Binder 1

IOP1501 LESSON 6: MOTIVATION AND EMOTION
Lesson 6
Motivation and Emotion
Understanding what drives human behaviour
LEARNING OUTCOMES
Once you have studied the section about motivation in this lesson you will be able to:
• explain the connection between motivation and emotion

• describe Maslow’s hierarchy of needs on motivation
• distinguish between extrinsic and intrinsic sources of motivation
• describe theories of motivation
• explain what emotions are
• describe theories of emotion
• describe the cultural impact on how we display emotions.
PRESCRIBED RESOURCE FOR LESSON 6

This study guide is the primary reading material that you need to study to reach the
learning outcomes of Lesson 6. There is no other prescribed material that you need
to study apart from what is provided to you in this study guide to Lesson 6.
KEY CONCEPTS
The key concepts for Lesson 6 have not been finalised in a separate list. You will
find key concepts throughout the study guide below.
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INTRODUCTION
All the decisions that we make in life as well as the effort that we put into what we do
is driven by an internal source of motivation which is directly related to our emotions.
These internal drives determine why we want to get up in the morning and do
something specifically, or when someone really feels low, they sometimes do not even
want to get up and get dressed. Our motivation determines why we do something and
why we put more or less effort in what we do. Motivation thus entails the driving forces
that drive us to make certain choices and can be goal-directed or achievement
orientated. Our motivation is also very much influenced by our emotions. When we
feel down, we feel less energised and may not feel that spark needed to act in order
to achieve something or get something done. Emotions are related to intrapersonal
processes that impacts and changes the way a person responds to external stimuli.
Emotions are also termed affect and can change in an instant, especially in response
to an unexpected event. Emotions may include surprise, fear, anger, and sadness and
directly relate to motivation.
In lesson 6 we will explore issues relating to both motivation and emotion, because in
the work place it is important to understand what drives people to perform, to act the
way they do towards others and how their emotions influence their motivational
behaviour. The aim of Lesson 6 is therefore to explain the role of motivation and
emotion in behaviour and discuss different theories and perspectives on motivation
and behaviour for application in the workplace.
This lesson’s study guide starts by distinguishing intrinsic and extrinsic motivation,
followed by a discussion of several theories of motivation explaining different
perspectives on why and what drives people’s behaviour and performance. You will
also learn about the physiological needs that drive some human behaviours, and the
importance of our social experiences in influencing our actions. The lesson will close
with a discussion of emotion. You will learn about several theories that have been
proposed to explain how emotion occurs, the biological underpinnings of emotion, and
the universality of emotions.
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6.1 INTRINSIC AND EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION
Motivation describes the wants or needs of a person, that direct behaviour toward a
goal (Spielman et.al., n.d.). In addition to biological motives, motivations can
be intrinsic (arising from internal factors) or extrinsic (arising from external factors)
as depicted in Figure 1 below. Intrinsically motivated behaviours are performed
because of the sense of personal satisfaction that they bring, while extrinsically
motivated behaviours are performed to receive something from others. As such
intrinsic motivation characterises goal-directed behaviour in which the motivational
force is intrinsic to the person or in the task. One is typically intrinsically motivated
when you do something just for the pleasure of it because you are interested in it or
because the task is inherently interesting and enjoyable to you. When goal-directed
behaviour is extrinsically motivated, a personal is motivated by factors external to the
self and the task, for example being motivated by money or rewards or when pressured
by others to do something. In the latter case, people are often driven to do something
because they are afraid, feel pressured and want to avoid punishment or negative
consequences.
Figure 1
Extrinsic and intrinsic motivation.
Image by: Pixaby
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Think about why you are currently at this university. Are you here because you enjoy
learning and want to pursue an education to make yourself a more well-rounded
individual? If so, then you are intrinsically motivated. Theories emphasising an intrinsic
motivational approach include self-efficacy and social motives, Maslow’s motivational
hierarchy, drive-reduction, achievement-motivation, cognitive dissonance and
temporal motivation theories. However, if you are here because you want to get a
university degree to make yourself more marketable for a high-paying career or to
satisfy the demands of your parents, then your motivation is more extrinsic in nature.
Extrinsic motivational factors include circumstances or situational factors, as well as
external benefits, rewards and punishment. Focussing on external benefits that are
tangible (e.g. money, prizes, incentives such as bonusses, holidays, gifts) or intangible
(e.g. recognition and praise from others) explains extrinsically motivated behaviour. In
extrinsically motivated people, the intangible rewards are still sought after as an
extrinsically derived reward in terms of how they are treated and managed. Theories
based on assumptions about extrinsic motivation include behaviour modification, goal-
theory and work and job design.
Our motivations are often a mix of both intrinsic and extrinsic factors, but the nature of
the mix of these factors might change over time. There is an old adage: “Choose a job
that you love, and you will never have to work a day in your life,” meaning that if you
enjoy your occupation, work doesn’t seem hard or something you must do. Some
research suggests that this isn’t necessarily the case (Daniel & Esser, 1980; Deci,
1972; Deci, Koestner, & Ryan, 1999). According to this research, receiving some sort
of extrinsic reinforcement (i.e., getting paid) for engaging in behaviours that we
previously enjoyed just for the sake of it, may lead to those behaviours being thought
of as work. When this happens the work no longer provides that same enjoyment as
it originally did. As a result, we might spend less time engaging in these reclassified
behaviours in the absence of any extrinsic reinforcement. For example, Odessa loves
baking, so in her free time, she bakes for fun. After stocking shelves at her grocery
store job during the day, she often whips up pastries in the evenings because she
enjoys baking. When a co-worker in the store’s bakery department leaves his job,
Odessa applies for his position and gets transferred to the bakery department.
Although she enjoys what she does in her new job, after a few months, she no longer
has much desire to produce tasty treats in her free time. Baking has become work in
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a way that changed her motivation to do it. What Odessa has experienced is called
the over justification effect, which explains that intrinsic motivation is diminished when
extrinsic motivation is given. This can lead to extinguishing the intrinsic motivation and
creating a dependence on extrinsic rewards for continued performance (Deci et al.,
1999). Other studies suggest that intrinsic motivation may not be so vulnerable to the
effects of extrinsic reinforcