for screen degreasing and developing (6 &14);

• Vacuum extractor to rid screens and stencils from excess water prior to drying
(7);
37
• Double side storage for degreased stencils (8);

• Sencil soaking tank for exposed stencils (13);
• Drying cabinets for stencil prior to catalysing (15);
• Inspection/retouching table (16) and area for application of catalyser;
• Precision oven for stencil catalysing (17).
The area of Zone B where the screens are degreased and developed should be
illuminated with yellow safelights, set on a “duck board” surface with a proper waste
water outlet.
ZONE C
This area is dedicated to screen coating, stencil exposure and final inspection.
There should be a storage/archive area for work input documents from the task
manager’s office. Yellow safe lighting is also recommended in this area. Zone C will
utilize the following equipment:
• Screen coater (9);

• Horizontal dryer for coated screens (10);
• Centering table (11);
• Stencil exposure units (12);
• Storage for finished stencils (18);
• Work top, storage cupboard and refrigerator combination for chemicals and
laboratory instruments (19);
• Manager’s office (20);
• Yellow lighting.
In the event of having to set up
stencil production facilities in one
single large room, the wet and dry # UV radiation
Invisible radiation with a wavelength
zones should be kept separated. It is
shorter than blue/violet light (400nm).
also important to ensure that the Wavelengths shorter than 300nm are
stencil exposure units confine the UV absorbed by glass. Exposure to high
radiation of the lamps to the exposure intensity UV radiation with wavelengths
area, so as to prevent accidental between 300-400nm should be avoided
exposure of coated screens in transit, unless eye protection and protective
clothing is worn.
and to shield employees from
irreversible eye and skin damage.
38
2.2.2 Designing the work place – rotary screens
Preparation of rotary screens requires different equipment than is used to produce

flat screens. The following workplace layout can be used as a guide (fig.22).
Fig 22 - Suggested
laboratory layout for
rotary screen
processing by the
direct system
• Screen tensioning (1);
• Coating machine (2);
• Drying cabinet (3);
• Exposure unit (4);
• Pre-soaking tank (5);
• Automatic stencil washout booth (6);
• Light table for retouching (7);
• Work top for stencil catalysing (8);
• Oven for catalysed stencils (9);
• Dual ring assembler (10);
• Office (11);
• Work top (12).
! There exist two systems for producing rotary stencils: direct and indirect.
The layout suggested above deals with the direct system. Rotary stencils
can also be produced from a flat screen, ie: indirect system. In this case the
laboratory for flat screens should be used up to the stage where the stencil
is mounted onto the rotary frame. Specialized equipment is necessary to
accomplish this last phase. Therefore, the rotary screen making laboratory
should make provisions to accommodate the kit needed for the flat-to-
rotary transfer procedure.
39
2.3 INSTRUMENTATION
A greater awareness of the need for better quality management is promoting the
use of control instruments engineered for the screen printing industry. These
instruments focus mainly on the prepress area of the manufacturing cycle and
include the following:
• Screen fabric tension meter

• Stencil thickness gauge
• Roughness meter
• Radiometer
• Moisture meter
2.3.1 The screen fabric tension meter
This instrument is used to monitor screen tension, during the mesh tensioning stage
as well as throughout the use of the screen. It reads the tension in Newton/cm and
is independent from the tensioning equipment (fig. 23). The tension meters used for
screen making are manufactured exclusively for that purpose and are offered in two
variations. The first type is the most popular and is based on a mechanical
principle. The second is electronic and displays the readout in an LED window
(fig.24). The mechanical instrument is the less expensive of the two and offers
acceptable accuracy. The advantage of the digital tension meter is its ability to be
integrated into a quality control system that issues printed results for archival
purposes. The digital tension meter can also be simply coupled with the control
panel of a large scale tensioning apparatus.
a b
Fig.23 - Saati Tension Meter (a). The tension meter reads the screen tension independently
from the tensioning apparatus (b).
40
Fig.24 - Range of
tension meters
found on the market
(front row, digital
tension meters).
2.3.2 The thickness gauge
Because variations in emulsion coating thickness will affect stencil exposure,

durability and printed tonal values, it is very important to maintain coating
consistency. The thickness gauge is by far, the stencil department’s most useful
instrument for identifying the optimum coating parameters and maintaining them
from screen to screen.
As illustrated in fig. 25 & 26, the thickness gauge works on the principle of magnetic
induction, and is used in
conjunction with a small, hand-held
test plate. The mesh or stencil is # Magnetic induction
A phenomenon where eddy currents are
placed in between the test plate induced in a conductor by an applied
and the probe, and displays magnetic field. Can be calibrated to
readings in microns (0.001mm). measure stencil and fabric thickness in
Some instruments are calibrated to microns when the strength of the
provide immediate stencil build-up induced current in the metal base-plate is
measured by a probe placed on the
results from calculating the opposite side of the screen.
difference between fabric and
fabric/emulsion combination. The
measurement precision of the instrument varies from one manufacturer to another.
Consult the instrument’s data sheet for this specification.
Fig.25 - The TQM

thickness gauge
represents an easy
way to measure
stencil
There are several thickness gauges on the market, and it is important to note that
the results will vary from one to another, particularly when measuring fabric
thickness. One reason for this is the irregularities in the fabric surface (mesh
openings and a cylindrical thread). Another reason is the design of the probe, which
is illustrated in fig. 26. The pointed head of one probe (a) will tend to dig into the
mesh opening while the flat headed probe (b) will encompass more thread, giving a
more realistic result.
41
Fig. 26 - Different probe type designs will

give off different readings of fabric
thickness
! While emulsion coating thickness can be taken before exposure, it should

be noted that a marginal difference will be noticed on the finished stencil.
2.3.3 The roughness meter
Until the late 1980s, stencil makers had only two ways to evaluate stencil quality:
inspecting it with a microscope, or
examining the print itself. While the
microscope is ideal for evaluating the #
Rz value
Engineering term used to
stencil’s edge definition or resolution, it
does not readily show the degree of describe average surface
roughness. Normally measured
uniformity, or roughness, of the stencil with a profile meter using a
surface. This issue was addressed in the travelling diamond tipped
early1990s, when the screen printing stylus or scanning laser probe.
industry began to use an instrument
adopted from the field of engineering.
Known today as a roughness meter (fig. 27), it measures the surface profile
typography of the screen, and gives a reading in microns. The roughness
measurement is known as Rz value.
a b c
Fig. 27 - Measuring surface stencil flatness with a “roughness meter”(a); the Rz value
(b); Rz Print outs (c).
By taking some readings at the surface of the stencil as illustrated in fig. 27a, it is
possible to obtain a relative idea of its uniformity. A low figure (flat curve) will
indicate a degree of acceptable uniformity, while a high figure indicates an adverse
condition. The meter reads the distance in microns between the highest and lowest
level of the surface undulation. Surface roughness should not, however, be
42
confused with stencil thickness. A low stencil thickness may show a high or low Rz
value depending on the screen coating technique applied.
Although different brands of roughness meters are available for stencil

measurement, they all operate on the same principle. A probe will take up to 5
readings at the surface of the stencil and the results obtained will be an average
figure between all the readings. Most instruments can then be connected to a
printer that will present the results in a graphic and digital form.
! Always take the measurements on the print side of a dry stencil. The
standard procedure is to place the instrument at an angle of 22° to avoid
mesh interference and to universalise the validity of the measurement.
2.3.4 The radiometer
Most modern exposure systems are supplied with a time counter that is activated
systematically every time the unit is turned on. In this way, it becomes easy to keep
an eye on the useful life of the exposure bulb. If this is not the case, one can use a
radiometer to evaluate the intensity of the
emitted light. The radiometer provides an
independent reading of light emissions and
# Nanometre
One nanometre (nm) is one
is a portable, battery-operated instrument thousandth of a micron or one
with a digital display. The radiometer’s main millionth of a millimetre. It is
used to measure light
unit connects to a sensor that isolates the
wavelengths.
light wavelengths to which photoemulsions
are the most sensitive. This is achieved
through the use of a wavelength-selector filter located in the sensor (fig. 28). The
radiometer is available with several types of sensors and is read in microwatts/cm2.
Fig. 28 - The radiometer will

evaluate the efficiency of light
intensity and distribution
It is essential to match the appropriate sensor to the wavelength emissions of the

light source. The most common type of UV bulb used for stencil exposure peaks in
the band of 400 to 420 nanometres. However, there are bulbs that emit in the 365
nanometres band, so it is best to verify the bulb type before purchasing the sensor.
The radiometer can be used for two distinct operations:
• to detect light emission variations (aging of the bulb)

• to establish the ideal distance between the exposure frame and the light source
Detecting light emission variations
43
One of the best uses of this device is to record the intensity of a new bulb, and
thereafter at regular intervals, to check for any loss of intensity. As a guideline for a
high volume stencil-making department, it would be appropriate to verify the state of
the bulb every three months. It is important to always place the sensor in the same
position on the vacuum-frame glass and to always maintain the same distance from
the sensor to the light source. If the reading obtained has dropped by half, it is a
sure sign that the bulb should be replaced. When a bulb is replaced, a reading
should be taken, recorded and dated.
! If the exposure unit has a built-in light integrator (fig.29), the light sensor
will automatically adjust exposure duration, compensating for the drop in
UV output. This will result in a longer exposure time. Since exposure
duration increases as UV output decreases, excessive heat may be found at
the surface of the vacuum frame. The heat will often crosslink the entire
layer of photoemulsion, including image areas masked by the film positive.
The result will be poor stencil resolution, due in part to difficulty in washing
out partially hardened image areas.
Fig. 29 Most good

exposure systems are
fitted with a light
integrator. Control panel
for light units (a); light
integrator cell (b).
a b
Establishing the optimum exposure distance
Using the radiometer for checking this parameter is a quick and simple way to set
up the ideal distance before embarking on stencil exposure. Hold the sensor
against the glass at the centre of the frame, and move it to the far corners of the
area normally occupied by the stencil. Note that it is normal to encounter a drop of
light intensity at the glass level in the far corners of the exposure frame. Compare
the readings within the stencil areas. If the readings prove to be lower at the
outskirts of the screens, it means that the exposure distance should be increased.
Warning!
When using the meter, always wear UV-protective glasses and avoid prolonged
exposure to the light. Remember that shortwave light rays like UV, may cause
irreversible eye damage or burning of the skin.
2.3.5 The Contact Moisture Meter
This is a very simple battery operated instrument to determine when a screen

stencil is dry enough to expose (fig.30). A screen that is not thoroughly dry before
exposure will not harden efficiently, will develop pinholes and become a potential
risk for long and difficult print runs. By placing the two poles in contact with the
44
emulsion surface of the screen, the moisture meter provides an instant reading of
the residual moisture content of the screen.
Fig. 30 - Aquacheck will indicate screen

readiness for stencil exposure
! Before measuring the misture content, make sure that the surface of the
coated screen is dry to the touch.
2.3.6 Exposure calculator and photographic step wedge
The exposure calculator consists of a series of neutral density filters of specific

transmission densities, placed onto a special test film reproducing a range of
coarse to fine lines and dots. The filters of different density will produce the
equivalent of 5 incremental exposures on the stencil (fig. 31) After washout, it
becomes relatively easy to select the area with optimum definition consistent with
the best exposure duration.
Fig. 31 SaatiPrint Exposure and Resolution

test film (a) with photographic step wedge (b)
to monitor stencil processing consistency.
a b
The step wedge is an inexpensive device that can be used any time to cross check
exposure time or check variations that could possibly occur during stencil
processing. The wedge consists of 21 steps of incremental density and is small
enough to be placed along the outer perimeter of the image during exposure of the
stencil. A certain number of steps will wash away during development, indicating
the correctness of exposure, water pressure or mesh pre-treatment.
45
CHAPTER III
3 INTRODUCTION TO SCREEN MAKING
3.1 GENERAL CARE OF SCREEN FABRICS
At the weaving plant, great care is taken to ensure that the fabric reaches its final
destination in a clean and optimum working condition. This does not mean,
however, that a stencil can be applied to fabric as it arrives. Furthermore, the same
care given the fabric at the mill should be taken by the recipient. Synthetic fabrics
are prone to static build up, particularly in low humidity conditions, and they can
attract dust and grease during transport. Any contact with skin leaves behind finger
marks. All dust and oils must be cleaned from the fabric prior to use.
3.1.1 Storage and care of the screen fabric
Mesh products are delivered in different forms: in master rolls directly from the
factory; in a shorter length roll as per the user's request; or in small cuts folded and
supplied in a plastic envelope. Finally, the fabric could be delivered already
tensioned on a frame by a local service centre. In all cases, the following handling
and storage recommendations apply:
• Avoid sharp tools to open the packages as they may inadvertently slit the mesh.
• If supplied folded, avoid piling up; unfold the piece and roll carefully onto a
smooth cardboard core, and avoid creasing the fabric.
• Always unfold or unroll the mesh over a clean, smooth and dust-free surface.
• Handle with clean hands.
• Inventory material wrapped in the original plastic protection should be stored in
a rack; it should be easy to reach and free from potential sources of damage
such as sharp raised edges or corners or other extrusions (fig. 32).
• Ideally, open rolls should be placed in a custom made storage dispenser so that
the required length can be dispensed without interference and without having to
remove the entire roll from its position.
Fig. 32
Poor screen fabric storage
may create damage to the
mesh (a); a practical storage
cupboard for working with
screen fabrics (b).
a b
46
Similar care should be taken when loading the fabric into the tensioning system.
Grease from lubricated parts can easily contaminate the surface of the mesh and
spoil it even before tensioning begins.
3.1.2 Storage and care of tensioned screens
Tensioned screens are very prone to contamination, as they are usually stored in
an open area. In this case, dust accumulation is the main problem. All inventoried
screens should be stored in an area designated for screen storage only, thus
facilitating easy identification and safe removal. The screen storage area should be
free of drafts, a primary cause of dust contamination. Dust accumulation on the
screen will make mesh cleaning more difficult and in extreme cases, may even
prove to be impossible to remove completely.
a b c
Fig. 33 - Avoid racking screens in contact with one another as friction may lead to
accidental splitting of the mesh (b); correct screen storage position(a/c).
3.2 SCREEN PREPARATION – essential requirements
Screen making consists of tensioning the selected fabric onto a purpose built frame.
As stated early in the introductions, there are two types of screens, flat and rotary,
and each needs to be considered separately with respect to screen preparation.
3.2.1 Frame characteristics
A distinct characteristic of a flat screen as compared to rotary is the necessity to

print in off-contact position to enable adequate separation between the tile and
stencil interface (fig. 34). With a rotary screen, the separation is systematic as the
tile, in a tangent position with the rotary stencil, moves away from the screen. In a
flat screen printing situation, this separation, called snap off, is made possible by
the setting up of an off- contact distance between the stencil and the tile.
47
a b
Fig. 34 - Flat screen (a): off contact creates snap off; rotary screen (b): snap off created from rotary
screen rotation.
This illustrates that the stencil is fixed and the squeegee moves across the screen;
simultaneously, the tile remains fixed during the squeegee stroke. Therefore, the
squeegee’s function is to bring the stencil surface in contact with the tile to create
the print. The off-contact parameter is critical as it may affect print sharpness and
tonal values if not correctly set up. So, we can make the following conclusions with
regard to flat screens:
• It is essential to pay great attention to the structure of the frame.

• The frame has a direct influence on the final tension level.
• The frame has a direct influence on the tension uniformity of the fabric.
From the moment the screen is freed from the tensioning device, the frame is
placed under a substantial amount of strain from pulling force of the fabric.
Consequently, the frame plays an important role, to oppose the pull of the fabric
and thus create a balance of forces. If opposite sides of the frame bend inward as a
result of the fabric's tension, a loss in tension will be encountered at the centre of
the screen (fig. 35).
Fig. 35 - A weak frame structure

will give rise to uneven tension
distribution and will affect the
flatness of the frame.
Frame deflection will remain

permanent until the frame is
recycled, and will generate irregularities in tension distribution. This situation will
affect not only print registration but will also create uneven pressure points at the
levels of the squeegee/stencil interfaces. This scenario clearly highlights the
importance of the correct choice of cross-section configuration for the size of frame
used.
3.2.2 The correct choice of frame
An extensive variety of frames is available to the screen printing industry. One

group of frames is categorized as retensionable and features its own built-in
48
tensioning mechanism. While this type eliminates the need for special screen
adhesive and is supplied on the basis of its practicality (adjustment on the press or
in between jobs), batch processing is not possible. This may be a handicap for the
ceramic industry, which is accustomed to outputting a great number of screens and
stencils on a daily basis.
a b
Fig. 36 - Typical “roller-type” retensionable frame (a) and the ‘stretch-and- glue’ type exclusively used
in the ceramic industry (b).
The second category of frame, and the most universal one, consists of a simple
fixed structure over which the fabric is tensioned and permanently adhered with a
special screen adhesive.
It is not unusual to encounter wooden frames, even in countries that pioneered the
screen printing process. If, however, we want to standardize the process with the
view of eliminating variables, wooden frames should be avoided. The cost of a high
quality wood with adequate finish is prohibitive. Metal frames must be used
whenever possible. These can be made of steel, a combination of iron and steel, or
aluminium. Steel and iron frames are very much prone to rusting unless stainless
steel is used or the iron frame lacquered. Overall, aluminium frames have the most
to offer and are, in fact, the prevailing choice for the majority of screen printing
applications. Despite aluminium’s higher cost, it offers some tangible benefits. It
resists rusting, it is relatively lightweight, and frame manufacturers are able to offer
a large range of different profile configurations and wall thickness to cope with the
increasing demand for frame-distortion resistance (fig. 37).
a b c
Fig. 37 - Various types of frames for screen/stencil making: steel frame – slope box section (a);
aluminium frame with double wall thickness profile (b); aluminium profile with transversal
reinforcement (c).
49
The table below can be used as a guide for the selection of frame dimension versus
the size of the tile and the recommended profile. For the selection of the overall
frame dimensions, it is also suggested to add 30 cm to the width and 40 cm to the
length (print stroke direction)
of the design. This will
minimize fabric/stencil
stresses during printing along
the zones covered by the
squeegee ends (fig. 38).
Fig. 38 - Ideal image size/frame

dimension to optimise squeegee
pressure uniformity (a); five points
tension check on screen (b).
a b
Table 3.1 – Guide for the selection of aluminium frames
Tile dimension Frame size Cross section / wall

thickness
cm cm mm
10x10 45x55
15x15 50x55
15x20 50x60
20x20 50x60
20x25 55x65
20x30 50x70
25x33 55x75 25 x 25 x 1.5
25x35 55x75
25x40 60x80
30x40 60x80
33x33 70x75
40x40 70x90
50x50 90x100
3.2.3 Checking frame suitability
The frame controls tension uniformity of the screen. It stands to reason that if the
screen is warped, tension variations will be noticed. An important aspect of frame
quality is its ability to resist bowing after tensioning. This can be verified by
monitoring the tension in five specific points, in the centre and also in a band
situated at 15 cm from the inside edge of the frame (fig. 38b). This rule may apply
to all frame dimensions listed above. If the frame selection is correct, the tension
should be uniform in all five points. If the centre displays a drop of more than one
N/cm compared to the four other locations, the frame is not ideally suited for
production. This situation may well occur with overworked frames. Like screen
fabric, metal has an elastic memory. It will reach a point where beams of the frame
will fatigue. Monitor the age of frames to avoid mixing old and new parts, which
50
adversely affect screen-to-screen tension consistency. An alternative is to select a

frame with a heavier wall thickness, reinforced profile or larger box section.
3.2.4 Preparation and cleaning of screen frames
To obtain the best results when bonding two surfaces together, it is imperative that
they are prepared properly. This means the screen frame, as well as the fabric,
must be free of grease or oil contaminants, dust and dirt and above all free of any
high spots. The surface of a new frame must be
clean and dry before applying the screen
adhesive. Sometimes special preparation is
needed to ensure optimum bonding of the mesh,
to avoid the risk of slippage at a later stage. The
surface of metal frames should be abraded
when they are used for the first time (Fig. 39).
Fig. 39 - Abrading new frames improves the bonding
between fabric and metal
Because of the known difficulty in getting the
mesh to key to the bare metal,most
manufacturers supply frames that are abraded or sandblasted. If this is not the
case, the abrading operation can be done with a medium-grade sand paper or a
power grinding disc. After this process, do not forget to clean any metal residue
from the frame. For optimum safety in mesh gluing, prime the surface of new
frames with a coat of fabric adhesive. This can be done as little as five minutes just
prior to use, or it can be done routinely when new frames are delivered. A good
quality screen adhesive applied as per the recommendations of the manufacturer
will eliminate the need to prime the surface of new frames.
Previously used frames should already offer a good ground for fabric bonding.
However, it is important that the surface remains perfectly uniform. Any residual,
localised accumulation of old, hardened adhesives may puncture or tear new fabric
during tensioning and may also prevent intimate contact between the fabric and the
frame surface. (fig.40).
It is suggested to use ULTRAFIX REMOVE to remove all the adhesive from frame.
Fig. 40 - Ensure that the surface of the frame is uniform before adhering the fabric.
51
3.3 SCREEN ADHESIVES
The function of the adhesive is to hold the fabric tight during the useful life of the
screen. It is formulated to offer adequate solvent and chemical resistance and to
make it easy to strip the fabric off the frame for reuse. Today’s most widely-used
adhesive is a two-component type, consisting of a base and its catalyst. There is no
universal type adhesive. They are generally formulated for use on bare metal
surfaces or for lacquer coated surfaces. Some adhesives are formulated for fast
drying while others are recommended for extra solvent and chemical resistance.
No matter what type of adhesive is used, there are certain rules that apply with
respect to both health and safety procedures.
Warning!
Always work in a well ventilated area or better still, install an efficient fume extractor system. A
protective face mask is also recommended
Fig. 41 - A base, catalyst and thinner

constitute a typical kit for adhering
the fabric to the frame. Apply
adhesive in well ventilated area and
work with adequate protective
clothing.
3.4 ROTARY SCREEN - characteristics
In the general printing industry, rotary systems have always proved to substantially
increase production output when compared to flat bed printing. This is logical, given
the fact that the principle of rotary image transfer is continuous.
Ceramic tile producers continue to use decorating systems other than screen
printing. These alternative processes are based on the principle of image transfer
from a cylindrical matrix. Examples of these systems are flexography and
rotogravure, and both have been used to print paper and plastics for many years.
For the ceramic industry, however, both systems have limitations.
In the mid-1990s, a tile-printing system, based on the rotogravure principle, was

introduced in the industry. This new method uses an elastomer base for the matrix,
which is laser engraved. Although these rotary systems lack the ability to lay heavy
ceramic paste deposits as dictated by the decorative style, they do make it possible
to cope with most tile surface typographies. This is due to the “cushion” effect
produced by the elastomer outer part of the cylinder.
52
Nevertheless, at the same time as alternative decorating systems were developing,

rotary screen printing evolved to produce interesting innovations so that the
tremendous benefits offered by the screen printing process were safeguarded. Let
us recall that screen printing, whether flat or rotary, offers unlimited possibilities to
the tile decorators, not only in terms of total substrate surface adaptability, but also
to the aesthetic effect that can be created, and all at a reasonable cost.
3.4.1 Rotary screen – principle and types
As seen in the introductory chapter, the original rotary stencil, called “Rocket”,
consists of two end discs held equidistant by fixed separation bars and covered by
a screen fabric sleeve that is
permanently fixed to the cylinder
structure. In order to produce # LASER
“Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission
this type of rotary screen, of Radiation”. Laser beam is monochromatic
special equipment needed to be (single wavelength) highly coherent (single
manufactured to carry out phase) radiation that can be concentrated
screen fabric tensioning, into a high intensity beam powerful enough
emulsion coating, stencil to cut through many materials, including
steel. Infrared lasers are used to engrave
exposure as well as the elastomer cylinders for tile decoration.
necessary facilities for the
successive finishing stages to
obtain a stencil ready for production. The principal feature offered by the rotary
screen is its capacity to hold two or three stencil images of the same design or even
of different designs in the case of random printing, a feature that a flat screen is not
able to offer. During printing with flat bed presses, the screen remains in a fix
position while the squeegee is in movement. In case of rotary screen printing, the
squeegee blade is fixed while the screen rotates in synchronisation with the tile
displacement.
While the original Rocket is still used, some interesting “fine-tuning” developments
have taken place during the recent years with respect to this system. The most
interesting development originates from the Italian manufacturer “Tecnoitalia” with
the “ROLLPRINT” rotary screen, characterised by the absence of separator bars,
allowing uninterrupted squeegee displacement during the printing process.
As with the original Rocket, the screen can hold several images, but also is
capable of holding much larger designs taking advantage of the entire
circumference of the screen, thus expanding the potential of the system.
ROLLPRINT screens are produced in different diameter and lengths making it
possible to decorate large size tiles (60 x 60 cm), a regular feature today in all parts
of the world.
In conjunction with the engineering of the “ROLLPRINT” system, innovative ideas

immerged with respect to storage, transport and handling of the screen. Indeed,
due to the circular shape and size of the screen, a large amount of storage space
was necessary. For that reason and to facilitate shipping of the screen, some
systems were invented to enable the separation of the flexible part of the screen
from the rigid components, or actual structure of the rotary screen. Once separated
53
it becomes easy and simple to pack the stencil part of the screen in a suitable
container, requiring a minimum of storage space and much more convenient for
transport to final destination. In this context, Assoprint, in Fiorano, Italy, has
patented the Dual Ring® system (fig. 42) which consists of a couple of rings in
synthetic resin that are inserted over the aluminium end discs and onto which the
screen fabric is fixed following the tensioning phase. Once the screen preparation
phase is over, it is possible to separate the flexible part of the screen by slipping the
two plastic rings away from the end discs.
I
a b
Fig. 42 The Dual® Ring from ASSOPRINT, a new rotary stencil concept, mounted on
flexible disposable end rings (a) and separated from the end discs for storage and
shipment (b).
INDIRECT METHOD
Another variant is the production of
rotary stencils using an “indirect”
method. The stencil is first processed
and dried as a flat stencil, after which it
is mounted and adhered onto two
flexible flat metal strips. Afterwards,
the stencil is cut off the frame and
introduced and locked onto the end
discs of the rotary screen (fig. 43). Also
in this case, it is possible to store or
transport the stencil part of the screen
into a convenient container, re-
assembling the flexible part onto the
end discs of the frame structure
minutes before using screen in
production.
Fig. 43 – Production of rotary stencil by the indirect method
54
3.4.2 Preparation for screen making
Rotary screens are imperatively produced on proprietary equipment. Tension

parameters are important in terms of repeatability, but are limited to the system
characteristics, which do not allow nor justify the tension levels applied for flat
screens. The fabric selection follows the same principle as for flat screens, although
mesh counts are not expected to be higher than 77 threads/cm. Rotary screens are
not used for third firing tile decoration. The mesh count and opening will be selected
for compatibility with the screen printing paste granulometry. The equipment used
for rotary screen printing is application specific and includes:
• screen tensioning system;

• coating machine;
• drying cupboard;
• exposure unit ;
• pre-soaking tank/washout booth or automatic developing unit;
• retouching table;
• assembling system.
Photochemical products are those used for flat screens since essentially, ceramic
pastes are of the same chemical nature for both principles.
Chapter IV and V will deal in more detail on flat and rotary screen equipment and
procedures.
55
CHAPTER IV
4 EQUIPMENT FOR SCREEN PRODUCTION
4.1 INTRODUCTION
For the screen printing process, the screen is elementary; it carries the stencil
image that should last the print run, and it interfaces with many other elements.
Therefore screen to screen specifications must be consistent in order to guarantee
smooth production runs. For that reason the equipment to produce screens must be
well engineered and reliable. This chapter reviews the equipment available on the
market for screen preparation highlighting some aspects of their functionality.
4.2 Type of equipment
Broadly speaking, there exist two types of fabric tensioning systems: the individual
pneumatic clamps and the mechanical multi stretcher. The selection of one or the
other is either a matter of individual preference or production necessity. While both
systems are valid, reliability is the key factor in a laboratory with high screen
production output. When investing in such equipment it is essential to pay attention
to the engineering quality of the equipment, ease of use and operator training, and
above all make sure that the system allows for precision and reliability.
4.2.1 Pneumatic clamps system
This system generally consists of a set of independent air clamp units with jaws of a
specific width, individually connected to a manifold, itself linked to a compressor.
The clamps are located alongside and against the four members of the frame
(fig.44).
Fig. 44 - SaatiPrint Top 14 pneumatic tensioning
system.
It is the length of the frame or total
tensioning area (for more than one screen)
that will determine the number of clamps
necessary for the operation. This system is
mostly beneficial if handling one screen at a
time when the clamps, pressing against the
frame, create a systematic inward bowing of
the four members during tensioning. This
effect makes it possible to compensate for
any tension loss originating from the frame
itself.
Once the screen has been tensioned and cut free from the clamps, the four sides
should, under normal circumstances, seek to return to their initial point and
therefore oppose the pressure exerted by the fabric tension. The tension is
56
controlled by means of a pressure gauge that is part of the system and reads in
bars, atmospheres or PSI (pounds per square inch). The clamp units are normally
placed on a custom made table.
4.2.2 Optimised pneumatic system for multi screens tensioning
While an individual pneumatic clamp system is best for a one screen at a time
preparation, most screen making laboratories in the tile industry could not cope with
normal production requirements under this condition. For that reason the system
can be set up to accommodate two, four or more screens simultaneously increasing
screen making capacity. If such is the case, a special supporting kit is needed to
Position the frames evenly and at the correct
height with the clamps (fig. 45). Some
clamps manufacturers supply the kit as per
the operators requirement.
Fig. 45 - When more than one screen is tensioned with

pneumatic clamps a special supporting kit should be
introduced in the system to place all frames at the same
height.
A further consideration is that pneumatic

clamps can be produced and offered to the
user at a very low cost. More often than not,
low cost systems have limitations that are not
immediately obvious, and the quality
conscious screen maker should evaluate the product he is about to purchase in
terms of the following performances:
• The clamps should grip the fabric

securely.
# Air pressure
Manometer gauges are used to
• They should be steady and well
regulate the air pressure with balanced in weight distribution in
pneumatic fabric tensioning order to avoid back lifting during
systems. The pressure is tensioning.
expressed in different ways as per
the country of origin such as psi • They should be fitted with a suitable
(pounds per square inch, frame height adjusting system to
Athmosphere or Bars). Bars is the accommodate various frame profiles.
most commonly used unit for the
pneumatic clamp systems. • All clamps should pull smoothly and
at an even rate.
• The system should offer flexibility whereby both directions of the frame can be
tensioned separately; this is especially the case for tensioning over non square
areas.
57
4.2.3 SaatiPrint TOP 14 System
The TOP 14 System engineered and manufactured by SaatiPrint, consists of high

quality air clamps and interconnecting parts. This system has been optimised to
iron out many functional problems encountered with most pneumatic clamps on the
market.
SaatiPrint TOP 14 clamps are reliable and robust and ideally suited to tension
either fine or very coarse fabrics. The fabric gripping system has been designed to
prevent possible fabric slipping from the clamps; they offer ample piston capacity
for large size tensioning tables. Finally and probably the most interesting feature,
the fabric is tensioned in an off-contact position with respect to the frame (fig. 46).
This is made possible through a built-in mechanism that raises the jaws above the
frame during tensioning. The fabric can then stabilize without hindrance and
thereafter be lowered in contact with the frames for adhering.
a b
Fig.46 - The TOP 14 clamps will allow tensioning in off-contact position to create a condition that will
optimise screen performance.
The TOP 14 System is safe to use and is supplied with an emergency stop button
on the control panel, and a security pin at the front end of each clamp to prevent its
back firing in case of accidental fabric slipping or rupture. As all good
manufacturers tend to up date their products, it is best to refer to the Operator’s
Manual for specific instructions in the set up and working procedure of the
equipment.
4.2.4 Mechanical tensioning system
There is a wide variety of mechanical tensioning devices available ranging from

very simple and manually powered units (fig. 47a), to more sophisticated electrically
powered types coupled with an automatic programming system (fig. 47b).
With this type of equipment, the frame generally "floats" at the centre of the unit
being independent of the system. Therefore, special attention should be paid to the
frame section design and profile in order to maintain the desired screen tension
when the operation is over. Often, the deciding factor in the acquisition of a
mechanical tensioning apparatus is based on screen production as these units can
be built in any size and will be able to accommodate a large number of frames at
any one time. This system also allows for tensioning screens at an angle if required.
58
Mechanical devices incorporate fabric holding systems such as pins, locking bars or
clamps covering the perimeter of the stretcher. While pin holding systems have
been used for many years, modern equipment is built with a fabric clamping device
that allows for the tensioning of any type of screen fabric. Pin systems will easily
create splitting of mesh counts with low Specific Cross Section.
a b
Fig. 47 - Hand powered screen tensioning system (a); multi stretcher coupled with
tensioning programme for optimum screen preparation and repeatability (b).
When purchasing a mechanical device, the following points should be considered:
• Screen holding capacity as per the expected production.

• Ease of size change; the equipment that does not allow adaptability to different
frame sizes will generate more fabric wastage.
• Give preference to the system that offers a programmable tensioning control
panel. This will be advantageous for production consistency particularly when
the tensioning task is shared between operators. The system can either be
programmed for a tension to be reached in N/cm or in percentage of elongation.
Some systems also programme in-between tension fabric relaxation.
• Before investing in a multi stretcher, check the performance of the equipment in
terms of tension uniformity from one end to the other of the unit.
4.3 ROTARY SCREENS
Rotary screens prepared following a direct method require a totally different set of
conditions compared to flat screens. For the tensioning phase, a custom made
stretcher is being used and the fabric is tensioned along one axis only. Once the
required tension is reached the fabric is glued to the end rings or discs and at the
transversal section where the ends overlap. Tensioning is pneumatic and the
tension level is monitored through the system’s own pressure gauge while the
Newton tension meter can be used in conjunction with the pneumatic gauge. Unlike
flat screens, rotary screens are produced one at a time; so it is not unusual for a
busy laboratory to have to invest in more than one tensioning unit (Fig. 48).
59
Fig. 48 – A typical rotary screen preparation laboratory.
4.3.1 System diversification
The newly developed “ROLL-PRINT” rotary stencil uses two mobile spacers whose
function is to hold the end discs together giving rigidity to the screen during the
different phases of stencil making, and during transportation from and to the printing
press. This implies that the spacers no longer interfere with screen coating and
printing and no longer restrict the size of the stencil image.
4.3.2 Dual Ring ® Concept
The Dual Ring® system was patented by ASSOPRINT S.pA, in Fiorano, Italy. After
the tensioning stage the fabric is adhered to a pair of flexible rings (fig. 49a). Once
the cylinder is ready, the flexible screen can be removed from the two end discs
using the “Assembler DR101” (fig.49b) and stored into a practical cardboard
container (fig.42) ready for despatch or the stock room.
a b c
Fig. 49 The Dual Ring® system uses disposable plastic rings to adhere the screen
fabric: metal end discs and disposable plastic rings (a); DR 101 Assembler (b); Dual
Ring® packaging (c)
Immediately prior to set the cylinder into the printing press, the user re-mounts the
screen on the end discs with the help of the “Assembler DR101”. Once the stencil is
no longer required the inexpensive rings can be disposed of together with the
obsolete stencil; the latter can rapidly be substituted by a fresh one. In case of the
conventional ROLL-PRINT cylinders, the screen fabric is adhered directly onto the
metal end discs which mean that after usage, the whole screen needs to be sent
back to the production laboratory. Before being re-used again, the end discs will
need a thorough cleaning from old fabric residue and built up adhesive, which in
60
itself represents a costly operation. The traditional ROLL-Print system also requires
that the user invest in an important inventory of end discs, warehouse space and
higher transport costs.
If the tile manufacture purchases the cylinders from an outside laboratory, he needs
to be equipped with the Dual Ring® Assembler to get the cylinder ready fro the
press.
4.3.3 The in direct system
This system consists in the preparation of the stencil using the equipment and
methodology applied to flat stencils. The stencil production material needs to be
able to accommodate a arger screen format. Once ready, the flat stencil is adhered
onto two flexible metal strips, cut free, and fixed onto the pair of end discs to
produce the cylinder ready for the press. Stencils produced this way can also be
stored easily and mounted again onto the end discs with the help of the appropriate
assembler (fig. 50).
a b c
Fig. 50 - Assembling a rotary stencil with the indirect

method : montage of litho’s on calibrated foil (a);
purpose built transfer table with contact metal strips
(b); positioning the stencil in register with metal
strips and adhering (c); transfer of stencil ‘sheet’ to
the rotary structure (d).
In terms of equipment, the indirect system requires the use of a precision

conventional flat screen tensioning machine, frames of specific dimensions and box
profile for optimum control on dimensional stability. It also requires a special
assembling kit to adhere the stencil with a maximum of precision onto a pair of
stainless steel reusable strips.
61
CHAPTER V
5 TENSIONING PROCEDURES AND PRACTICAL

RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 SCREEN TENSION
To screen print successfully on any substrate, the fabric should be tensioned to a

level of tautness deemed essential to processing stencils. While this is clear to
many, what is not quite so clear is what exactly constitutes “correct” tension level
and why is it so vital to the process. There are different ways to look at the issue.
The tightest possible screen will generally yield better results, provided the
substrate surface is perfectly flat. In this way, the off contact can be set at the
lowest possible distance, minimizing consequential image distortion. Under such
conditions, the squeegee displacement meets less resistance and ink flow is better
controlled. Furthermore, the print stroke can be set faster, reducing ink
consumption.
But when the substrate being decorated is not perfectly flat, the screen tension
must be decided upon accordingly. Tile printing falls into this category because its
surface may be slightly convex, or simply uneven due to any number of
manufacturing issues. Experience based on prevailing conditions will dictate the
way the screen should be prepared. Nevertheless, it is important to consider some
screen tension-related facts that will affect print quality.
Screen tension affects:
• Stencil thickness and uniformity.

• Off-contact distance during printing.
• Ink flow, tonal value, ink consumption.
• Squeegee speed.
• Squeegee angle and pressure.
These are very important printing parameters that highlight the critical importance of
consistent screen tension. For this reason, adequate time should be spent
discussing the mechanical and physical capabilities of fabric, as well as the
procedures that will yield the best possible results.
5.1.1 What are the optimum qualities of a screen for tile printing?
Based on the considerations discussed above, fabric tension should be set to the
highest level that production conditions will allow, bearing in mind that the tighter
the screen, the sharper the print. Other than this, the following conditions should
also be met:
62
• Fabric tension should be uniform over the entire surface of the screen.
• Threads must remain parallel to each other in their respective directions and
form a perfect 90° angle at each cross point (fig.51).
• There should be no variations in tension from screen to screen.
• Screen tension should be stabilized before stencil processing.
• The frame dimension should be at least 30-40 cm larger and longer than the
image dimension (fig.38).
• The frame itself should be well built and rust free.
Fig. 51 - Stencils should be produced maintaining specific

parameters
5.1.2 Screen tension and tile printing
SaatiPrint S.P.A. publishes screen fabric tension levels based on the fabric’s
inherent capabilities and above all, elastic memory. While these recommendations
are valid for finer mesh counts, coarser meshes are obviously much stronger than
needed for tile printing and tension should be determined on the basis of production
experience. Since all polyester fabric from SaatiPrint are manufactured from High
Modulus yarn, any mesh counts can accept tension levels ranging from 17 to 25
N/cm. There is little need to aim for higher tension levels for tile printing, even
though lower mesh counts have the capability to be tensioned at a much higher rate
(fig. 52a). The tension recommendations found on technical data sheets indicate
the tension to be applied at the time of screen preparation.
It should be noted that screen tension will always stabilize at a level lower than that
initially applied to the fabric (Fig. 52b). This is due to the molecular-chain
realignment of the polymer, following the strain put on it by the tensioning process.
It is therefore normal to expect a tension drop between 2 to 4 N/cm from the time
the frame is cut off the tensioning device, throughout 48-hours period.
The frame itself may also be responsible for some tension loss. Its profile should be
strong enough to oppose fabric tension, as seen in previous sections. Thus, to iron
out any potential problems in stencil stability, a period of 24 to 48 hours is
necessary to ensure total stabilization of the screen.
63
a b
Fig. 52 - Average break point of a selection of mesh counts (a). Recommended tension and stabilized
tension (b).
5.1.3 What is a High Modulus screen fabric?
Toward the end of the 1980’s, the screen

printing industry saw a major advancement
in the technical characteristics of screen #
Stress/Strain
Stress is an applied force or
fabrics. This is when SaatiPrint started to
pressure. Strain is damage
produce the first batch of High Modulus or change inflicted by an
fabrics. In plain terms, the modulus of the applied force or pressure.
fabric is the relationship that exists between
its elongation and tensile strength. We will be
discussing the modulus of elasticity. There are different
types of modulus in the world of physics and different
ways of measuring them. One way to evaluate the
modulus of elasticity of a sample of fabric is to conduct
a stress/strain test under controlled conditions. When
drawing a tangent to the resulting curves from the axis
cross point (fig. 53), an angle can be identified between
the tangent and the elongation axis. The wider angle
corresponds to a fabric with a higher modulus of
elasticity, and vice versa.
Fig. 53 - Screen fabric modulus of elasticity. Traditional polyester fabric – lowest modulus of
elasticity(aA); high Modulus Saatilene Hitech (bB).
The benefits of High Modulus fabrics for the ceramic industry.
For the tile decorator, there are two major benefits in the use of High Modulus
fabrics, as seen in the monoaxial comparison with the traditional polyester meshes.
First, it offers a lower rate of elongation, and the rate of elongation in the warp
direction of the fabric matches that of the weft direction. The second benefit of High
Modulus fabric is substantially greater tensile strength. Although it is of secondary
64
importance for single or double firing, increased tensile strength is appealing when
higher mesh counts with smaller thread diameters are used.
Due to these new characteristics, screens produced with High Modulus fabrics are
more consistent in terms of mesh specification and will stabilize in a shorter period
of time. These attributes improve screen-to-screen consistency and contribute to
increased screen production. This enables a screen printer to better cope with
problems originating from stencil substitution during long print runs.
5.1.4 What are the drawbacks of insufficient tension?
The most obvious problem with insufficient tension is the displacement or

“dragging” of the fabric that occurs as the squeegee moves across the screen
(fig.54). This will invariably affect
the sharpness of the print.
Fig. 54 - Fabric dragging and slow snap-
off leads to poor print quality
Slack screens affect the snap-off
mechanism, which leads to poor
ink distribution and affects print
sharpness in fine-detail areas or
tonal values in halftone images.
Logically, low tension should be
compensated for with an
increase in off contact distance. However, doing so will only trigger other problems,
such as:
• Greater stencil image distortion and additional stress on

fabric and emulsion.
• Higher friction resistance at the mesh/squeegee blade
interface.
• Over saturation of ink in the mesh openings, affecting
print tonal consistency.
• An excessively low screen tension will create some
difficulties in screen coating uniformity (fig. 55).
Fig. 55 - A slack screen will lead to emulsion build-up at the centre of the
screen and consequential difficulties in stencil exposure and thickness uniformity.
5.2 HOW TO MEASURE AND CONTROL FABRIC TENSION
Several methods may be chosen for monitoring and measuring fabric tension
during screen preparation:
• The Newton tension meter

• The manometer gauge
• The percentage of elongation
65
In recent years, there has been greater awareness of the importance of tension and
correct tensioning procedures. Methods that were acceptable some years ago are
no longer accepted today. It has become essential to select a tension monitoring
method that is quick, reliable and precise. It should also be a system that is
universally recognized so that mesh manufacturers, screen makers and printers
speak the same language when discussing procedures and results.
5.2.1 The Newton tension meter
Modern tensioning equipment is supplied with a built-in programme to monitor the

tensioning procedure. While this is useful
and essential to the functioning of the
system, it is the independent Newton meter #Newton
A unit of force named after the
that is most relied upon for measuring
scientist Sir Isaac Newton
tension. It is the easiest and most universal (1642-1726), formulator of the
method for measuring and quantifying laws of motion and
tension values. Additionally, the use of this ‘discoverer’ of gravity. A force
instrument is the only way to recheck the of one Newton (N) is
tension stability of screens before going approximately 100g. Screen
tension is normally expressed
through their normal production cycle. as N/cm .
Remember that for multi-colour printing, all
screens should display the same tension
level.
The tension meter is an independent precision measuring instrument that can be
either mechanical or electronic (see chapter II). Both instruments are identical in
that they are designed so that a
specially calibrated probe projects into
the tensioned fabric.
Fig. 56 - Working principle of screen Tension
Meter.
The reading on the dial or display will
vary according to the level of fabric
deflection (fig. 56), i.e. according to the load necessary for the probe to deflect the
fabric. Today, the universally
recognized unit of measurement is
the Newton per centimetre (N/cm).
Fig. 57 - One Newton is the force needed to
accelerate a mass of one Kilogram by one
meter/s-².
Advantages of the Newton
tension meter:
• The instrument offers an

independent tension reading in
both screen directions and at any point over the surface of the screen.
• It is the most reliable way to check the proper functioning of the tensioning
equipment, with respect to possible fabric slippage, or stiff air clamps that may
affect tension regularity.
66
• The Newton meter conveniently allows comparison of the tension of all

production screens, enabling the printer to group them by project or decide their
final fate. For a multicolour job, a large difference in tension levels in a group of
several screens is not acceptable.
5.2.2 The manometer gauge
This pressure gauge is usually used in conjunction with a set of individual

pneumatic clamps and allows monitoring of the air pressure that gradually fills the
chamber of the air clamps pistons. The reading on the gauge is expressed in bars,
atmosphere or pounds per square inch (psi). As explained earlier, screen tension is
no longer expressed in this way, and therefore the manometer reading is only valid
as a unit of reference when used in conjunction with the Newton meter. It is
therefore recommended to work out one's own table of values between bars (or
reading unit) and corresponding tension in N/cm.
Some mechanical and electrically-powered tensioning equipment incorporate

tension-gauging systems. In such equipment, the gauge will read the tension in
pounds or kilos. This can be part of a programmable procedure, but in principle, it
produces similar benefits and drawbacks of the pressure gauge:
• The tension readout is global and does not take into account system
discrepancies such as poor fabric alignment, mesh slipping from the clamps, or
uneven tension distribution.
• Its only purpose is to guide the operator during the tension phase of screen
production.
5.2.3 Measurement by percentage of fabric elongation
This is one of the oldest methods of

reaching screen tension and was
used until tension meters became
available to the industry. However,
# Weft
Direction of the fabric between the
since some stretching equipment selvedges or corresponding to the
width of the roll.
does not allow for the use of the
tension meter from the start of the
procedure, measuring fabric
# Warp
Direction of the fabric corresponding to
elongation as a first step is one way the length of the roll.
to start up the process. This situation
is encountered with fixed clamp multi-stretchers. In this case, an elongation
reference is used to evaluate the amount of “pull”, or percentage stretch on the
fabric in the tensioning direction (usually the warp). At that stage, the fabric has
reached sufficient tautness and screen preparation can proceed by tensioning the
weft with the help of the Newton meter. In this particular situation there are no fixed
rules, and only some preliminary testing will dictate the best elongation percentage
to apply (table 5.1).
67
5.3 HANDLING THE SAATIPRINT TENSION METER
The Saati Tension Meter is a precision instrument and should be treated with great
care to ensure continued accuracy. Its high sensitivity allows detection of the
smallest variation of tension all over the screen. It is designed for use with all types
of screen fabrics. SaatiPrint offers two types of meters: one is calibrated for use
with flat screens and tension levels above 20 N/cm, and another that is specially
constructed to be more sensitive when monitoring tension levels below 12 N/cm, as
in the case for rotary screens.
Fig. 58 The arrows on the Saati Meter

indicate the tension relative to the direction
of the fabric; the arrows must always run
parallel to the direction of the threads for
accurate reading.
Before measuring the tension, be sure that the screen is placed in a perfectly
horizontal position. When the tension meter is placed on the stretched fabric, the
screen tension direction being measured is shown by the arrows on the front of the
meter (fig 58b). The meter's indicator needle will show the tension directly in N/cm.
Lightly tap the fabric near the meter to obtain the average value of the readings. It
is best to check the tension at various points over the surface of the screen. When
measuring the tension, keep the meter a distance of 5 cm from the inside edge of
the frame, as measuring too near the frame may give inaccurate readings. Always
measure the screen in both the warp and weft directions.
5.3.1 Zeroing the tension meter
Fig. 59 - Before using the Tension Meter, always ensure that the indicator lines up with
the “zeroing” symbol.
68
On a regular basis, make sure that the meter has been zeroed before proceeding to
any type of tension control. A change in temperature is enough to affect reading
precision.
# Zero and Calibration

To zero the meter is to give it the correct starting
To zero the meter, place it
on the calibration glass or
point prior to make some measurements. plate which is enclosed in
the instrument case. The
# Calibration
Calibration ensures the correctness of the result
needle indicator should
settle exactly on the hairline
by checking the accuracy of the dial reading of the calibration circle
against a known standard, and if necessary (fig.59). Should this not
making a correction. This needs to be carried out
by a qualified operator. occur, simply loosen the
bezel clamp screw while the
instrument is still resting on
the glass, and rotate the bezel until the hairline coincides with the needle indicator.
Then, tighten the bezel clamp screw. The working mechanism of the meter has
been accurately calibrated at the factory. Do not adjust any of its interior parts.
When not in use, replace the instrument in its original case, to prevent any
accidental damage. When placing the instrument on worktop surfaces between
taking measurements, avoid standing it in its normal working position, as this will
add unnecessary fatigue to the instrument’s mechanism. Ideally, lay it on its narrow
side, rather than on its back, which may damage the two stainless steel pressure
plates which are a sensitive part of the meter (fig. 60).
a b
Fig. 60 - In between measurements, lay the Saati Meter on its side to avoid unnecessary strain.
Incorrect meter positioning (a); correct positioning (b).
Finally, avoid leaving the meter on the surface of the fabric during the stretching
stages. Only measure the fabric during relaxation phases. This will prevent the
meter from tipping over in the event of accidental tearing of the fabric.
! Once or twice a day, check the zeroing of the instrument before using.
! When checking the zero position, ensure that the worktop is perfectly
horizontal.
69
! Use nothing else but the crystal plate supplied with the instrument
(SaatiPrint meter).
! When not in use, return the instrument in its original container, click the lid
down and store in a safe place.
! At least twice a year, check the calibration of the instrument.
5.3.2 Verification of the meter calibration
For a busy screen making department, it is not unusual to pick up the instrument
from 100 to 200 times a day, each time repositioning the meter on a hard surface
rather than in the soft protective wrapping of the original container. The continuous
use of the meter makes it necessary to carry out some calibration verifications.
Before checking the instrument for calibration acceptability, it is essential to verify
that it has been zeroed and is holding steady on its stainless steel resting plate.
5.3.3 Master screen for checking tension meter calibration
Select a 50 x 50 cm screen with a very strong profile in order to resist high tension
levels. Proceed by tensioning a piece of coarse screen fabric such as Saatilene
HITECH 55.70 or 62.64. Tension to at least 30 N/cm. Before gluing the mesh to the
frame, stabilize the fabric for about 45 minutes, and then fix the fabric to the frame.
Before releasing the tensioned screen from the tensioning unit, draw a straight line
with a fine-tipped felt pen at about one centimetre from the edge of the four sides of
the frame (fig. 61).
Serial # of Control Meter:_________

Date of tension check:___________
Tension level_______________N/cm
Serial # of used meter:____________
Date of tension check:____________
Tension level_______________N/cm
a) b)
Fig. 61 - Model screen for testing meter reading accuracy (a); reference label for tension
meter verification.
The frame should be kept in the same place at all times, ideally where it will be less
affected by temperature variations. This is because temperature fluctuation may
create changes in the metal of the frame, influencing the tension level of the control
screen. Let the screen stabilize for at least a week before using it for calibration
control.
70
5.3.4 Procedure for controlling calibration
The best way to ensure that a used meter has not fatigued is to use another
instrument of the same make labelled “Control”. This meter should not be used in
production, but only to compare readings with a used meter. In this case the
following is the recommended procedure:
• Check that the “Control” meter has been zeroed.

• Record the serial number of the “Control” meter on a label placed in a corner of
the master screen (fig. 61b).
• Place the Control meter in the centre of the screen and mark the area occupied
by the meter so that it can always be relocated in the same position. Read the
tension displayed on the meter and record it on the label together with the date.
• Follow the same procedure with the used meter and compare the reading with
that of the Control. If there is more than one N/cm difference, the meter should
be sent to the manufacturer for recalibration. Calibration ensures the
correctness of the result by checking the accuracy of the dial reading against a
known standard, and if necessary making a correction.
! If after a while the tension read on the Control meter is lower than that
recorded originally, it means that some fabric slippage has occurred. This
can be checked by looking at the state of the pen line (fig.62). If the fabric
has slipped, the guide line will no longer be straight. Check also that the
screen has not been damaged.
! Recalibration of the meter should be carried out by a specialised laboratory

or ideally, the manufacturer of the meter.
If no Control meter is available, a similar procedure can be followed, comparing the
reading obtained to the one recorded when the meter was new. In this case it is
very important to properly care for the safety of the master screen.
Fig. 62 A displacement of the check line indicates some

slipping of the fabric from the frame.
Warning!
Never compare used meters with each other, even if they are from the same manufacturer and
especially if they are from different manufacturers.
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5.4 TENSIONING PROCEDURES
5.4.1 Getting started with mechanical stretcher
Mechanical tensioning equipment can be defined as any device that does not rely
on air pressure to perform the tensioning operation. In the case of a fully manual
apparatus (small-sized units) tensioning is done with a ratcheting system. For
larger tensioning equipment such as multi-stretchers, a motorised device operates
the tensioning mechanism.
Two basic aspects differentiate the mechanical stretchers from the air clamp
systems. First, on a mechanical stretcher, there is no systematic pressure on the
frame perimeter. It is the entire side of the machine that tensions the fabric, and not
the clamp. This indicates a certain level of rigidity in the system that often leads to
accidental splitting of the fabric if correct procedures are not followed. Secondly,
the fact that the frame is not pre-bowed means that screen tension consistency
relies very much on the suitability of the frame structure, i.e., wall thickness profile
and box section design in relation to the overall size of the frame. Pre-bowing of the
frame helps reduce or eliminate bowing and subsequent tension loss after the
frame is cut away from the tensioning device.
5.4.2 Tensioning recommendations
The type of available tensioning equipment varies considerably from one

manufacturer to another. It is not possible within this manual to describe the
features of all the mechanical stretchers on the market, but one can generalize the
procedures on factors that are common to all:
• Make sure that the fabric-holding system is in perfect working order to avoid
mesh slipping. If in doubt, trace a fine line very close to the clamping
mechanism and check for the line displacement while tensioning (fig.63).
• A pin system is not recommended for fine mesh counts (90/cm and above). If
such system is used, ensure that pins are not missing or bent as this can create
tension variations in the corresponding areas. For fine mesh counts, it may be
advisable to double fold the edge of the fabric over the pin row in order to avoid
tearing during tensioning.
• Remember that selvedge’s are less elastic than the mesh itself. For that reason
they may be removed. Alternatively, make sure they fall behind the clamp’s
jaws. Softening (loosening) the fabric in the four corners will help prevent over-
tensioning in the corners, which leads to tearing. Trial and error will dictate the
extent of softening required.
• With multi-stretchers, begin tensioning lengthwise up to a tension level about
half that of the desired tension. This technique is only possible if the stretcher is
mounted with movable clamps on all four sides. Remember that tensioning one
direction automatically increases the tension in the opposite direction.
72
! Once fabric reaches a particular tension

level, a sudden loss in tension always
occurs within seconds. This is a natural
phenomenon that happens to a greater or
lesser extent with all textile fibres. In order
to help minimize this loss, it is suggested
that the fabric be allowed to relax for
several minutes and re-tension a short
while before gluing the mesh to the frame.
Fig. 63 Checking the efficiency of the mesh locking system.
5.4.3 Elongation method
Some tensioning systems (for example MODULEX HP by Assoprint) require that

the fabric be tensioned first in one direction (lengthwise) before locking the two
other sides. This is the case for all equipment with fixed mesh gripping systems. In
this particular case, it is not possible to use the Newton meter right from the start
since the fabric does not lay flat within the equipment. The table 5.1 below can be
used as a guide for the first phase of tensioning. The suggested elongations are
indicated for the corresponding tension levels. Higher or lower tension will require
some adjustments in fabric elongation rate. The final tension (in the weft direction)
should then be reached with the help of the tension meter. The objective is to
obtain equal levels in both the warp and the weft directions. If the final result proves
to be uneven it will be necessary to either increase or decrease the rate of
elongation initially given.
! In order to proceed without the risk of misinterpretation of the results, it is

recommended to use a metric ruler and a length of fabric that makes the
percentage calculation readable at a glance. Mark the fabric as accurately
as possible for repeatability of results.
Table 5.1 – Fabric tensioning by warp / weft elongation on

Assoprint Modulex HP with Saatilene HITECH
Mesh counts Elongation* Tension

Thread/cm Warp Warp Weft Weft N/cm
% mm/3m % mm/1.6m
15.200 1.0 30 1.20 20 32-34
32.100 1.5 45 3.10 50 28-30
55.70 2.0 60 1.25 20 24-26
62.64 3.5 105 2.20 35 24-26
71.55 4.0 120 3.10 50 24-26
77.55 4.0 120 2.25 40 23-25
90.48 4.0 120 3.40 55 23-25
100.40 4.0 120 4.35 70 23-25
120.34 4.5 135 4.70 75 22-24
140.34 5.0 150 4.37 70 23-25
*Elongations values are valid only when warp direction is tensioned first.
73
Example:
Over a one-meter distance (100 cm) an elongation of 1 cm represents 1%

elongation; two centimetres over two meters (200 cm) is also 1%. The table below
is meant as a guide, and the elongations are based on some of the most commonly
used fabrics. Any change in the tension will require some modifications of the
recommended elongation rates.
Fig. 64 - Assoprint MODULEX HP tensioning system. Elongation

values can be entered in the programme of the control panel.
Fig. 65 - Tensioning procedure on mechanical stretcher.
! Before starting tensioning, and in all cases of multi-screen stretching,

check that all screens be placed equidistant to each other and toward the
side of the tensioning equipment.
! Take into account that frames with a sloped surface profile call for
separating bars, to ensure adequate contact with the fabric. Furthermore,
the slope will tend to increase the final tension by 1 or 2 N/cm when brought
in contact with the mesh prior to gluing.
! When marking the surface of the fabric for checking elongation, it is

essential to take all measurements with a maximum of precision. Use a fine
marker tip and mark accurately with the help of a stiff metric ruler held
steady and parallel to the warp direction.
74
5.4.4 Getting starter with pneumatic clamps
In order to avoid inconsistencies in tensioning, it is best to use clamps of the same

brand, with an identical cylinder capacity and same sized jaws. Today, the average
jaw size is approximately 25 cm wide. In some
cases, however, the corner jaws will exceed the
length of the frame being used, creating an
unacceptable situation. For this reason, clamp
manufacturers offer a narrower 15 cm jaw, and one
per side is often sufficient. The best position for this
odd clamp is at the corners of the table. Place the
narrower clamps in a diagonal position with respect
to the stretching area as shown in fig. 66. Note that
it is important that the piston capacity be in
proportion to the size of the jaw.
Fig. 66 - Correct position of narrow clamps around the frame.
Because of the different piston capacity, clamp jaws cannot be interchanged.
When placing the clamps around the frame, it is advisable to leave a 2 mm gap
between them. This will avoid unnecessary stress on the mesh as the body of each
unit is likely to move out of line during tensioning. Larger gaps should be avoided
as this will create tension fluctuation along the edge of the frame beams and the
larger the gap, the greater the discrepancy (fig. 67a).
a b
Fig. 67 - Tension discrepancies will emerge from too large a gap between clamps (a) ; follow the
recommendations as in (b).
Before inserting the fabric, make sure the clamps are all set on the same starting
point at the front end of the unit and that the frame surface is at the required level.
Height-adjustment screws are normally found on each clamp and are used to
regulate the level of the frames. The adjustment screws can also regulate the
height of a jig board, a strong flat board in which several small frames are
positioned for multi-screen stretching.
When processing more than one screen, the stretching system should allow for
contact bars to be introduced from the top to create optimum contact between the
frame surface and the mesh (fig. 68). This is particularly important when the
adhering surface of the frame is sloped.
75
Fig. 68 - Pressure bar system engineered for pneumatic tensioning clamp system.
If the tensioning area is square or nearly square, the four sides can be tensioned
simultaneously. If one side is substantially longer than the other, differential
tensioning is advisable. This will require that the tensioning system has two
separate tensioning circuits, which makes differential tensioning possible.
Fabric stabilizing process

With pneumatic clamps, fabric stabilization process is systematic. In other words,
the air pressure will compensate for tension loss, maintaining the given tension until
the fabric is adhered to the frame. The screen tension will then stabilize to a lower
level depending on the mesh count and the relaxation time allowed before gluing.
! Individual air-clamp systems require a minimum of care. Avoid spilling

mesh adhesive over the piston area or the jaws. When setting up the
system, ensure that each clamp is free to move sideways. This will help
towards a better tension distribution. As for mechanical system, check that
the jaws hold the fabric firmly.
! Start tensioning before placing the pressure/separator bars.
5.5 ROTARY SCREEN PREPARATION–general considerations
With respect to the preparation of rotary screens, there are far fewer variables
compared to flat screens. This is due to the inherent nature of the rotary process
and different screen requirements. For example, flat screens require off-contact
distance to control print sharpness and as a result, screen tension issues trigger the
influence of many other variables. Rotary screen printing does not rely on the off-
contact principle, and one need not be concerned with many of the parameters
discussed under previous sections on flat screen production. Nevertheless, the
preparation of rotary screens needs to be done with the same level of precision and
care in order to achieve optimum results and repeatability.
76
5.5.1 Tension recommendation – direct system
The following recommendations refer to the preparation of rotary screen produced

by the direct method. For the indirect system, follow the procedure that applies to
the preparation of flat screens.
Mounting the fabric

Use rolls of screen fabric cut to the width of the assembling machine. SaatiPrint will
deliver pre-cut rolls of fabric in the most popular width. This means that the user
needs only cut the piece in the weft direction.This will save time, reduce wastage
and will ensure that the mesh is always introduced in the same way on the end
rings (fig.69). Having positioned the end discs on the tensioning machine wrap the
fabric around these and ensure that it is perfectly uniform prior to fixing.
Tensioning
Since rotary stencils do not operate with an off-contact during printing, screens can
be tensioned to levels inferior to those usually applied for flat screens. It is
suggested to tension between 8 and 10 Ncm depending on the mesh count
selected. Whilst tension is controlled pneumatically and monitored with the help of
the built in manometer gauge, the Newton tension meter is used to control the final
tension level.
a b c
Fig. 69 - Preparing for rotary screen production. Mesh roll cut to correct width (a); placing plastic ring
and spacer bars within the stretching system (b); ensuring fabric uniformity before tensioning (c).
Fig. 70 - Monitoring tension level during tensioning of a rotary screen.
Adhering the fabric

Once assembled and tensioned, the fabric can be adhered to the end discs and
along the joins where both ends of the mesh meet (fig. 71). The traditional two-
component adhesive is used for that operation, avoiding excessive adhesive build
77
up, particularly on the central part of the screen. For practical and production
reasons, a fast drying screen adhesive is recommended. Saatichem produce the
adhesive ULTRAFIX, that will make it possible to remove the screen from the
assembler after 5 to 6 minutes.
a b c
Fig. 71 - Adhering the fabric to the rings and joints after tensioning (a-b); screen cut out from system
after adhering (c).
5.6 ADHERING SCREEN FABRIC TO THE FRAME
In general, once the catalyst has been added to the base, adhesive pot life will not
extend to more than 30 to 60 minutes depending on the formulation. The life of the
mixture may be increased to over half a day by securely sealing the mixture while
not in use. It is therefore recommended to mix the adhesive in small quantities.
.
The adhesive should be applied with a medium-hard brush rather than with a
spatula or rigid card, as these do not allow the adhesive to penetrate the fabric
sufficiently (fig. 72). In this respect particular care should be taken with finer
meshes due to their relatively low percentage of open area. In this case it may be
necessary to add some thinner to reduce the viscosity of the adhesive. When
adding thinner, only one from the adhesive’s manufacture, and designated as a
thinner for the particular adhesive. Remember that it is the quality of application that
matters and not the quantity of adhesive that does the job. A frequent mistake is to
apply the adhesive too thickly, which results in prolonged drying times, lost
production time, and increased product costs.
a
Fig. 72 Apply screen adhesive evenly with a hard shorthair brush (a). Incomplete adhesive penetration
(b) will lead to high risks of fabric slipping; correct application (c).
78
! With metal frames, adhesion can be promoted by spreading a thin film of

adhesive on the surface of the frame before positioning the fabric for
stretching. This will increase the bond between the mesh and the frame.
It is often assumed that once the mesh has been adhered and the adhesive is dry
to the touch, the screen is ready to use. There are, however, factors that will induce
mesh movement even with the best adhesives. Some very slight fabric slipping
may result in severe tension loss. The factors that can affect mesh adhesion to the
frame are:
• Heat: At 60° C, the mesh adhesive may begin to soften, especially if exposure
occurs within 2 hours of gluing the mesh to the frame. At 90° C, the fabric may
have slipped completely.
• Humidity: The higher the relative humidity in the room where the stretching
and gluing take place, the slower the drying time of the adhesive.
• Surface preparation of the frame: With both steel and aluminium frames, the
surface that will come in contact with the fabric needs to be abraded as well as
cleaned.
• Screens put in production too soon:
Although there may be cases where
the adhesive will hold until stencil
processing is completed, adhesive
may not necessarily withstand other
stresses such as that exerted by the
squeegee.
Fig. 73 - Saatichem ULTRA FIX package for

adhering the fabric to the frame.
5.6.1 SaatiChem screen adesive - Ultrafix SB1/2 Plus
SAATICHEM Screen Adhesive ULTRAFIX SB1/2 Plus represents the latest formula
for fast drying adhesive. It is easy to apply, and screens can be removed from the
tensioning device after 5 to 10 minutes, being of great benefit for busy screen
making departments or for rotary screen preparation. It offers the best adhesion
characteristics on all types of frames, even unprimed bare metal frames.
SAATICHEM Screen Adhesive is produced in two different versions: ULTRAFIX
SB1 AND SB2 Plus.
ULTRAFIX SB1 Plus is supplied as a 3-component product: the base, catalyst, and
thinner for adjusting the viscosity to the mesh characteristics (low or high mesh
count).
79
ULTRAFIX SB2 Plus is supplied as a 2-component product: the base, already

thinned down for general application, and the catalyst.
5.6.2 Handling SaatiChem Ultrafix SB1/2 Plus Screen Adhesives
A feature and great benefit of ULTRAFIX is its very fast drying time once applied to
the screen. This allows for fast screen preparation turnover. For that reason, once
the catalyst is added to the base, it should be used within 45 minutes. As it is usual
for a manufacturer to update its products, it is best to consult the current
instructions before preparing the mixture.
! Use a proper measuring scale to weigh the different components. After

mixing, close immediately and tightly seal all containers. Failing to do so
will cause the base to thicken on contact with the air, and the catalyst to
prematurely crystallize rendering it unusable.
As a final consideration, remember that since stencils for tile printing will be placed
to cure at a relatively high temperature after catalysing, it is important that the
adhesive be perfectly polymerised. It is therefore advisable to store new screens for
a minimum period of 12 hours to ensure maximum heat and chemical resistance.
80
CHAPTER VI
6 SCREEN FABRIC PRETREATMENT
6.1 INTRODUCTION
Stencils used in tile decoration are subjected to extreme conditions during printing
due to the abrasive nature of the ceramic pastes, the roughness of the tiles, and on
single firing lines, the heat and moisture originating from the raw tile. Consequently,
durable stencils depend largely on the attention given to screen fabric preparation.
6.1.1 Factors affecting stencil adhesion
Incorrect fabric preparation will directly affect stencil performance in the following
ways:
• Wet stencil adhesion: image details wash out during stencil processing.
• Chemical resistance: stencil will become porous during printing and can
eventually break down.
• Mechanical resistance: premature stencil breakdown or deterioration of print
quality.
• Coating characteristics: Uneven stencil coating and thickness can lead to
uneven ink deposit, inconsistencies in the image quality, or stencil durability
problems.
Screen fabrics used in today’s ceramics industry are made from nylon or polyester
yarn. While nylon has a good affinity to water, polyester is the least water loving
product, absorbing less than 0.4 % of ambient moisture under average RH
conditions. Consequently, it will also repel any water-based substances like
photoemulsions during stencil making. Optimum emulsion bonding is therefore
entirely dependent on the fabric surface treatment.
Fig. 74 - Contact point between stencil shoulder edge and thread surface (10,000x). The mesh surface
needs to be specially prepared to ensure optimum stencil adhesion.
A stencil produced onto untreated virgin fabric or on a new screen treated with the
incorrect product will demonstrate signs of poor wet stencil adhesion. A symptom of
81
this problem is reticulated emulsion (fig. 75a), or patches of stencil lifting from the
fabric surface. Other signs of wet-stencil adhesion failure are loss of image detail
and reduced stencil durability.
a b
Fig. 75 - Poor emulsion adhesion on incorrectly degreased fabric (a); stencil surface on correctly
treated fabric (b).
Screen fabrics can be treated in two different ways, depending on the prevailing
printing conditions: with a liquid degreaser only, referred to as chemical treatment,
or with a special abrasive paste, used as a mechanical treatment. Either products
should be approved by the mesh manufacturer. The abrasion treatment is normally
carried out only on new mesh. However, as this does not necessarily remove the
grease contaminants from the surface of the screen, it is also recommended to
carry out a chemical treatment, which will rid the fabric of oily residues that may
impair good stencil adhesion. This last operation should be done shortly before
processing every stencil.
6.1.2 Fabric roughening
Fabric roughening is achieved by gently rubbing both sides of the screen with a
slightly abrasive proprietary paste designed for treating screen fabrics (fig.76). It is
normally sufficient to carry out this operation one time only, on new screens. The
use of scouring powders such as Ajax or Vim is strictly prohibited, as their grain
particles are too large, uneven and too aggressive to the fabric (fig. 76c). These
products can clog mesh openings or cause excessive damage to the mesh fibres.
a b c
Fig. 76 - Screen fabric pre-treatment. Virgin fabric (a); after mechanical treatment with proper abrasion
paste (b); damage created to the fabric with household products or incorrect procedure (c).
82
For best results, roughening paste should be spread over both surfaces of the wet
fabric with a medium-hard nylon brush or sponge. The paste should be spread in a
circular motion 2 to 3 times over the entire surface of the screen. Then remove the
paste from the fabric surface with a hard spray of water or a high pressure water
gun. When ready for stencil processing, degrease the fabric (unless the paste
already contains some degreasing agents), examining the surface for any paste
particles that may have adhered to the surface. Proceed to drying the screen.
! For reasons inherent to the shape of the screen, it is not possible nor is it
necessary to roughen the surface of rotary screens. A simple degreasing
treatment is sufficient. However, due to the awkward shape of the screen,
the degreasing operation may be difficult and time consuming. To bypass
the risks of poor stencil performance it is therefore recommended to use
Saatilene HIBOND screen fabric, which does not require any type of pre-
treatment (§ 6.2).
SaatiChem DIRECT PREP 1 is the abrasive paste manufactured and

recommended by SaatiPrint to carry out this treatment. It is harmless and very
effective.
6.1.3 Fabric degreasing
Manufacturers of screen fabrics and chemicals market numerous degreasing

solutions specifically for screen printing. These degreasers are colourless soap-like
products that are harmless and easily applied to the screen. Screen-degreasing
products are considered sufficient to ensure average stencil durability without
altering the surface structure of the yarn, unlike more aggressive pastes which can
damage the fabric. When degreasing screens, wet the surface of the fabric with
cold water and apply a generous quantity of degreasing agent to its surface. With a
soft, clean brush, spread the solution evenly on both sides of the screen (fig. 77a).
Let it stand for 2-3 minutes or according to the manufacturers instructions. Rinse
with cold water until all residual solution has disappeared.
a b
Fig. 77 - Degrease the screen thoroughly prior to stencil processing (a); finger marks on the surface of
the mesh will repel water (b) and impair adhesion in the affected areas.
To check the efficiency of the product, look for the formation of an even film of
water on the surface of the screen after rinsing. If the water runs away from the
surface, repeat the operation or search for an alternative product. Degreasing
83
should be carried out for each stencil, immediately before stencil processing.
Excess water can then be removed with a special water aspirator (fig. 78). Once
dry, avoid hand contact with the mesh.
Fig. 78 - A quick and efficient way to remove excess water

from the screen.
Saatichem DIRECT PREP 2 is a universal
cleaner and degreaser to be used prior to
stencil processing. It offers a fast action and is
easy to apply and rinse off the surface of the
screen
6.1.4 Consideration on alternative fabric degreasing agent
Greater awareness of environmental cleanliness and health and safety regulations

are quite rightly causing screen printing firms to switch to non-polluting products
which are also safe for the user. Unfortunately, however, it is still common to
encounter the use of homemade products or products not specifically formulated for
screen printing. For example, sodium hydroxide in some form or another is still
used for screen cleaning or degreasing. Under normal conditions, nylon fabrics are
fully resistant to alkalis like sodium hydroxide, but on the other hand, they are
attacked by acidic stencil-hardening solutions, even at a low concentration.
Polyester fabrics behave in exactly the opposite way. Although acid resistant, they
are damaged by alkalis to a greater or lesser extent, depending on the
concentration and other conditions.
# Sodium Hydroxide
NaOH, a white deliquescent
Alkaline anti-stain (anti-ghost or haze
remover) solutions prepared for
screen cleaning are strongly alkaline,
solid normally produced typically with a pH of 14. When used
commercially in solution by for short time periods with polyester
the eletrolysis of brine. mesh they should not harm the fabric.
Solutions are highly alkaline They should not be used with nylon
with a high pH value of 14. fabric as it quickly degrades.
Also known as caustic soda. Acid solutions used for catalysing
stencils typically have a pH of 1. They
will not affect polyester mesh but will
weaken nylon mesh unless they are
Warning! products specifically designed for use
with nylon.
For health and safety reasons, the use of
caustic solutions in the stencil
department is not recommended, particularly if they need to be mixed from a crystal form
by the user. Although they are excellent degreasers, these solutions will easily lead to skin
burning from accidental spilling or splashing, overall careless usage or too strong a
concentration.
84
If caustic soda has to be used, avoid dilutions stronger than 5%. When preparing
solutions, proper protective clothing should be worn, and a heat-resistant container
should be used. After applying the liquid to polyester fabrics, it is recommended to
neutralize the effect with a solution of acetic acid. Today there is a wide range of
chemical products aimed at effective degreasing of screen printing fabric before
imaging or for stencil cleaning after printing.
! Alcohol is sometimes used for degreasing screens, yet it is not an effective

degreaser. In fact, even though grease contaminants on the fabric are
dissolved by alcohol, within a short period after the alcohol has evaporated,
the same contaminants will once again be deposited onto a different area of
the mesh.
! Do not use household washing-up solutions to degrease the fabric as they

contain skin softening chemicals such as lanolin that will impair stencil
adhesion.
6.2 FACTORY TREATED FABRIC – Saatilene HIBOND
The previous paragraphs have emphasized the importance of fabric treatment for
stencil durability. Since tile decorators are generally dealing with a large number of
new screens on a daily basis, a substantial amount of time is spent degreasing
screens. To help make better use of that time and guarantee production continuity,
SaatiPrint offer Saatilene HIBOND, a factory treated screen fabric, with a surface
modification that makes it ready to use from the roll, without further treatment.
Moreover, the pre-treatment on the fabric considerably enhances the bond between
the mesh surface and the stencil emulsion, a feature that definitely improves stencil
durability..
a c (water droplet)
Fig. 79 - Thread surface

modification (AFM).
Conventional fabric (a);
Saatilene HIBOND (b). Poor
wettability of conventional
fabric (c); excellent
wettability of Saatilene
HIBOND (d).
b d (water droplet)
85
This is a very interesting feature for tile

printers who often require more than one
stencil to achieve the required
# AFM
Atomic Force Microscopy. Relatively
production run. By being able to recent surface analysis technique
considerably increase the life of the that uses a probe to scan the
stencil, Saatilene HIBOND offers surface of a sample with very high
resolution. In some cases it is
substantial benefits such as: capable of producing a 3D
representation of the surface with
• One stencil per production run atomic scale resolution.
instead of two or three
• Consistent print result
• Great time saving in stencil department
• Risks of stencil breakdown are greatly reduced.
Saatilene HIBOND for fine detail printing

A typical design in tile decoration is the production of halftone images on relatively
coarse meshes. This implies that to guarantee perfect keying of the stencil dot to
the surface of the threads, the mesh must be particularly well degreased and the
exposure time set at the optimum level. Saatilene HIBOND will allow for safe
underexposure, making it possible to cope with up to a 50% exposure time
reduction with no effect on stencil adhesion and durability. It is also the ideal screen
fabric for rotary stencil making which because of the screen’s shape, is difficult to
degrease thoroughly and also slow to dry.
6.2.1 Recommendations for the handling of Saatilene HIBOND
Saatilene HIBOND is ready to use, and care should be taken not to contaminate its
surface during handling. Avoid unnecessary contact with the hands and dusty or
soiled surfaces. Potential areas for grease contaminants include tensioning
devices!
! Designate an easy access area for storing, unrolling and cutting the piece
of fabric necessari for screen stretching. The work surface should be as
smooth and clean as possible.
If screens are processed in an area where dust is inevitable, the screen surface
can simply be washed with a spray of cold water to remove any dust particles that
may have adhered to it. After removing excess water with a water vacuum device,
the screen will dry nearly instantly.
86
CHAPTER VII
7 SCREEN COATING AND PHOTOSTENCIL

PROCESSING
7.1 INTRODUCTION
The stencil is the result of a photomechanical process that reproduces original art
onto a coated screen. The image can be anything, from simple line work to more
complex photographic originals. The image is formed by the photochemical reaction
of a photosensitive emulsion that is reactive to a specific range of light emissions. A
screen printing stencil emulsion is mixed with sensitising salts, which when exposed
to light of a particular spectral emission, becomes insoluble in water. This process
is usually referred to as "light hardening". Quite rightly, the quality of the stencil will
reflect on the quality of print.
7.1.1 Basic stencil requirements
To produce stencils that meet a job’s requirements, the light-sensitive emulsion

must have the capacity to bond firmly to the screen fabric, especially where screens
are required for long printing runs. The rough surface of the raw tile also demands
that the stencil possess the highest possible mechanical and abrasion resistance.
Moreover, ceramic inks, as explained earlier, are made of frits and pigments which
put premature wear and tear on the stencil. Finally, stencils for tile decoration are
expected to withstand a high humidity environment. Tiles for single firing exhibit a
high moisture content due to the nature of their composition at the printing stage,
i.e. high moisture level in the clay and in the glaze prior to printing.
There are several types of stencil systems, in liquid and film form, and each has its
benefits and drawbacks for individual printing applications. Gelatine-based films are
exposed and processed prior to transfer to the mesh and have been in existence for
about 50 years. In the early 1980s, direct stencil films, called capillary films were
developed to give better durability than gelatine film stencils. Both types of stencil
films produce very good results for many printing applications, but overall, neither
stencil film system has all the attributes necessary for the demanding conditions of
the ceramic-decorating industry.
The system that has been universally adopted for

tile printing is direct emulsion, a liquid emulsion to
which a sensitiser is added prior to being coated
onto the screen (Fig. 80).
Fig. 80 A typical photostencil emulsion consists mostly of a

PVOH (polyvinyl alcohol) base to which a sensitiser salt is
added before use or in some cases, during manufacture.
87
7.2 PHOTOSTENCIL CHARACTERISTICS
While gelatine was once used exclusively as the basic material for the
manufacturing of photostencil films, in recent years an increasing number of
synthetic products have come into general use, including polyvinyl alcohols
(PVOH), and polyvinyl acetate (PVA).
When mixed judiciously, these
important chemicals produce #
Polyvinyl alcohol (PV0H)
A water soluble polymer present in
excellent results and have been
liquid photoemulsions and capillary
instrumental in the development of films that is cross linked during
today's photostencil products. exposure to provide the stencil.
Originally, emulsions were made light #

Polyvinyl acetate (PVA)
A polymer in dispersed form that is a
sensitive by using ammonium or
component of liquid photoemulsions
potassium dichromates. Now, for
and capillary film. It is used to
environmental reasons, synthetic increase solids content of the
sensitisers based on diazo emulsion and improve wet-strength
compounds have become the norm. during processing of the stencil.
Compared to the controversial
dichromate, diazo compounds have
the advantage in that the ready mixed emulsion and coated screens can be stored
for a longer period of time (under the right conditions) without their light sensitivity
being adversely affected. Unlike dichromates, diazo compounds are biodegradable.
Today there is a wide variety of photoemulsions with a range of features, made

possible in part by the addition of certain performance-enhancing photopolymers
that work compatibly with diazo. Liquid photoemulsions are categorized by their
composition and performance as follows:
Chemical resistance:
• Water resistant
• Solvent resistant
• Both water and solvent resistant
Sensitising system:
• Diazo
• Diazo/photopolymer (dual cure)
• Pure photopolymer (SBQ)
Solids content and viscosity:

• Low, medium, high
7.2.1 Diazo sensitised emulsions
Today’s diazo-sensitized emulsion remains the simplest of photoemulsion

technologies, and the one that over time, replaced dichromate-sensitized
emulsions. Diazo sensitiser consists of a yellow dye of a polymeric nature. When
88
exposed to actinic light, such as that emitted in a screen exposure unit, the diazo
sensitiser decomposes, which initiates a reaction with the emulsion’s main
component, the polyvinyl alcohol (PVOH). As the polymer chain of the PVOH
becomes crosslinked, its water solubility decreases and its resistance to water
increases (Fig.81). This chemical chain reaction becomes visibly evident during
stencil processing, when the unexposed portions of the screen wash away, and the
exposed areas remain on the mesh, forming what we know as the stencil.
In addition to the emulsion’s basic PVOH

component are other ingredients that
determine its final properties, including
# Plasticiser
An ingredient present in the
image-resolution capability and durability. stencil to increase flexibility
One of these components is polyvinyl and prevent brittleness and
cracking during the printing
acetate (PVA), which bulks the emulsion, process.
increases its solid content, improves the wet
strength of the stencil during development
and is also used to render the
emulsion water resistant for printing
with water based ink systems. Diazo
emulsions are formulated to offer
resistance to either water or solvent
ink systems but not both in the same
product.
Fig. 81 - During exposure of the stencil (b),
UV light triggers a reaction between the
sensitiser and other emulsion components to
produce a water insoluble layer (c).
7.2.2 Diazo photopolymer emulsion
In most English speaking countries this group of products is commonly called “dual
cure” emulsion. It implies that an additional crosslinking system is included in the
emulsion at the time of manufacturing to work compatibly with the diazo salt that is
mixed in by the user. This additional crosslinking system is used to reinforce or
sometimes to replace the polyvinyl acetate component, which does not react with
the diazo resin (fig. 82).
Fig. 82 Chain reaction of

a typical dual cure
emulsion after exposure
to UV light.
89
By combining these two cross-linking systems, it is possible to confer a combination

of performance features that were mutually exclusive with diazo-only sensitised
products. Taking advantage of this technology, manufacturers can develop
“universal” emulsion, i.e., water and solvent resistance in one product, with a high
solids content for a thicker stencil, and easy reclaimability under most conditions.
7.2.3 Pure photopolymer emulsion
These emulsions are

manufactured with a light sensitive
polymer and do not require to be
mixed with a diazo sensitiser. # Polymerisation
Reaction in which monomers bond to
They are presensitised and ready form a polymer
to use as supplied; for that reason
it is usual to call the product in the
screen printing jargon, “one pot
# Polymer
Synthetic or naturally occurring high
emulsion”. Pure photopolymer molecular weight resin composed of
emulsions offer a very long shelf repeating monomer units that are
chemically linked together.
life opposed to the diazo types
which, once sensitised, should be
used within 4 to 6 weeks. This is
# Photopolymer (SBQ)
A chemically modified polyvinylalcohol
because the diazo compound is that contains light sensitive groups
very much affected by heat and capable of crosslinking when exposed to
light.
moisture. Pure photopolymer
emulsions will keep well over one
year. In addition to this practical
feature, they will expose in a fraction of the time necessary to photographically cure
diazo or dual cure emulsions. Their exposure latitude, however, is not as good as
dual cure emulsions. This is also a reason why they are better left for producing
particularly thick stencils (fig. 83), which are otherwise very slow to respond to
ultraviolet light.
Fig. 83 Chain reaction of a

typical pure photopolymer
emulsion (a); thick stencil
produced with pure
photopolymer Saatichem
CERAMIC PHW (b).
a b
90
7.2.4 SaatiChem photoemulsions for ceramic tile decoration
SAATICHEM, a division of SaatiPrint, manufacture a range of photostencil

emulsions especially formulated for the tile industry. These emulsions’
characteristics are detailed in table 7.1 hereafter. Due to increasingly stringent
environmental regulation, it has been a prime objective for Saatichem to formulate
more environ-mentally friendly products. The following table summarizes their
main features.
Table 7.1 SAATICHEM stencil emulsions for ceramic tile decoration
Product Sensitiser Solids Chemical

Colour Viscosity
name system content resistance
CERAMIC Pure photo-
Light green High 50% Water
PHW polymer
CERAMIC
Dual cure Light violet Low 39% Water/solvent
HU Violet
CERAMIC
Dual cure Blue/red Medium 48% Water
HT 1/2
CERAMIC
Dual cure Light blue High 52% Water
HHW 1
7.3 PREPARING FOR SCREEN COATING
Although “one pot” emulsions are gaining popularity, a great majority of stencil
emulsions supplied to the industry belong to the dual cure family. Therefore, prior to
screen coating, the emulsion needs to be sensitised, i.e. mixed with the sensitiser
supplied with the emulsion. The sensitiser (diazo) comes in different forms: powder,
syrup, or liquid solution (the least stable form for storage). SAATICHEM supply the
sensitiser in the more stable powder form. Before adding it to the base, it is
necessary to ensure that it is fully dissolved. If unsure on the quality of the water
supply, use distilled water to dissolve the powder. At this stage, both components
can be added and mixed together. Mixing should always be carried out using clean
instruments to avoid contaminating the emulsion, which can impair screen coating.
Use stainless steel, wooden or plastic utensils only. To obtain a homogeneous and
smooth-flowing coat, the emulsion should be prepared a few hours before use, or if
possible, the previous day. This will help to disperse air pockets that will invariably
occur after stirring.
! It is recommended to always sensitise the whole quantity of emulsion in the

container with the full amount of sensitizer. It is never advisable to attempt
to sensitise a portion of the package, as this often results in errors that
affect stencil performance.
! After use, immediately close the container to prevent the surface of the
emulsion from skinning over.
91
! Before closing the container, carefully wipe residual emulsion from the lip,
to prevent emulsion from drying and accidentally dispersing into the
emulsion. These stray bits of residue can adversely affect the coating of
future screens.
! After handling sensitisers, check for any spillage on the skin and wash
hands or affected parts with soap and water after every use.
! If the emulsion has been kept in a refrigerator for some time, remove it the
day before using, to allow the product to recover normal viscosity.
7.3.1 Storage recommendations
Photoemulsion products can be affected either by excessive heat or by frost. For

storage of unsensitised emulsions, i.e., the base and the sensitiser, normal
environmental conditions are perfectly safe (17 to 25° C). The sensitiser will not be
affected by temperatures below 0°C/32°F, but do not allow the base emulsion to
freeze, as this may cause irreversible damage to the product.
! Do not shelve the emulsion products near a source of heat such as a

radiator or an area exposed to sunlight.
Emulsions sensitised with diazo have a shorter shelf life than those of the pure
photopolymer type. Ideally, once the diazo sensitiser has been added to the base
emulsion, the product should be used within 2 to 4 weeks.
! The cooler the ambient temperature, the greater the shelf life of sensitised
emulsion, but do not allow the emulsion to freeze. For sensitised
emulsions, follow the same storage-location recommendations as for
unsensitised emulsion. Inadequate storage conditions of photochemical
products will result in stencil displaying poor resolution and sharpness.
7.3.2 Screen coating and stencil prerequisites
Before coating screens, make sure they are prepared as described in Chapter VI,
unless Saatilene HIBOND is used. The screens should be perfectly dry. The type
of fabric, the mesh count, coating technique and the drying procedure are factors
that will affect coating consistency, thickness and the stencil surface roughness
measurement known as the Rz value (§ 2.3.3). In this respect, automatic coating
machines will ensure repeatability, eliminating or reducing some of the variables
that may be problematic when the task is performed manually by one or more
operators. It also helps to have a basic knowledge of the composition and
properties of the stencil emulsion, such as its solids content or viscosity. This
information is readily available from all good manufacturers and is usually found on
product data sheets.
Before proceeding in discussing recommendations for stencil making, it should be

noted that in some applications, specialised decorative effects require the
92
production of thick film stencils. Such stencils are made with special coating
techniques. The following observations and recommendations, however, will refer
to the production of stencils for standard designs in tile decoration.
To obtain sharp print definition, the stencil should display a minimum level of
emulsion build up on the print side of the screen, the side that is in contact with the
tile (fig. 84). This condition is to prevent ink spread at the tile surface/stencil
interface. Rotary stencils do
not follow the same rule.
# Solids content
The non-volatile fraction of an emulsion
that remains after drying to form the
stencil during exposure. A high solids
content emulsion will shrink less during
drying. Expressed in percentage.
# Viscosity
The resistance of a liquid to flow, normally
expressed in Poise (P) or centipoises (cP).
One poise equals 100cP. Emulsion
viscosity is normally adjusted for ease of
coating.
Fig. 84 A minimum of emulsion build up is essential for optimum print sharpness.

To obtain sharp print definition, the stencil should display a minimum level of
emulsion build up on the print side of the screen, the side that is in contact with the
tile (fig. 84). This condition is to prevent ink spread at the tile surface/stencil
interface. Rotary stencils do not follow the same rule.
To meet this requirement, the photoemulsion should be selected relative to the

mesh specifications. High-viscosity emulsions with high percentage of solids are
generally recommended for use with lower mesh count specifications (77/cm and
coarser). Medium to low viscosity/solid-content emulsions are reserved for finer
mesh counts (fig. 85).
93
Fig. 85 SaatiChem CERAMIC emulsions compatibility with mesh counts.

Once the correct emulsion selection has been made, the standard procedure is to
coat screens “wet on wet” with the last coat (or coats) applied from the squeegee
side (fig. 86). This technique will produce the necessary emulsion build-up on the
print side. And will provide better control over printed image quality.
a b
Fig. 86 Conventional wet on wet coating technique (a); Wet on dry coating technique to combine a low
and uniform surface profile (b).
Immediately after coating, the screen is positioned horizontally for drying, with
squeegee side facing up. If it is necessary to build up the stencil thickness,
increase the number of coats in the standard procedure, or apply additional “face”
coats on the print side of the screen, with intermediate drying between coats. If no
automatic coater is available, there is a special easel available to make the manual
job easier and more consistent. (fig. 87).
94
a b c
Fig. 87 Fully automatic coater (a) and motorised size change easel from Assoprint (b); manual size
change easel (c). All will contribute to screen coating consistency.
7.3.3 Factors affecting coating thickness variations
Fabric tension
One of the first factors that will affect coating thickness consistency is the tension of
the fabric. Tension variations from screen to screen should therefore be avoided.
! In order to obtain uniform screen coating, the tension of the screen should
not fall below14 N/cm.
Other than affecting coating thickness, low tension (less than14 N/cm) will lead to a
thicker emulsion build up in the central part of the screen, with consequent
processing difficulties.
Coating method
Hand coating and machine coating will yield different results, even with identical
trough characteristics. This is due to variation in pressure applied during coating as
well as the simultaneous coating of both sides that is possible with automatic
coating machines. Table 7.2 demonstrates the variations in emulsion thickness that
result from the two coating procedures
Table 7.2 – Stencil thickness parameters – manual and automatic coating
Coating machine Manual coating

N° of coats/ Stencil thickness (µm)* Stencil thickness (µm)*
Mesh counts** 62.64PW 120.34PW 62.64PW 120.34PW
1+1 10 7 12 6
2+2 9 6 18 9
3+3 10 6 28 14
1+2 16 10 22 11
1+3 31 16 34 18
2+3 16 10 29 14
2+4 26 16 41 19
* Emulsion thickness above the mesh, print side – ** Mesh 62.64 coated with Ceramic HT ½ and mesh
120.34 with Ceramic HU Violet.
95
Example:
• Machine coating can be set up to start with one simultaneous coating front and
back followed by one or two single coatings from the squeegee side. Note that
the final result from 1+2 coatings is equal to 2+3 as in both cases, the last pass
is a single one.
• When hand coating, the first coat is applied on the one side while all additional
coatings are applied afterward on the opposite side. Logically, it is not possible
to simultaneously coat both sides by hand.
Coating trough parameters
Undoubtedly, automatic coaters help to standardise the procedure under busy
production conditions where multiple operators are sharing the task of screen
coating and processing. Coating machines can be programmed so that each screen
is coated in an identical manner, effectively eliminating the inconsistencies that
result from manual screen coating.
Manufacturers product data sheets may recommend the number of coatings

necessary for a specific emulsion and mesh count. While this is useful information,
it is important to remember that prevailing conditions may not lead to the
manufacturers’ forecasted results in terms of stencil thickness, and for the following
reasons:
• Edge radius of coating trough varies from one coater type to another and there
are no universal ways to express coating speed.
• The edge profile of hand coating troughs vary tremendously from manufacturer
to manufacturer as well as from country to country (fig. 88).
a b
Fig. 88 The edge radius of the coating trough affects stencil coating thickness.
! In all circumstances, great care should be taken so that the coating trough
remains clean and undamaged. The edge should be perfectly straight and
slightly rounded in order to reduce the number of coatings necessary.
Before coating, make sure that air bubbles are not present at the surface of the
emulsion in the trough, as these may create streaks in the coatings. Irrespective of
the method chosen, coating should be relatively slow and uniform. Coating too fast
96
will create air pockets which become trapped in the coating (fig. 89), particularly
with low mesh counts.
a b
Fig.89 Air pocket in emulsion will affect screen coating performance.

Coated screen drying position
The position in which the freshly coated screen is stored will also affect the stencil
profile and emulsion build up. The following paragraphs deal in more detail on the
best way to handle screen drying.
7.3.4 Drying the coated screen
After a screen is coated, it is often thought that the job is done and nothing can go
wrong from this point forward. But drying conditions play a part in optimising stencil
quality. Ideally, the coated screens should be dried in the horizontal position with
the squeegee side up, in a dust free area away from any source of white light. This
procedure will help to prevent excessive emulsion recess from shrinkage during
drying and will contribute to maintain acceptable stencil flatness, or low Rz value.
While the fabric should be encapsulated by the stencil emulsion for optimum
durability, the squeegee side of the screen should be free from emulsion build-up.
In other words, drying a freshly coated screen squeegee side down will increase
stencil build up on the squeegee side. Though drying with the squeegee side down
might seem convenient because the screen is resting on the frame, the
consequence of such practice will lead to the following difficulties:
• Uneven squeegee surface;

• Reduced emulsion build up on the print side;
• Increased stencil Rz;
• Risks of unhardened emulsion residue, not washed away during processing,
blocking mesh openings in the image area.
The illustrations in fig. 90 a/b clearly show the effects of incorrect stencil drying
position and its Rz value.
97
a b
Fig.90 Saatilene HITECH 62.64/cm. Stencil dried print side down: Rz 9.8 microns (a);
stencil dried print side up: Rz 14.0 microns (b).).
Coated screens should be dried in a properly designed drying cabinet with
temperature control and adequate air circulation so that moisture from drying is
efficiently dispersed outside the drying area. The maximum temperature range for
safely drying stencils is 25 to 35° C.
! Excessive heat will prematurely harden the stencil emulsion and create
difficulties at development stage, when the image areas will not wash away
cleanly. It is important that the coated screen be thoroughly dry before
exposing to light and even more so in cases of pure photopolymer
emulsions. Residual moisture will greatly reduce its light sensitivity, and
thorough hardening becomes practically impossible.
When drying screens with a cold air fan, the relative humidity in the room should not
exceed 60%. Excessive humidity will inhibit the drying of the stencil.
7.4 CONSIDERATIONS ON STENCIL PARAMETERS
As explained in previous paragraphs, the stencil plays a crucial part in print quality.
Unless standardised procedures are put in place, stencils produced with liquid
direct emulsions are likely to vary in thickness and surface roughness, the two most
influential factors in a stencil’s printing performance.
7.4.1 Stencil thickness and drying method
When referring to stencil thickness, we are talking about the quantity of emulsion
laying over the mesh surface interfacing with the tile (print side). To accurately
determine this parameter, it is necessary to measure the total thickness of the
stencil, i.e. mesh plus emulsion, and subtract the thickness of the bare fabric (§
2.3.2)
98
For valid results, it is essential that the screen be dried squeegee side up.
Otherwise the resulting emulsion thickness will include the small quantity of
emulsion on the inside of the screen (fig. 91).
! For valid results, it is essential that the screen be dried squeegee side up.
Otherwise the resulting emulsion thickness will include the small quantity
of emulsion on the inside of the screen (fig. 91).
a b
Fig. 91 When fabric thickness is subtracted from total stencil thickness, the results are identical in
both a-b examples. As a matter of fact, stencil (a) produces a higher stencil profile than b.
Optimum stencil thickness is based on a compromise between the lowest
acceptable Rz value for a specific mesh count, and the capacity for the ceramic
paste to flow through the opening of the stencil. Too thick a stencil will create a
deep and narrow channel which when dealing with fine lines and dots, will lead to
ink flow difficulties. These include ink “starvation” on the print, ink drying in stencil
and difficulties in stencil wash up. Table 7.3 can be used as a guide to establish the
stencil procedure with SAATICHEM range of products on the most common mesh
counts. Having a thickness gauge as well as an Rz meter is useful in establishing
optimum stencil parameters. However, if recommended working conditions are
followed, the thickness gauge on its own may prove to be sufficient.
For mesh count from 90 threads/cm and above, aim for an Rz value below 10 mu.
From 77 threads/cm and below, a range of Rz values from 15 to 20 are acceptable.
Take into consideration that scrape coating excess emulsion on the print side will
severely increase the Rz value and affect stencil profile thickness and uniformity
(fig. 92)
99
a b
Fig. 92 - Stencil produced with Saatichem CERAMIC HT 1 on 71.55/cm screen fabric 1+2 coatings.
Optimum screen characteristics with Rz13.1 and EOM thickness 24 microns (a); after scraping excess
emulsion from print side: Rz 21.0 microns and EOM thickness 10 microns.
Table 7.3 – Processing guide for SAATICHEM CERAMIC emulsions
Emulsion thickness
Product Mesh counts N° coats
over the mesh (EOM)*
Cm/in. Wet/Wet µm
9.120(74) 2+4 66
CERAMIC PHW 43.80(110) 2+4 66
62.64(158) 2+4 36
90.48(230) 1+2 7
CERAMIC HU Violet 120.34(305) 1+2 11
150.34(380) 1+2 4
62.64(158) 2+2 13
71.55(180) 2+2 12
CERAMIC HT 77.55(196) 2+2 10
90.48(230) 2+4 8
120.34(305) 3+2 11
29.120(74) 2+4 58
CERAMIC HHW 1 43.80(110) 2+4 36
62.64(158) 2+4 60
* Approximate thickness proud of the mesh (print side) with automatic coater.
7.4.2 Alternative coating techniques
A characteristic feature of the tile industry is its great variety in decorative fantasy.
The screen printing process lends itself tremendously well to transferring an artist’s
creativity onto the tile. Special effects can be produced by depositing a heavy layer
of ceramic paste through a very thick stencil, using a wet or dry printing method.
Thick film stencils can be produced by selecting a lower mesh-count fabric to fit the
original requirements or the intended style of the product. The coarser the fabric,
the greater the number of coats needed to produce the stencil. The technique will
vary from the “wet on wet” coating procedure described earlier.
Thick film stencil coating procedure

Although any mesh counts can produce a relatively thick stencil, the type of graphic
design used for this application does not call for such type of mesh count. Well-
100
defined thick film stencils can be produced with mesh counts from and below 43
th/cm (fig. 93). Dry printing (graniglia) will require a mesh fabric from as low as 6.5
th/cm. The following is the procedure recommended for thick film printing:
• Select a stencil emulsion with high solids content and high viscosity, such as
dual cure CERAMIC HHW1 or the presensitised CERAMIC PHW.
• Apply two coats on each side of the degreased screen, in order to fill the mesh
openings. To avoid air pockets, coat slowly and check that no air bubbles are
present in the coating trough.
• Dry the coated screen horizontally, squeegee side up away from white light or
daylight.
• Once dry, build up the emulsion thickness with successive coatings, two at a
time, on the print side of the screen. Dry the screen between coatings. Continue
the process until the required thickness has been achieved.
• Two additional face coats wet on wet will increase stencil thickness by 2 to 3
microns.
Fig. 93 Saatichem CERAMIC HHW 1 with 85
microns EOM. Multi-coating technique will
provide stencils of any desired coating
thickness
Before exposure, make sure that the
emulsion is thoroughly dry. While it
may feel dry to the touch, moisture
may still be trapped within the outer
layer. Check the stencil with the
moisture meter to be safe. It may take
up to several hours before the stencil is
ready for exposure. If not perfectly dry prior to exposure, the emulsion will not
crosslink properly and will come away from the mesh during processing. This is
also a sign of underexposure.
When drying a very thick coating of emulsion, avoid high temperatures that can
cause the coating to skin over, thus preventing the entire layer of emulsion from
drying properly. The drying process is necessarily much longer than for
conventional stencils.
For stencil development, begin by soaking the exposed stencil in a tank of

lukewarm water for 10 to 15 minutes. Finish development with a medium to hard
spray of water. Thick stencils (from 0.250 mm and over) are slow to wash out and
great care should be taken to wash them very thoroughly.
For thick film stencils, exposure time may take up to one hour. Once a stencil is
exposed and processed, drying can take place print side up.
7.5 ROTARY SCREEN – preparing for stencil processing
Rotary stencils have becoming increasingly popular. Tile producers are gradually
adopting the system as a substitute or addition to flat stencils, particularly when
101
installing a new production line . The tile manufacturer can either buy the press-
ready rotary stencils from a specialized laboratory or produce them in-house. With
the flexibility offered by new systems such as Dual Ring®, stencils can easily be
delivered without risk of damage, and even a large quantity of screens will occupy
little space. As explained earlier, rotary stencil making requires the following custom
built equipment which is quite different to that used for flat screens:
• Screen fabric tensioning device as per the system selected.

• Screen coater
• Specially designed drying cabinet
• Stencil exposure system
• Soaking tank
• Special wash out booth (for automatic system).
• Inspection/retouching table
• Specially designed drying cabinet for catalysed screen.
There may be some marginal variations in stencil preparation if we consider the

equipment offered by different machine manufacturers, but the principle objective
must be screen-to-screen consistency, as already emphasized in previous
paragraphs for flat stencils.
7.5.1 Coating rotary screens
Since the printing circumstances are similar to that under which flat screens are
used, rotary stencils share the same type of stencil chemicals; rotary screens are
generally produced with mesh counts from 77/cm and below. While the “Rocket”
screen is hand coated, it is recommended to use an automatic coater for the space-
free rotary screens (Fig. 95b).
Fig. 94 Gear for rotary screen

manual coating
The print quality produced on tiles with the flat stencil system relies on a series of
factors such as squeegee pressure, flood stroke, off contact, stencil flatness, and
emulsion thickness, to mention the most important ones. With the rotary system,
there is no off-contact since the tile surface is tangent with the stencil. The image
transfer does not rely on squeegee pressure but on paste viscosity, mesh type and
102
opening. Squeegee flood stroke with this system does not apply, and therefore
stencil parameters, as discussed for flat screens in previous chapters, are not
applicable to rotary stencils. In fact, a low stencil profile (emulsion thickness) is
required in this situation to enhance ink flow characteristics.
a b c
Fig. 95 - Automatic coater for rotary screens (a-b) and drying cabinet (c).
Coating of a rotary screen is carried out from both sides of the mesh. Some
automatic coaters are able to accommodate any type of screen. During coating, as
for printing, the troughs remain in a fixed position in contact with the rotating screen.
The solids content of the emulsion, the type of mesh and the mesh count will dictate
the number of coatings to apply. Once optimum conditions have been identified, the
coater can be programmed for successive use as per the automatic flat screen
coater.
Best coating results will be obtained on a degreased fabric. Since degreasing is

rendered somewhat awkward due to the very nature of the screen, SaatiPrint
suggest the use of Saatilene HIBOND which does not require any type of manual
pre-treatment (§ 6.2) Saatilene HIBOND will help to guarantee perfect coating
homogeneity with no risk of fisheyes due to emulsion repellence from inadequate
surface cleaning or accidental contamination.
7.5.2 Drying coated rotary screens
A drying cabinet should be built to accommodate a screen rotating system and be

fitted with an accurate temperature control (fig. 95c)
103
CHAPTER VIII
8 PHOTOSTENCILS EXPOSURE AND FINISHING
8.1 INTRODUCTION
In the world of graphic reproduction, various types of substrates are made light
sensitive, so that they may be transformed into a matrix with a photomechanical or
etching process. With most printing systems, this matrix performs consistently, with
few variables to interfere with their performance. Lithographic plates, flexographic
plates and rotogravure cylinders all fall into this category. In contrast, however, is
the photostencil for screen printing. It consists of a comparatively thick layer of light-
sensitive material. It is applied by the operator, by hand or by machine, to an open
screen fabric which acts as a support. The characteristics of the fabric will directly
affect the coating thickness of the light-sensitive layer, which in itself, introduces a
large number of variables to the process. Some of these variables have already
been discussed in previous chapters. This chapter will deal with the understanding
of the phases connected with the exposure and finishing of the stencil.
8.2 DEFINITION OF LIGHT
Light is one of the many forms of

radiant energy, that is, energy
propagated by means of
#
Electromagnetic waves
Radiation comprised of transverse
electromagnetic waves. Wave oscillating electric and magnetic fields.
propagation is characterized by two The frequency of oscillation is related to
factors: wavelength and frequency the wavelength. Infrared (heat) has a
(fig. 96). As it is easier to measure wavelength above 700 nanometers (nm).
Visible radiation, red through blue/violet,
the wavelength than the frequency, has wavelengths of 700-400nm and UV
it is more convenient to identify a has a wavelength of less than 400nm.
given luminous radiation in terms of
its wavelength measured in air.
(The velocity will vary according to the medium through which the waves pass.)
The unit of measurement for wavelengths is the nanometre (nm), or millimicron
(mµ), which is one thousandth of a micron. This measurement is also sometimes
expressed in Angstrom (A°). The latter unit of length corresponds to ten thousandth
of a micron. The known forms of radiant energy range from gamma rays to radio
waves, with the latter reaching wavelengths of many kilometres.
Fig. 96 A ’ wavelength’ is the distance

between two adjacent wave crests, and the
‘frequency’ the number of waves that pass
a point in one second.
104
The form of radiant energy that is visible to the eye is called “visible light”. It extends
from 400 to 700 nm on the electromagnetic spectrum (Fig. 97).
Ultraviolet radiation (UV) immediately precedes the shorter waves of the visible light
portion of the spectrum, while infrared radiation (IR) is found on the other end of the
longer waves of the visible light. Both are used in the screen printing industry in
conjunction with radiation-curing ink systems, such as UV and IR-curing inks for
graphic and garment printing. Ultraviolet light of a specific wavelength is used to
expose flat and rotary photostencils.
Fig. 97
Electromagnetic
spectrum.
8.3 SPECTRAL SENSITIVITY OF PHOTOSTENCIL EMULSIONS
Photographic emulsions are made light sensitive by the addition of a distinct type of
sensitiser during manufacture, or at the time of use. The various types of sensitisers
include silver halide for litho films, ferric salts for indirect stencil films, dichromate
and diazo salts for photoliquid stencil emulsions, and more recently, photopolymers
such as SBQ (Stilbazonium Quaternary Compound). With the exception of silver
halide, which is sensitive to a wide range of light radiations, the remaining
sensitisers listed above
respond mostly to ultraviolet
light radiations. They also
# SBQ (Stilbazonium Quaternary Compound)
Light sensitive chemical that is reacted with
offer the advantage of polyvinylalcohol to provide a photopolymer resin
creating a product that can be used in making liquid photoemulsions and
handled safely under yellow capillary film..
lighting, or even subdued
daylight, rather than total or
semidarkness. Photostencil emulsions formulated for the ceramic industry belongs
to the diazo/SBQ group. They can be handled under subdued daylight or safe
lighting, although SBQ photopolymer products are much more light sensitive. When
using SBQ emulsions, direct sources of white daylight should be avoided,
particularly in the area where screens are drying prior to exposure.
105
8.4 LIGHT SOURCES
To create the desired hardening reaction throughout the stencil emulsion layer, the
light source must possess the right light emission characteristics for the
photographic characteristics of the sensitiser used in the stencil emulsion.
Additionally, for production efficiency, the shortest possible exposure time is
desirable, as long as it does not compromise the quality or durability of the finished
stencil. For optimum resolution a point light source is strongly recommended. The
following paragraphs give a brief analysis of the type of light sources available and
their suitability for stencil processing.
8.4.1 Light sources’ spectral characteristics
Incandescent lamps
These are normal tungsten lamps used for room illumination. While they will create
some light reactions in a photostencil emulsion, they emit an excessive amount of
heat that could cause difficulties during stencil washout (fig. 98a). The use of
tungsten bulbs for stencil exposure should be avoided.
Fig. 98 Wavelengths of common light sources (a-f).

Fluorescent tubes
These are electric discharge lamps. The inside surface of the tube is covered with a
substance which when struck by the ultraviolet radiations emitted by the gas,
becomes fluorescent and emits visible light. Specially optimised fluorescent tubes
emit UV light in a band suitable for exposing some photoemulsions (fig. 98b).
Because of the very low illumination output, a large number of tubes would be
required to produce an exposure unit capable of providing enough light for
adequate stencil illumination and hardening. In addition, the tubes need to be
placed at a distance of 10 to 20cm from the stencil to avoid excessively long
exposure times. Moreover, because this is a “diffused” light source, this system
may create severe light scattering during exposure, particularly on white fabric or
combinations of coarse meshes and thick film stencils requiring longer exposures.
106
Mercury vapour
This is also an electric discharge lamp made of a glass tube or bulb containing
mercury vapour. These lamps emit the light in bands, mainly in the region of
ultraviolet and blue radiation (fig. 98c).They were very popular in the 1960s and
produced inexpensive exposure units. However, due to their relatively low output,
the exposure of a large stencil area necessitates the use of several lamps, which
may create difficulties in achieving evenness of illumination. Furthermore, such a
situation would require an efficient heat dispersion system to avoid excessive
temperature build-up at the surface of the glass/stencil contact area.
Xenon lamp
This is an electric discharge lamp containing a xenon gas under high pressure. It is
a continuous emission type with an emission curve in almost equal proportions
throughout the visible spectrum (fig.98d). Xenon lamps represent a good point
source rich in ultraviolet light emission. However, they require high power to
compete with even a low-wattage metal halide lamp for comparable exposure
times. This makes these lamps slightly more expensive to run. They also emit a
fairly large quantity of infra-red radiations that may overheat the glass of the printing
down frame, adversely affecting stencil performance.
Carbon arc lamp

The light emission comes from the arc and from the glowing colour. It is based on
the principle of two carbon electrodes through which an electrical discharge takes
the form of a small arc. Their spectral emission is continuous, but with a peak in the
ultraviolet and blue regions of the spectrum (fig.98e). Carbon arc systems once
represented a good source of ultraviolet light radiation, and the best point source
ever produced. Unfortunately, the intensity of the light fluctuates with the constant
opening and closing gap between the carbon rods. They have virtually become
obsolete nowadays due to the harmful vapour they release during exposure. If there
is no suitable alternative, they should be used in conjunction with an efficient fume
extraction system, or a suitably ventilated room.
Metal Halide
The most suitable light source on the market today is the metal halide lamp, which
emits a spectral range that is most compatible with the sensitivities of the
sensitisers used in photoemulsions (fig. 98f). Metal halide light sources are
available in a large range of output intensity, to suit the conditions under which the
stencils are being exposed, i.e., a 2K (2000 watt) lamp will be sufficient for a small
size box-type exposure unit, while a 5K will be more suitable for a free standing
lamp with a greater distance from the lamp to the stencil(s) or a larger surface to
expose.
8.4.2 Light source geometry
The light source geometry refers to the design of the light emitting unit and may
have a positive or negative influence on stencil parameters such as resolution and
emulsion hardening.
A “point” light source defines an exposure unit that emits lights from a very narrow
and concentrated area, producing a very directional light beam (fig. 99a). For this
reason, it is the most suitable type for stencil exposure, because the light rays have
107
to penetrate a relatively thick layer of emulsion, unlike the photosensitive surfaces

of offset plates or photographic film or paper. A multi-point source, as the
expression implies, is made of more than one source of light or a large-sized single
one (fig. 99b). Since the light travels to the screen from different directions, it tends
to scatter through the emulsion layer and undercut details in the litho film if
exposure duration is not carefully controlled. To avoid the risks of losing details,
stencils would need to be underexposed, an unattractive option because of the
detrimental effect on stencil durability.
a b
Fig. 99 Point light source (a) will produce sharper stencil than a multipoint light source (b).
! The light rays of a good point source may also be reflected from the
background in the exposure area, producing similar problems experienced
with a multi-point source. Make sure that the UV light is not reflected from
light-coloured wall panels or curtains that are part of the exposure unit. Use
a black protective curtain and paint the wall panel black or dark grey.
Fig. 100 This complete

exposure system provides in
a single unit, a drying
cabinet, a good quality point
source and efficient vacuum
exposure frame (a); hard top
version (b).
a b
108
8.4.3 The correct distance for stencil exposure
The correct distance from the light source to the screen is that which will provide an
even distribution of light over the total surface of the exposure frame, or at least the
stencil area. If the distance is too short, the light intensity will be substantially higher
at the centre compared to the outside areas of the frame (fig. 101). Therefore,
increasing the distance between the stencil and the light source will create a more
even light distribution over the stencil
surface. Inadequate light distribution
will result in an uneven stencil # Inverse square law
In case of stencil exposure, the law
hardening with areas of poor
relates to the distance and light
mechanical or solvent resistance. A intensity. Doubling the distance will
good working distance will correspond reduce the light intensity at the stencil
to the diagonal of the exposure frame. by a factor of four. Therefore the
If the distance has to be altered, exposure duration will need to be
quadrupled.
remember that the light intensity is
based on the inverse square law.
If the distance from the lamp to the stencil is fixed, the radiometer will help to
identify the area where incident light is the most homogenous. Keep screens to be
exposed within that zone.
Fig. 101 Incident light should be

uniform within the area to be
exposed. Exposure distance too
short (a); correct exposure
distance (b).
Most exposure systems are supplied with a light integrator. If not, the new exposure
can be calculated with the help of the following formula.
Formula for determining the new exposure time (X):
CxF
X = ------
E
Where
a = previous distance and a² = E.
b = new distance and b² = F.
C = previous exposure time
X = new exposure time
109
Example 1
a = previous distance = 80 cm.
b = new distance = 40 cm.
C = previous exposure time = 60 seconds.
X = new exposure time = x seconds.
E = a² = 6400
F = b² = 1600
CxF 60 x 1600
X = ---------- = --------------- = 15 seconds.
E 6400
Example 2
a = previous distance = 80 cm.
b = new distance = 160 cm.
C = previous exposure time = 60 sec.
X = new exposure time = x sec.
E = a² = 6400
F = b² = 25600
CxF 60 x 25600
X = --------- = ---------------- = 240 seconds.
E 6400
8.4.4 The light integrator
Found on many of today’s light sources is a light integrator, a device that measures
the intensity of the incident light. A photocell connected with the light source is
placed on a fixed point on the printing down frame, and will terminate the exposure
automatically when the set time is up (see chapter II). The photocell monitors the
intensity of incident light, and compensates automatically for any change in
illumination intensity. For this reason, the light integrator provides a reading in units.
The time laps between two units depends on the strength and quality of the lighting,
and the exposure distance. As the light source element becomes weaker with age
and use, the laps between two units become greater. A similar situation occurs
when the distance between the lamp and the photocell is increased.
! The photocell should always be placed at the same point on the exposure
frame. As the photocell is normally sensitive to the entire light spectrum,
check with your supplier to ensure that a deep blue filter has been fitted
over the cell. This causes the photocell to become sensitive to the
ultraviolet light emitted by the exposure lamps. The recommended filters
are the Kodak Wratten 18A, Schott G628 or Corning 560.
! The full life of a mercury vapour lamp or metal halide tube is between 500
and 1000 hours. After that time, the ultraviolet output reduces, and the
exposure time needs to be increased.
110
8.5 PRACTICAL CONSIDERATION ON PHOTOSTENCIL

EXPOSURE
A correct exposure time is essential to ensure stencil quality and durability. Stencil
exposure has a direct influence on the
following areas:
# Film density
A measure of the optical
• Stencil sharpness and resolution. density of the film positive.
• Print definition Dmax is the density of the black
area and Dmin is the density of
• Stencil thickness. the clear area. When measured
with a densitometer, a Dmax of
• Stencil chemical and mechanical at least 3 and a Dmin of less
resistance. than 0.1 are typical of high
quality film.
Correct exposure is the result of two

factors: light intensity and time. A change in either of these factors will multiply the
faults. For this reason, it is very important to understand all of the factors affecting
exposure. Some factors referring to the light source itself have already been
discussed in earlier paragraphs. Others of equal importance are:
• The density of litho film

• The photostencil emulsion characteristics.
• The fabric.
8.5.1 Litho film
A correctly processed stencil can only reflect the quality of the litho film used. It is
rarely better. Therefore it is fundamental that the film offers the following
guarantees:
• The film base must be optically clear (from 0.00 to 0.03 maximum density) (fig.
102).
• Perfect opacity to light in image areas (transmission density from 3.0 to 4.0
minimum).
• Hard image contours (fig. 103).
• The film base transmission factor should not alter with time.
111
Fig. 102 Litho base should be optically clear whilst the opacity of the image area perfectly opaque to
light.
Fig. 103 For perfect reproduction, the litho film must show hard image contours.
Stencil quality will suffer if the quality of the litho film does not meet these
conditions. Moreover, the contact between the litho film and the stencil emulsion
has to be perfectly intimate during stencil exposure. This is best accomplished in a
vacuum frame built just for the purpose of exposing photosensitive materials.
! Litho films generated for photostencils must have the emulsion side on the
“right reading” face of the film, whether positive or negative. It is also that
side that must come into contact with the screen emulsion.
8.5.2 Stencil characteristics and influence on exposure

parameters
Correct exposure is the time necessary for the UV light to filter throughout the
emulsion layer to trigger a chemical chain reaction that causes the emulsion
112
components to join together into one perfectly insoluble body. When these
conditions are reached, the stencil attains optimum mechanical and solvent
resistance.
At the stage of stencil exposure, it is important to remember the following essential

rules:
• There are no standards in emulsion stencil sensitivity. Each needs to be tested

• for the correct exposure duration.
• Two light sources of the same type will not necessarily guarantee the same
• exposure. This may be influenced by the type of lamp reflector design, or simply
the age of the bulb.
• To produce good stencil resolution and provide sufficient protection against
accidental overexposure, the stencil surface should be produced at the
recommended Rz value. A rough, uneven coating will not produce the degree of
intimate contact between litho film and emulsion essential to avoid light
undercutting (fig. 104). Correct coating and drying methods are important when
handling liquid emulsion.
• The mesh count has a direct influence on the exposure time. Lower (coarser)
mesh counts hold a larger volume of liquid emulsion and will require a longer
exposure than that for a higher (finer) mesh count.
• The number of coatings applied and the
emulsion coating thickness above the
mesh affects the required exposure time.
• The colour of the screen fabric influences
exposure time.
Fig. 104 Stencil with irregular profile ( high Rz) fails to create intimate contact with litho
positive during exposure.
8.5.3 Screen fabric
The fabric plays an important part in stencil quality and durability. This is because
the light has to permeate through the emulsion layer that encapsulates the mesh.
If a stencil is produced on a white fabric, light rays passing through will immediately
bounce off in all directions as they meet with the filament (fig. 105a). The result is
the closing of the fine details on the stencil by the time the complete emulsion
hardening process has taken place. In this case, underexposure will be necessary,
which will negatively affect stencil durability.
113
a b
Fig. 105 Dyed fabric (b) will prevent light scattering (a) during exposure.
This problem can be eliminated by using a fabric where colour has been balanced
carefully to absorb a large quantity of the ultraviolet rays (fig. 105b). In this case,
thorough stencil hardening can be achieved together with good stencil resolution
(fig. 106).
Fig. 106 Prints produced through

dyed fabric (a) and white fabrics (b)
with stencil exposure optimised for
dyed mesh. White fabric will require a
50% light reduction with no error
tolerance to produce print results as
(a ).
a b
The accepted norm is to choose dyed fabrics for mesh counts including and above
90 th/cm. Below that, as the degree of stencil resolution is not normally as high,
white fabric may suffice. There is a tendency, however, to choose dyed meshes
even for coarser fabrics in order to improve exposure latitude and stencil edge
definition. The type of work and printing conditions should be the main criteria to
select the mesh colour.
In contrast to white meshes, coloured fabrics require a steep increase in stencil

exposure times. Within various manufacturers’ product ranges are found different
colours, to suit individual needs. Irrespective of the dye intensity, all dyed fabrics
aim to reduce light scattering and produce better stencil quality. Dyed SaatiPrint
fabrics such as Ultra-Orange or Ultra Yellow, have been carefully balanced to
combine short exposure with excellent error margins.
114
a b
Fig. 107 UV light absorption characteristics through white and dyed screen fabrics.
8.6 ESTABLISHING CORRECT EXPOSURE
A method to determine correct exposure for all direct systems is to perform a series
of incremental exposures with a fine line film positive, or preferably, a test film such
as “SaatiPrint Exposure and Resolution Test Film” (fig. 108). The latter is
designed to simulate five different exposure times in one single step. The correct
level of exposure should be found in the band that exhibits the best combination of
detail and stencil sharpness with the longest exposure time.
With coloured fabrics, total hardening can be evaluated by looking at the colour
change that is visible between the under- and overexposed areas. Total light
hardening takes place when there is no further change in emulsion colour from one
step to the next (fig.108c). Underexposed areas will look lighter due to the bleached
appearance of unhardened emulsion. With emulsions that offer good resolution,
thorough hardening will take place with no danger of the fine details being lost.
a b c
Fig. 108 Working principle of SaatiPrint Exposure and Resolution Test Film (a-b); processed stencil (c).
Due to greater light absorption of the dye, coloured fabrics will require longer
exposure times than white fabrics. It is normal for dyed fabrics to require twice the
exposure times of white meshes. Not all colours react with the same exposure
factor. When switching from one colour to another, or one product brand to another,
it is advisable to retest the exposure time.
115
! The colour change method for determining exposure time is only valid for
dyed meshes. Since light scatters through the white filaments, the correct
exposure level for white mesh is based on stencil sharpness and
resolution.
8.6.1 SaatiPrint Sensitivity Guide
The SaatiPrint Sensitivity Guide represents a very functional tool to be able to

detect any result variations during stencil processing originating from human errors,
change in exposure parameters, mesh preparation etc. The guide consists of a 21-
step photographic step wedge with incremental density from step 1 to step 21 (fig.
109) . The test strip is small enough to be placed along the litho film during
exposure. Before going to press, the processed step-wedge image can be blocked
out while retouching the stencil with filler.
Fig. 109
SaatiPrint
Sensitivity guide
step wedge (a);
after stencil wash
out (b).
a b
How to use the SaatiPrint Sensitivity Guide
Place the guide on the coated screen, with the matte side in contact with the screen
emulsion. Optimise your exposure so that when the stencil is fully washed out,
seven solid steps are left on the stencil (109b). If the number of steps after washout
is higher or lower, the given exposure time was over or underexposed. In this case,
adjust it by multiplying the actual exposure by the factor indicated in the table
below.
Table 8.1 – Exposure correction guide
To increase step guide by: Multiply original exposure by:

1 step 1.4
2 steps 2.0
3 steps 2.8
4 steps 4.0
To decrease step guide by: Multiply original exposure by:

1 step 0.70
2 steps 0.50
3 steps 0.35
4 steps 0.25
116
! For this exposure control to be valid, it is essential that the mesh be

degreased as recommended, and water pressure be constant from screen
to screen. If it is felt that the exposure is correct, but few steps are left on
the stencil, check that the appropriate mesh treatment product has been
used and applied properly.
8.7 STENCIL WASHOUT
After stencil exposure, proceed immediately to the development phase. All exposed
stencils can be placed into a pre-soaking tank to facilitate and hasten the actual
development of the stencils. While an automatic washout system is a sure way to
eliminate variables and standardise production, stencils are usually washed out
manually. In either situation, a strong cold water spray is recommended. Manual
washout should be carried out after placing the exposed stencil into the developing
booth fitted with an illuminated back drop for easy inspection.
Stencils should be washed thoroughly from both sides, making sure that no residual
emulsion is found in the open area or inside the screen (squeegee side). When this
occurs, it is a sign of underexposure with dyed fabric, and with white meshes, it
indicates insufficient washout. To accelerate drying of the stencil, remove excess
water with a suitable water aspirator. Once the stencil is dry, it is ready to be
inspected, retouched if necessary, and catalysed.
a b
Fig. 110 Stencil should be thoroughly washed out to avoid mesh blocking (a). Use a water vacuum
system (b) to remove excess water from the stencil after development.
8.8 PROCESSING ROTARY STENCILS
Rotary stencils are produced using the same photoemulsion as for flat screens.
Therefore, most of the recommendations that apply to flat screens with respect to
optimising stencil exposure also apply to processing rotary stencils. Moreover,
some variables are eliminated since all exposure equipment operates under the
same conditions, including fixed distance and only one type of exposure light, the
metal halide bulb. With this stencil system, only white fabric is used.
117
8.8.1 Exposure of rotary stencil
The dry coated screen is positioned and locked into the “cockpit” of the exposure
equipment. The litho positive is fixed on its surface and registered with the help of a
laser centering system. A special optically transparent foil will cover the screen to
hold the film in intimate contact with the screen surface. The screen is exposed
while rotating in front of a high output metal halide light source (fig. 111). To
establish the correct exposure duration, an exposure test film, as described above,
can also be used.
a b
Fig.111 Exposure equipment for rotary stencil. Registering the litho positive on the
rotary screen (a) with the help of an overhead laser beam (b).
8.8.2 Developing rotary stencils
The most convenient way to wash out exposed rotary stencils is to immerse them
for a while in a tank of water for pre-softening. Washout can then be completed in a
very short time with a water spray, either by hand or in an enclosed purpose-built
unit. This is the best way to make sure that the finest details of the stencil are fully
resolved. Automatic washing-out machines are constructed for the convenience of
the operation (fig. 112b). They are fitted with rocking cylinder holding ramps to load
and unload the screen in a horizontal position. During washout, the cabinet remains
closed, and a set of nozzles sprays water from either side of the screens. While
washout is taking place with recycled water, a fresh water supply will rinse the
stencil at the end of the development process. From that stage, excess water is
absorbed and the stencil is positioned for drying. Finishing can take place as per
the production requirements.
118
Fig. 112
Stencil wash
out by hand
(a); booth
specially
designed for
developing
rotary
stencils (b).
a b
8.9 STENCIL POST HARDENING
Ceramic tile decoration differentiates itself from other types of screen printing
because of the nature of the substrate, the length of the print runs and the ink
composition. These three elements are excessively demanding on the stencil. In
single firing production the raw tile still holds a high level of moisture while they are
subjected to a pre-drying process in warm chambers before glazing. Ceramic inks
consist of a suspension of milled glass in a special screen printable vehicle
(medium). This in itself requires the stencil to be especially protected in order to
resist softening and premature breakdown. In addition, screen and stencil must
resist many hours of production, or “squeegee strokes”, pressing through very
abrasive ink substances onto an equally rough surface. It is not unusual for a tile
production to run continuously for over 24 hours, sometimes with screens having to
be remade to finish the run. For these reasons, stencils produced for tile printing
are catalysed. This operation takes place on the finished stencil immediately after
drying.
8.9.1 Stencil catalysing – FLAT AND ROTARY SCREEN
Post hardening increases the durability of the stencil. It is carried out with a special
catalysing solution which polymerises the stencil emulsion. Stencil catalysing is a
relatively easy and simple operation but requires the use of a drying cabinet
capable of accurately sustaining temperatures between 50 and 60° C. This cabinet
should be used only for catalysing and its temperature programme should be
reliable. Variation in curing temperatures may lead to variation in stencil durability. It
is therefore necessary to weigh the cost of lost production due to stencil remakes
against the minimum investment in a good catalysing oven.
! If a curing cabinet is not available, select a stencil catalyser that is suitable

for curing at room temperature (see table below).
8.9.2 Catalysing procedure
Catalysers are water like solutions and are simply rubbed over both surfaces of the
stencil, preferably with a large sponge. Since the solution is applied directly onto the
stencil, the stencil should be dried for at least 10 minutes before applying the
solution, so as not to cause any damage. Apply the solution with the soaked
119
sponge or a soft brush evenly over the surface of the stencil (fig. 113). Operate in a
suitable area since solution spillage is quite likely to occur, and wear protective
clothing. Let the treated stencil stand for one or two minutes, remove the excess
solution with a suction pump, then place the stencil in a horizontal position in the
oven set to the recommended temperature. The table 8.2 below will give some
indications of the temperature and time recommended.
d e
Fig. 113 Stencil catalysing procedure (a). Some catalysers do not necessitate removal of excess
solution from the stencil open areas (b); curing oven for catalysed stencils (c); application of catalysing
solution on rotary stencil (d); stencil block out and retouching (e).
Catalysing rotary stencils.

As can be seen from fig. 113d, the application of the catalysing solution for rotary
screens is carried out in a similar manner as per flat screens. The solution is then
applied with a soft sponge on either side of the stencil then left for drying in the air
or in a suitable drying cabinet. After some five minutes from applying the catalyser
stencil can be retrieved for blocking out and retouching.
120
8.9.3 Types of catalysers
Catalysers are supplied in plastic containers and the product is ready to use. Any
catalyser brand is suitable for stencils produced for the ceramic industry. If using
nylon fabric, make sure that the product is also compatible with this type of fibre.
SAATICHEM manufacture a range of chemicals for stencil post hardening. The
following table summarizes the characteristics and usage of SAATICHEM
catalysing products.
Table 8.2 – SAATICHEM catalysers
Catalyser types Mesh type Air drying Dryer T° Drying time

FIXER 1 Polyester Yes/24h 50-60°C 45-60 min.
FIXER 2 Polyester/Nylon No 50-60°C 45-60 min.
FIXER 9 is the latest generation of stencil post hardening solutions, enabling the
production of stencils with an extremely high level of durability. Moreover, FIXER 9
is environmentally safe and odourless.
8.9.4 Filling and retouching
It is often necessary to fill the open areas of the screen in the “perimeter” zones
between the frame and emulsion. To save production time, this operation can be
carried out before the stencil is completely dry or when the free mesh area is dry.
Select a water-resistant filler for screens produced for single or double firing. The
drying period necessary for stencil post hardening will guarantee optimum
hardening and mechanical resistance of the filler. A similar situation applies for the
retouching of the stencil. Pinholes or stencil imperfections need to be spotted out
before printing. Retouching and filling can be done with the same product and at the
same time.
Fig. 114 Filling in the open areas of the screen between the frame and the stencil image.
8.10 The “EVOLUTION System”
The rotary screen “EVOLUTION” is a new system combining SaatiPrint Saatilene

HIBOND fabric, SAATICHEM’s emulsion CERAMIC HT3 and the rotary screen
121
tensioning equipment TCE-9 from ASSOPRINT. EVOLUTION offers the ceramic

tile industry a competitive and innovative system to guarantee greater screen print
performance and efficiency.
EVOLUTION is the result from further developments carried out simultaneously by

SaatiPrint and Assoprint both manufacturers of screen printing products,(Assoprint
for equipment and SaatiPrint for screen fabric and chemical line) with the aim to
produce a press-ready stencil with a maximum of technical benefits.
Conventionally, the tension level generally arrived at for rotary screens has always
been guided by the overall consistency of the cylinder diameter and therefore to
avoid possible dimensional variations the tension was limited to 7 N/cm at the most.
While such cylinder tension is acceptable to reproduce simple art works or low
resolution halftones images, print precision would not be high enough to deal with
finer halftones works or to accurately register multi-coloured geometrical designs.
The combined new features of EVOLUTION makes it possible to tension screens
up to 14 N/cm. As tension is an important parameter for print sharpness and tonal
consistency, the EVOLUTION system contributes substantially to enlarge the
possibilities offered by the rotary screen printing system. The following are the
special features of the EVOLUTION system components.
• SAATILENE HIBOND: this is SaatiPrint’s new screen fabric specially developed

for ceramic tiles decoration and that has received a special factory surface
treatment. The use of Saatilene HIBOND makes it possible to reach screen
tension levels substantially higher maintaining optimum dimensional consistency
throughout the rotary stencil ensuring in this way much improved print register
between different colours even when dealing with geometrical designs.
Additional features offered by Saatilene HIBOND are its excellent wettability that
enhances tonal reproduction, together with an exceptionally high level of
adhesion that will guarantee, together with Saaticchem CERAMIC HT3
emulsion, optimum stencil durability.
• CERAMIC HT3: this is the emulsion selected from the SAATICHEM line of
products particularly formulated for the ceramic tile industry. The special
features of CERAMIC HT3 are its high mechanical resistance and superior
definition and resolution compared to other rotary stencil products on the
market. Due to its unique formula and characteristic hydro-repellence,
CERAMIC HT3 allows a smooth shearing of the squeegee blade from inside the
screen improving systematically screen rotation and ink discharged onto the tile
surface. Finally, CERAMIC HT3 produces stencils with anti-adhering surface
that eliminates risks of getting contaminated and contaminate tiles during the
printing process.
• TENSIONING EQUIPMENT: in its concept the equipment used is based on the

principle of the Dual Ring® tensioning and assembling system manufactured by
Assoprint. However, a substantial modification in the working principle of the
system makes it possible to bring the tension of the screen as high as 14 N/cm
maintaining consistent the geometrical characteristics of the cylinder. This
engineering improvement will allow the press operator to obtain a higher and
better control during the printing phases through greater accuracy and increased
cylinder life.
122
In conclusion, the new “EVOLUTION” system is a package of different products

specially selected for the rotary screen printing onto ceramic tiles with the objective
to improve the finished product quality and production output. The system is of
particular interest in all cases of large scale designs or more complex art works that
have been produced till recently with flat screens.
Fig. 115 Tensioning equipment, the “Tendiseta TCE-9” from ASSOPRINT
123
CHAPTER IX
9 PRE-PRESS CONSIDERATIONS FOR HALFTONE

PRINTING
9.1 INTRODUCTION TO HALFTONE CONCEPT
Broadly speaking, original artwork is divided into two distinct groups for the purpose
of being reproduced by any printing process. Line work is original artwork consisting
of solid lines or solid areas with no shade variations. On the other hand, when the
original document is comprised of tonal, or “shaded” areas moving from light to
dark, such as a photograph, this is called halftone work. Halftone images are made
up of small dots of varying sizes and spacing, which when viewed at the
recommended distance, give the appearance of continuous-tone shading.
In order to screen print a photographic image, or any image containing gradient

areas, the original artwork must be transformed into halftone format first. Through a
photomechanical system, the original is scanned and reproduced on lithographic
film. Any image area of litho film has 100% opacity. It is not able to cleanly
reproduce ranges of tone. So for photographic images or artwork with tonal
gradations, a “screening” processes is applied when producing the litho film image.
Screening breaks up a continuous tone area into a dot pattern, creating the optical
illusion of smooth passages from light to dark when viewed with the naked eye. The
“screened” litho film that will be used to image the photostencil is called a halftone
positive (fig. 116).
Full-colour artworks are processed through a scanning system, and special PC

separator software extract a set of colour separations, consisting of one litho film
per colour. Tile decorators make full use of this process.
Fig. 116 The continuous

tones of the art work (a)
are broken up into a dot
pattern (b) to enable
print reproduction of its
entire tonal scale (c).
124
9.2 WHAT IS COLOUR?
Colour is a sensation corresponding to the impression detected by the human eye

receiving electromagnetic energy, and is characterised by wavelengths ranging
from 400 to 700 nanometres (nm).
When all these wavelengths strike the human eye at the same time, and in the
same quantity, the sensation is received as "white light". This means that coloured
light is a part of white light. In 1665, the scientist Isaac Newton discovered that
when a beam of white light passes through a prism the same beam decomposes
into a range of colours ranging from red to violet, i.e., the typical “rainbow” colours
(fig. 117). In a scientific laboratory it is an easy experiment to get an optical prism to
refract a beam of white light displaying a spectrum of the following colour range and
wavelengths: red-orange-yellow-green-blue-indigo-violet.
a b c
Fig. 117 Naturally occurring range

of primary colours observed from
a rainbow (a); white light projected
through an optical prism will also
unveil the primary colours red,
green, and blue (b).
In the world of colour interpretation, red, green and blue are known as primary
colours. When mixed together, the light sensitive cells in the retina of the human
eye interpret the result as white. By mixing primary colours two by two, one obtains
a set of secondary colours such as:
• Red + Blue = Magenta

• Blue + Green = Cyan
• Green + Red = Yellow
All the objects that surround us contain a substance that contains pigments. These
have the characteristic to absorb light and the colour perceived by the eye is the
result of the subtraction of various wavelengths from white light.
A pigment that absorbs red, for example, reflects the secondary colour, which is
cyan, the combination of the two remaining primary colours (blue +green). In any of
125
the colour printing reproduction process, if we wish to perceive the primary colour in
an identical manner, it is necessary to use an ink that absorbs other wavelengths.
This is why secondary colours are used for colour reproduction and are referred to
as basic colours or process colours. Here are examples:
• Magenta only absorbs green light and reflects red and blue;
• Cyan only absorbs red light and reflects blue and green;
• Yellow only absorbs blue light and reflects red and green;
If yellow and magenta are overprinted, green and blue lights are absorbed and red
is reflected. The three secondary (or process) colours with the addition of a special
process black can reproduce an infinite range of colours. By “screening” the
process colours, one is able to add another dimension to the visual effect of the
print, translated into an infinite amount of shades and contrast.
Fig.118 When printing the four colours in register, one obtains the desired print in conformity with the
original.
Today a scanner is used to convert an original image into a screened image on a
special transparent film. This is carried out by successively exposing an original to
white light that is transmitted to a special light sensitive film through three filters,
red, green and blue. The result is a colour separation whereby three separate films
are produced, the yellow, the cyan and the magenta, i.e., the three basic colours for
reproduction purposes. In theory, the three primary colours should combine in print
to create black, but because of the impurities in ink pigments, true black is not
achievable. For this reason, a fourth colour, a “ghost” black is used, to compensate
for pigment impurities and to add contrast to the printed image. When printing a
photographic original, one refers therefore to four-colour process halftone printing.
126
These colours are reproduced with transparent process inks and when intermixed,
will reproduce a photographic original with integrity.
Four-colour process screen printing is not common in the tile industry, but today
there are inkjet printers capable of producing four-colour images that can be then
transferred directly onto the tile surface. However this new system has not yet
reached the quality the conventional methods are offering today. Ceramic decal
printers also apply the four-colour process to reproduce some types of artwork,
although printing more than four colours is a regular feature. In this application, the
subject is printed onto a special “release” paper. The image is subsequently applied
to the ceramic ware, mostly crockery, with a technique called water slide transfer.
In tile decoration, it is rare to come across single or double firing production lines
that accommodate more than three or four screen printing modules. Therefore, the
number of screen-printable colours is limited to the production capacity of the
printing heads. The colours will be selected from a palette offered by the PC
graphic programme. It is also common practice for specialized graphic studios to
create and sell designs as a software package that includes colour references to be
used as a base for the ceramic ink manufacture to match the tonal requirements of
the artwork. Tile designs are often crafted from photographic originals taken from
the natural environment, or subjects scanned directly from a three dimensional
original, such as stones. The graphic artist then transforms the acquired image,
using special computer graphic programme to give the design the desired
appearance. The art department will then screen out the required number of colour
separations based on the type of production line used for that particular task. The
decision on the number of colours depends on the tile production line capacity of
the producer.
9.3 HALFTONE ORIGINATION
As explained in the previous paragraph, a “screening” technique is used to create

tones, or varying levels of colour intensity. If the colour background has the same
intensity throughout, the screened dot size will remain unchanged throughout. If the
original presents shades of different intensity, the dot size on the litho film will vary
with the intensity of the shade. For example, a light area will be reproduced by
small size dots separated by a large amount of space (fig.119). As the size of the
dot grows, the eyes will perceive darker shades, and the passage from light to dark
appears progressive.
Conventionally, any original artwork that presents gradual tonal change is

processed through a photographic scanner and special PC software into a halftone
film positive. This film is fundamental for preparing the stencil for screen printing.
Modern technology will bypass the film positive and directly engrave the image
carrier with the given information. This is the case for a rotary matrix made from
silicon based material.
127
a b c
Fig. 119 Principle of halftone screening. Low and high dot percentages (a-b) on the grey scale
representing the light and dark zones of the original; dot arrangement on the litho positive (c).
In conventional halftone
screening, the dots are
arranged in a chain-like
fashion. They are
# Lpc/Lpi/Dpi
Lpc Lines per centimetre; the number of dot chains
identified by the number in a halftone image counted within a linear
centimetre.
of chains or lines within a
Lpi Lines per inch; the number of dot chains in a
linear centimetre (lpc) or haftone image counted within a linear inch.
inch (lpi) (fig. 119c). The Dpi Dots per inch; is a measure of imagesetter or
tonal value is expressed output device resolution. 600dpi indicates low
in percentage of dot resolution and 5000 dpi represents high resolution.
coverage; zero percent High Dpi minimizes edge serration of fine detail on
the film positive and maximizes grey levels for
being a totally clear area smooth tonal transition in halftone images.
(no dots) allowing full
light transmission, and
one hundred percent, a complete opacity with zero light transmission. The greater
the line frequency, the less likely the dot pattern will be visible to the eye (fig. 120).
In other words, screen ruling for floor tiles need not be as fine as screen ruling for
wall tiles that will be viewed at closer range. The percentage value of the dots,
called greyscale contributes to the contrast (or “roundness”) of the printed halftone.
a b c
Fig. 120 The higher the dot frequency the smoother the visual appearance.
128
9.4 HALFTONE PRINTING ON CERAMIC TILE
Within the screen printing industry, halftone printing is often discussed as a

separate issue to printing solid colours. This is due to the complexity of the
halftone-dot image, a pattern unto itself, coming up against the pattern of the woven
mesh. In some cases, the dot size may not be compatible with the size of the
fabric’s mesh opening or the width of the thread. Producing the best possible stencil
is not enough to produce good print quality. When a particular print result is
needed, the photographic department must take into consideration some important
factors prior to generating the films for the job:
• Intended use of the product: floor covering, wall covering.

• Screen fabric mesh count/ ink granulometry.
• Conditions under which printing is conducted: single firing, double firing, third
firing.
• Printing system: flat screen or rotary screen.
Considered altogether, these criteria represent a base upon which the computer
graphic artist will determine the selection of screen ruling, number of colours, dot
size and shape and set of separation angles.
9.4.1 The ink and the screen fabric
While it would be a relatively easy task to select a screen fabric to match any type
of halftones, coarse or fine, it is not the case when trying to match the fabric to the
ink. Ceramic inks are supplied with a specific granulometry that demands a mesh
count capable of allowing relatively large particles to pass through its openings. If
the granulometry of the ink is unknown and the mesh count is not suitable, a
problem will be immediately apparent when trying to reproduce the low end of the
greyscale. The largest ink particles will congest the open area of the mesh and
stencil. It is also necessary to consider that the mesh opening may be large enough
in itself but is partially covered by the stencil image, reducing the effective size of
the opening (fig. 121).
! To ensure optimum reproduction of the tonal scale of the art work, the
mesh opening needs to be 3 to 4 times lager that the largest particle.
Fig. 121 Mesh

opening needs to
be 3-4 times
larger than the
ink particles.
Correct mesh
opening/size
particle ratio (b).
129
At the same time, it is important that the ink manufacturer bears in mind the fabric
limitations as well as capabilities. In many cases, it would be preferable to adjust
the granulometry of the ink to the percentage of open mesh area than to do the
opposite.
9.4.2 Halftone ruling and the screen fabric
Ideally, if a stencil is correctly exposed and processed, the dots in the stencil should
mirror the size of the dots in the litho film positive. However, on the ‘highlight’ end of
the scale, the dot may be so small
that a single thread will easily
obstruct the stencil opening. In other
# Grey scale
A halftone test scale with a range from
words, the width of the thread may be 0% to 100%, normally in 10% steps, that
equal or larger than the diameter of is used to evaluate the quality of the
the dot (fig. 122a). This situation will printed image with respect to tonal
range and separation (fig. 125b).
severely affect ink flow, leading to ink
starvation problems. In extreme
cases, the ink may not even pass at all, due to the ink-particle size.
In the “shadow” end of the tonal scale, where the mesh has the highest percentage
of open surface, the opposite effect will occur. A high percentage of solid black on
the film positive translates to a large area of open mesh area in the stencil. The
small dots in this “sea” of open mesh can sometimes fall through the mesh
openings or, if not, causing shadow details to be unsuccessfully reproduced
(fig.122b).
Fig. 122 Dot size will not

reproduce fully (b) if mesh
characteristics are not taken into
consideration.
a b
It may even lead to100% print coverage. Both situations are quite frequent and
need to be considered for optimum halftone reproduction of certain tile designs. For
that reason, it is necessary to select a dot frequency (screen ruling) in relation not
only to the artwork and desired printing results, but also to the mesh opening and
thread diameter. Since fabric selection is partly dictated by the constituents of the
ink, the selected halftone ruling must take mesh characteristics into account. For
example, a 55 th/cm screen fabric will not be able to reproduce the full tonal scale
of a 34lpc(86lpi) halftone. This is because the size of the dots in the lower and
higher percentages will be smaller than the thread diameter. Therefore, for single
and double firing works, screen rulings will rarely be above 26lpc(66lpi). It is
130
possible that two or three different mesh counts be suitable for a particular ink. The
best situation is met where threads interfere the least with the stencil image and the
mesh offers the greatest free opening (fig.123)
Fig. 123 Dot size uncovering two

mesh openings will reproduce with
a minimum of mesh interference
(b).
a b
9.4.3 Halftone ruling and density range
In conventional halftone reproduction, a good print is expected to yield a tonal

range of 2-3% up to 97-98%. While this is a valid expectation for printing processes
where a very thin ink layer is being deposited onto a smooth surface, it is not
achievable where screen printing is concerned and particularly when handling
ceramic inks. The dimensions of the dots in the two extremes are invariably smaller
than the mesh openings or the thread diameters. It is therefore necessary to select
a halftone screen ruling where the tonal scale can be compressed so that the dot
dimension on either end of the scale be equal to two mesh openings approximately
(fig. 123).
! For printing single and double firing tiles this situation can only be met by
compressing the halftone greyscale to a percentage range of 15-20 to 70-
80% dot size. However, this is not an absolute rule, since the type of art
work may also dictate the most suitable tonal range.
In third firing, where higher mesh counts are used, ink is more refined and the
range of fine halftone rulings to select from can be greater. For these fabrics, the
thread diameter of the mesh is also smaller.
In practice it is reasonably easy to evaluate the suitability of the halftone count by

simply positioning the litho film positive over the screen as illustrated in fig. 124 and
verifying with the help of a 30 x pocket microscope the size ratio between dot shape
and mesh opening/thread diameter.
131
Fig. 124 Placing the litho film over the mesh will indicate the suitability of the fabric selection or the
halftone ruling to the screen fabric.
The table below is intended as a guide in the selection of screen ruling for the most
common mesh counts. It should be remembered that the higher the dot ruling the
less perceivable to the eye will the dot pattern be.
Table 9.1 – Guide for the selection of halftone screen ruling and tonal range.
Lpc/Lpi 120(05).34 100(255)40 90(230)48 71(180)55 62(158)64 62(158)70

% % % % % %
17/43 5-95 5-95 5-95 10-90 15-90 20-85
20/50 7-93 7-93 7-95 15-85 20-85 30-80
22/56 7-90 10-90 7-95 15-85 20-75 -
24/61 10-90 10-90 10-90 20-80 - -
26/66 10-90 15-85 15-85 - - -
30/76 12-90 18-85 - - - -
! To prevent any difficulties in printing halftone work, a good practice is to

test print directly onto the tile support with the intended screen fabric and
ink. To evaluate the stencil’s capabilities, print a series of halftone
greyscales with easy identification of the percentage step increments (Fig.
125), and a range of possible screen rulings. Repeat the procedure with two
or three different mesh counts.
The ideal results are obtained when a range of 15 to 80% dots are maintained on
the greyscale print. In performing these tests, ensure that the stencil and printing
conditions can be repeated on the production line. Pay attention to control
squeegee durometer, angle, pressure etc.
Fig. 125 Test print of a grey scale

to check the compatibility of mesh
fabric/ink/halftone. Check
cleanliness of print throughout the
scale.
132
9.4.4 Stencil influence on halftone reproduction
In previous chapters, stencil parameters have been discussed at length. As

important as these parameters are in all screen printing applications, they assume a
greater level of importance in halftone printing. Due to the inherent structure of
halftone images, any variations in stencil processing will show up on the print. For
flat stencils in particular, surface uniformity and thickness affects halftone prints. If
the surface of the stencil is uneven, intimate contact between tile and stencil cannot
be achieved. Highlight dots will tend to gain in size during printing, or be influenced
by the mesh structure and create a moiré pattern. Shadow areas will darken as the
ink spreads beyond the limits of the stencil dot, swallowing the dot to eventually
print as solid area.
! The number of coats, coating trough profile, and drying position are all
parameters that affect stencil regularity (Rz) and thickness, thus print
quality.
9.4.5 Halftone screen angle
Screen printing halftones creates an awkward situation whereby the pattern of the
mesh itself may clash with that of the halftone screen ruling. This may give rise to
moiré. While moiré can emerge from the incorrect selection of fabric and/or screen
count, some halftone angles are directly responsible for this type of problem, so it is
worth considering this phenomenon at the film setting stage.
! If moiré occurs in a multi-colour print and mesh angle is not in doubt, if may
be due to the individual litho film angles interfering with each other.
Because of the diversity of effects created on tiles and mesh counts used in
conjunction with different screen rulings, it is understandably difficult to devise
standard procedures. Nevertheless, practical experience has proven that 45° and
90° halftone screen angles (to the mesh) almost always generate an incidence of
moiré with strong colours (fig. 126). As soon as either the mesh or the halftone
angle is altered, moiré will disappear. However, it is obvious that angling the mesh
is not an attractive proposition because it is more costly, and introduces an
additional variable in the process.
133
a b
Fig. 126 Avoid screen angles at 45° and 90° to the mesh (a); when films are creating moiré with the
mesh, look for a suitable position by rotating the litho positive at the surface of a screen in front of a
point source (b). When the correct position (moiré free) is found, record the position of the angle to
which the screen will have to be prepared.
Halftone screen angle should be decided at the film setting stage based on the
factors such as the number of colours in the artwork and the screen fabric
parameters.
For multi-colour jobs, angles often used in the ceramic industry are 15° and 75°.
When a third colour is used, choose a suitable angle 30° away from the previous
two and apply this last angle for the palest colour. When dealing with more than two
colours, another solution is to produce the third one at the same angle as one of the
previous two, making sure that when a single angle is used for two colours, these
are as contrasted as possible. For example, if the third colour is prominent and the
first one at 15° is subtle, select 15° angle for the third colour. The third colour can
also be produced at an angle of 45° (giving a moiré free position between litho
films) but the mesh must be angled as per fig. 126b to avoid clashing with the
screen ruling. This last solution will offer the most consistent results for print quality
when more than two colours are used.
! Remember that when tensioning fabric at an angle, the screen fabric should
always be tensioned at 90° to the clamping system; it is the frame below the
mesh that should be positioned at the required angle.
9.4.6 Halftone dot shape
To some extent, the shape of the dot contributes to the rendering of the printed
impression. Computer RIP software offers a selection of screen dot configurations
best suited for different applications. There are no particular criteria, which explains
the diversity of dot shapes preferred by tile decorators. The screen printing industry
commonly uses an elliptical dot pattern because of its ability to reproduce smooth
grey values and avoid contrast jumps from light to dark. The square dot is prone to
create this undesired effect (fig 127). This is due to the fact that some stencil
processing factors, combined with particular ink behaviour, does not reproduce the
50% dot to the exactness of the film. The tendency is for the four corners of the dot
to separate from other adjacent dots of the same value, increasing the percentage
134
gap in the mistune area. The elongated shape of the elliptical dot helps to deal with
the problem of the way dots separate from one another.
Fig. 127 Round and Euclidian screen dots offer a good alternative for halftone printing on
tiles.
However, the negative aspect of the square dot may be turned to some advantage
in terms of image contrast. Many halftone designs for ceramic tiles are printed with
pale pastel shades that suffer from a lack of contrast. In such cases, the square
dots will revive the contrast of the print. There are other types of dots preferred in
the tile industry. The round dot is one of these, appearing to be a compromise
between the elliptical and square, although nearer to the square dot’s printing
behaviour. Today’s colour separation programmes offer new types of dot
configurations which are worth experimenting. One type is the Euclidian dot (fig.
127), which combines round dots in the lower and higher ends of the scale and
square dot in the midtones.
9.4.7 Litho details resolution
Since litho positives are produced digitally, it is worth considering the resolution of
the image on the films, as it may affect print quality. The artwork image reproduced
on the films for stencil production is created by pixels of a certain size. They can be
seen as tiny squares lined up side by side to fill and create the shape of the
scanned image. When qualifying image resolution in this case, one refers to the
number of dots per inch, abbreviated as dpi. The example below (fig. 128) shows
two different situations whereby litho dot (a) was produced with a printer with a
resolution output of 1000 dpi and dot (b) with resolution of 2400 dpi.
A low resolution image setter will produce very rugged image contours because of
the low number and large sized pixels. This type of resolution will only be
acceptable to reproduce simple, low-detail artwork that is best viewed from a
relatively long distance, such as highway billboards with low screen ruling and bold
graphics. The range of halftone ruling used for ceramic designs, 20 to 30 lpc, calls
for a minimum of 2400 dpi image setter resolution.
135
Fig. 128 Litho positive generated from a 1000 dpi image setter (a); the same dots
produced from a 2400 dpi image setter (b). Halftone from and above 20 lpc/(51lpi)
should be generated with a 2400 dpi resolution minimum.
! It is important to stress that the combination of the many variables in the

screen printing process and the complexity of some tile designs
necessitates a close collaboration between the art department and the
client. Invariably, there will be several steps to go through before final
approval of the prepress parameters for litho film production. The
operator’s artistic flair and industrial experience at the pre-press stage
definitely plays an important role in the successful conclusion of a
decorated tile, since creative competitiveness in this field is part of
everyday life.
136
CHAPTER X
10 THE PRINTING SQUEEGEE
10.1 INTRODUCTION
Of all the components in the screen printing process, there are two that play such
important roles that without them, there would be no printing. One component is the
screen fabric, which supports the stencil image and regulates the ink flow and
deposit. The other is the squeegee, without which printing could not take place.
Regardless of the application, good quality screen printing cannot be achieved
without carefully considering the squeegee functions, its capabilities, and how to
maintain it.
10.1.1The squeegee function
Whether tiles are being printed with flat or rotary screens, the squeegee is a vital
part of the process. Its main function is to move the screen printable paste back and
forth across the screen, so that the paste moves into the mesh openings so it can
be transferred to the surface of the substrate. This movement is called the
squeegee stroke.
Invariably, the dynamics of the squeegee’s task have a direct bearing on the
resulting print. Many variables in the screen printing process are found in the
squeegee’s composition and actions. The speed of the stroke combined with the
amount of pressure exerted by the moving squeegee are important influencing
factors. To some degree, the squeegee blade will flex as it exerts pressure on the
screen fabric. This creates an angle between the squeegee blade and the stencil.
This angle influences the regulation of ink flow through the mesh openings in the
stencil.
Squeegee pressure, speed and angle can be altered, either willingly or

inadvertently. Any variations will translate into changes in the print, affecting colour
intensity, ink consumption, and last but not least, print sharpness and consistency
from the beginning to the end of the print run.
There are other variables as well. Inconsistent results are likely to come from
incorrect handling, improper care or a lack of understanding of the squeegee’s
physical parameters. Because tile designs are expected to be reproduced on a
recurring basis, repeatability is a major concern. For that reason, the printing
squeegee cannot be taken for granted.
10.2 SQUEEGEE COMPONENTS
Essentially, squeegees consist of two parts: the blade and the blade holder
(fig.129). The holder is designed to ensure a good grip when printing by hand, or for
quick and easy setting into a squeegee holder on an automatic printing press. For
137
convenience and adaptability, manufacturers produce blades in different

dimensions, grades and shapes. Blade characteristics have a substantial influence
on printing parameters, and are mostly concerned with its ability to bend. The
flexibility of the blade is influenced by the following factors:
• height of the exposed blade (C);

• blade thickness (D);
• blade hardness (durometer);
• blade profile (shape of the blade at the point that contacts the screen);
Other squeegee-related factors also influence the print results:
• hand printing;
• printing with automatic flat bed machine;
• printing with a rotary screen;
a b
Fig. 129 Squeegee features have a substantial influence on print quality.

In all circumstances, blades should be looked after and their functions understood.
For tile printing, the squeegee blade must adapt itself to the substrate’s surface
topography while ensuring optimum print performance. The blade must also offer
the best possible mechanical and chemical resistance.
10.2.1 Squeegee blade profile
Blade profile relates to the geometry of the part of the squeegee that comes in
contact with the mesh. Understandably, the point of interface between the
squeegee and the screen has a major influence on print performance. Most
squeegee manufacturers supply blades with a rectangular profile, V-shaped (or
double bevel), single bevel, and round (or “ball nose”) (fig. 129a-d). “Composite”
squeegee blades are also available and consist of a variation in the makeup of the
blades (fig. 129 e-f). The tile industry prefers the standard square profile blade for a
great majority of applications. A brief description of the different types and their
fields of application follows.
138
Rectangular: This profile is by and large the most popular (fig. 129a). Rectangular
profiles allow better control over print sharpness, and they are preferred for all types
of fine-line artwork and halftone printing. Since all types of blades are available in
different degrees of hardness, the durometer of the rectangular-profile blade can be
specified to suit the application, ink, and printing surface topography. It is therefore
the best choice for tile decorators. Experience with the specific substrate
topography will dictate what is the most suitable durometer for a job. The softer the
blade, the more sensitive it will be to squeegee pressure. Too low a durometer will
make it difficult to maintain a consistent angle of attack, which will directly affect ink
deposit.
Ballnose: The round profile is selected to print with high viscosity ink/paste on very
absorbent substrates (129b). The roundness of the blade increases the area of
contact with the mesh and reduces the angle of attack. It is therefore not necessary
to select a low durometer with this type of blade. A round squeegee profile is not
suitable for fine-line work or halftone printing and there is nothing to be gained in
selecting this profile with screen fabric finer than 62 threads/cm (155 threads/in).
Double bevel: The V-shaped squeegee presents a softer printing edge and is
chosen to print on irregular shaped objects such as bottles or other types of
containers, although some printers also use a rectangular profile for these
applications (129c).
Single bevel: This squeegee profile offers characteristics similar to those of double
bevelled blade. It tends to be selected for printing with high-solid content inks or
pastes (129d).
Composite blades: As the name implies, a composite blade is made of separate

components assembled in different ways. At least two types are available in the
industry. The first one stacks a 90-95 durometer shaft on top of a lower shore (from
50 to 70 durometer) printing edge (fig. 129e). The second type consists of a
fibreglass reinforcement shaft that is inserted at the centre of the polyurethane
during the moulding process (fig.129f). Both types will prevent the squeegee from
flexing and help maintain consistent printing parameters. A third employs an inner
layer of higher durometer blade, sandwiched between two lower durometer parts.
Although the latter will offer some resistance to bending, it will not perform quite as
well as the fibreglass re-enforcement.
10.3 FUNCTIONAL PARAMETERS OF THE SQUEEGEE
Printing squeegees are universally identified by their hardness, or durometer of

their blades. The degree of hardness gives some indication of the blade’s flexibility
or bending capacity under the vertical force known as squeegee pressure.
Therefore, the blade possesses the ability to mould itself to the contours of the
surfaces it contacts. In part, this is what makes screen printing so applicable to
ceramic decorating. The blade should also possess mechanical and solvent
resistance. In tile decoration, the mechanical factor is most important because
printing pastes contain glass-like particles that are quite abrasive. The blade
durometer must also be consistent from batch to batch in order to maintain
consistent print quality. Generally, the higher the durometer, the greater the
139
chemical and abrasion resistance. The chemical composition of the squeegee also
contributes to the blade performance.
10.3.1 The squeegee durometer
Durometer refers to the hardness of the blade, which is most commonly a

polyurethane, and sometimes rubber. The instrument to measure the hardness of
the blade is also referred to as durometer (fig. 134) whilst results are expressed in
durometer or shore. Squeegee blades are manufactured from 50° to 95° shore, 95°
being the hardest and 50° the softest. While urethane squeegee blades offer
adequate solvent resistance in all durometers, the higher durometer blades have
the highest density and are the most chemical resistant. Although they are
somewhat expensive, urethane squeegee blades offer much higher levels of
chemical and mechanical resistance than rubber
blades.
Fig. 130 Duralife squeegees proposed by SaatiPrint are
colour coded for fast durometer identification.
With respect to print quality, the lower the
durometer and the duller the print edge, the
greater the ink deposit. Conversely, the higher
the durometer and the sharper the print edge,
the lower the ink deposit.
When selecting a squeegee type, some

compromise is needed because print quality and
sharpness are generally priorities, irrespective of the application. The ability to
select different squeegee durometers makes it possible to adapt the squeegee
blade to the substrate. If the substrate is porous or not perfectly uniform, a harder
squeegee (high durometer) will fail to transfer the required amount of ink/paste to
the substrate. On the other hand, a softer squeegee (lower durometer) will better
mould itself to a particular shape or surface structure, producing the required result.
The compromise would be to select the highest possible durometer that is
compatible with the characteristics of the surface being decorated.
Further developments in squeegee-blade composition have helped printers to fine-

tune working conditions. Composite and dual-durometer squeegee blades (to
mention the most common types) allow the printer to use a very low durometer
blade with a rigid, high-durometer upper body that minimises flexing (129e-f).
10.3.2 Influence of the squeegee durometer on print quality
Squeegee durometer may have a direct influence on print quality. A low durometer
will cause the blade to flex under pressure. To varying degrees, this will lower the
squeegee’s “angle of attack” (fig.131). A higher durometer blade will be less subject
to angle variations, which is important because ultimately, it is the correct squeegee
angle that controls print sharpness and fine-tunes the ink deposit. In a similar
fashion, the angle at which the complete squeegee assembly (handle and blade)
are positioned in both hand printing and machine printing also influences ink
140
deposit. The lower the angle the more ink/paste is

pressed through the stencil, and vice versa.
Fig. 131 Squeegee angle (a) and angle of attack (b).
! Ink deposit should be controlled by the

appropriate squeegee angle and durometer,
and not solely by the pressure. Excessive
pressure will always lead to inferior print
results, can damage or shorten the life of the
squeegee, and affect the mesh and stencil
durability.
! Internationally, squeegee blades are identified more often by their

durometers than by their shape, color or composition. It is important to
remember that this information is normally not sufficiently precise, since
squeegee blades come in different configurations.
! Regular sharpening of the same blade will gradually shorten the blade
height (exposed area) and will eventually influence the effective printing
angle.
The table below is intended as a guide for the selection of the squeegee blade with
respect to durometric characteristics. It refers to the standard polyurethane square
profile blade.
Table 10.1- Recommendations in squeegee selection*

Flat bed printing: single firing 50°~55° shore
double firing 60°~65° shore
third firing 60°~65° shore
Rotary printing: sigle/double firing 50°~55° shore (Thickness 6-8 mm)
* Blade thickness / eighth: 9 mm/50 mm
10.3.3 Squeegee angle
On the press, the squeegee angle should be in the region of 75° to the printing bed
for flat screens and to the tile surface for rotary stencils. During printing, ensure that
a clear angle is also present between the fabric and the sole of the blade as
illustrated in fig. 132. If the squeegee angle is too high, the print may suffer from ink
starvation and the “skipping” effect of the blade will reduce the sharpness of the
print. The blade will also deteriorate faster. Possible solutions include working with
a higher screen tension and lower off-contact, or a higher blade durometer and a
reduction of the squeegee angle.
141
Fig. 132 The wider the squeegee angle (a), the

smaller its sole angle ( b).
10.3.4 Squeegee length
The squeegee should be just long enough to print the stencil image. Aim for the
blade length to extend 3 cm beyond both edges of the image width. Greater length
will reduce the gap between the squeegee edge and the inside edge of the frame.
This will necessitate additional squeegee pressure to achieve an acceptable print,
creating excessive stress on all the interfacing elements: the blade, the mesh and
the stencil emulsion.
a b
Fig. 133 The shorter the distance between the edge of the squeegee and the inside of the frame (b) the
greater the stress on the stencil and blade pressure distribution.
10.4 SQUEEGEE CARE AND MAINTENANCE
Any defects in the squeegee blade will show up in the print. Before setting the
squeegee into the press, always check the blade flatness and the smoothness of
the printing edge. In fact, verification should be carried out some hours before
setting up for printing. If a blade needs to be sharpened, it should rest for at least 3-
4 hours before being used again. A blade put into production immediately after
sharpening will deteriorate faster from the impact of printing. If a blade is not
straight, it is often due to poor storage conditions.
142
10.4.1 Measuring hardness of the squeegee
Good production standards dictate tests on the squeegee with respect to their
hardness. The main reasons for this are:
• Matching squeegee characteristics from different sources

• Routine quality control on newly delivered squeegees
• Checking the state of the used squeegee; age and the effect of continued
contact with solvents on the durometer
The instrument to measure the squeegee hardness is a Shore durometer, a

handheld mechanical device that is placed on the surface of the squeegee blade
(fig.134). At the base of the instrument, a protruding pin-like probe digs into the
blade surface, while the reading is displayed on the face of the instrument. The
Shore durometer is simple to use, inexpensive and should be part of every QC
laboratory.
Fig. 134 Measuring the squeegee blade

hardness with the Durometer.
10.4.2 Blade storage and rotation
Squeegee longevity can be maximized through proper care and maintenance,

starting with storage conditions. All blades should be stored under dry and cool
conditions, i.e., between 10°C (50°F) and 30°C (85°F). For practical reasons,
squeegees are generally shipped coiled in the box. Upon receipt, remove them
from the box and lay them flat in an area reserved for that purpose, to avoid
possible distortion of the print edge or accidental damage during handling.
For optimum squeegee life, rotate the used blade as much as possible. As they
absorb solvents, all squeegees will, to some degree, swell and soften during use. If
given the opportunity to rest in between production runs they will return to their
original state and last longer. The following practice is recommended:
• Inspect the blade for signs of swelling after a few hours of continuous printing
• Change the blade after the first sign of swelling
• Before storing, clean the blade thoroughly with an appropriate cleaner to remove
any ink residue
143
10.4.3 Squeegee sharpening
The blade’s printing edge will become damaged through the mechanical impact of
printing. If the blade needs to be sharpened, observe the following recom-
mendations:
• Do not sharpen the squeegee until it has rested for at least 12 hours.
• Sharpening with a belt or grinding wheel is acceptable for most applications.
Follow a two-step grinding method. Step one is remove as little as possible
using multiple passes with a coarse grit wheel (60-120) or sanding belt. This is
important to reduce heat build-up that would melt the blade material. In step two,
a fine grit (160-300) is used to create a smooth and sharp edge with a polished
finish.
• Do not use the sharpened squeegee immediately; let it rest for at least 4 hours.
10.5 DURALIFETM SQUEEGEE
As part of its package for ceramic tile printers SaatiPrint offer the “Duralife” range of
squeegees, manufactured from an exclusive urethane formulation that provides all
of the desired blade characteristics: abrasion resistance, durability, and resistance
to softening. The Duralife squeegee is the only type that is cast in individual cavity
moulds. This production method offers additional and important features:
• The three exposed planes of the blade are sealed, offering an even better
resistance to acid products;
• It guarantees optimum consistency in blade thickness, dimensions and
hardness;
• Duralife blades offer optimum resilience characteristics.
Unlike cut squeegee blades the moulded
printing edge of Duralife also stays sharper
and helps to resist accidental nicking.
Duralife blades are colour-coded for easy
identification of the durometer (fig. 135),
and come in a large range of profile
configurations, blade types and dimensions.
Fig. 135 Range of colour coded DuralifeTM squeegees
blades
Table 10.2 – Color coding of DuralifeTM squeegees
Medium
Extra soft Soft Medium Hard Very hard Extra hard
hard
50-55 60-65 70-75 75-80 80-85 85-90 90-95
Bright
Clear Blue White grey Red Pink Dull orange
orange
144

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STENCIL PRODUCTION – For ceramic tiles printing

Edition October 2004

André M Peyskens was schooled in Belgium and

As a technical writer, André M Peyskens received the “Swormstedt Award”. His

The manual “Stencil Making – Technical Fundamentals” written by André M

Written by Andrè M. Peyskens

Technical Consultant Maurizio Riccò, Assoprint, Italy

English text editing: Tina McCugan

Photos SaatiPrint S.p.A. would like to thank the Companies that

Antonio Lampecco, Belgium (Fig. 1a - 1b)

Illustrations Studio grafico Maderna, Milano, Italy

Date September 2004

Thanks to The author thanks SaatiPrint, SaatiChem and

No parts of this manual may be reproduced

1.2 THE SCREEN PRINTING PROCESS - its origins 12

1.3 THE SCREEN PRINTING PROCESS - today 13

1.4 SCREEN PRINTING PROCESS COMPONENTS 15

1.5 THE SCREEN FABRIC – essential requirements 19

1.6 TYPES OF FABRICS 20

1.6.8 Fabric weaving structure 27

1.7 GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF SYNTHETIC FABRICS 28

2 THE STENCIL DEPARTMENT 36

2.2 STENCIL PRODUCTION – Basic requirements 36

3 INTRODUCTION TO SCREEN MAKING 46

3.1 GENERAL CARE OF SCREEN FABRICS 46

3.1.2 Storage and care of tensioned screens 47

3.2 SCREEN PREPARATION – essential requirements 47

3.3 SCREEN ADHESIVES 52

3.4 ROTARY SCREEN - characteristics 52

4 EQUIPMENT FOR SCREEN PRODUCTION 56

4.2 Type of equipment 56

4.3 ROTARY SCREENS 59

5 TENSIONING PROCEDURES AND PRACTICAL RECOMMENDATIONS 62

5.1 SCREEN TENSION 62

5.2 HOW TO MEASURE AND CONTROL FABRIC TENSION 65

5.3 HANDLING THE SAATIPRINT TENSION METER 68

5.3.4 Procedure for controlling calibration 71

5.4 TENSIONING PROCEDURES 72

5.5 ROTARY SCREEN PREPARATION–general considerations 76

5.6 ADHERING SCREEN FABRIC TO THE FRAME 78

6 SCREEN FABRIC PRETREATMENT 81

6.2 FACTORY TREATED FABRIC – Saatilene HIBOND 85

7 SCREEN COATING AND PHOTOSTENCIL PROCESSING 87

7.2 PHOTOSTENCIL CHARACTERISTICS 88

7.3 PREPARING FOR SCREEN COATING 91

7.4 CONSIDERATIONS ON STENCIL PARAMETERS 98

Table 7.3 – Processing guide for SAATICHEM CERAMIC emulsions 100

7.5 ROTARY SCREEN – preparing for stencil processing 101

CHAPTER VIII 104

8 PHOTOSTENCILS EXPOSURE AND FINISHING 104

8.1 INTRODUCTION 104

8.2 DEFINITION OF LIGHT 104

8.3 SPECTRAL SENSITIVITY OF PHOTOSTENCIL EMULSIONS 105

8.4 LIGHT SOURCES 106

8.5 PRACTICAL CONSIDERATION ON PHOTOSTENCIL EXPOSURE 111

8.6 ESTABLISHING CORRECT EXPOSURE 115

8.7 STENCIL WASHOUT 117

8.8 PROCESSING ROTARY STENCILS 117

8.9 STENCIL POST HARDENING 119

8.10 The “EVOLUTION System” 121

9 PRE-PRESS CONSIDERATIONS FOR HALFTONE PRINTING 124

9.1 INTRODUCTION TO HALFTONE CONCEPT 124

9.2 WHAT IS COLOUR? 125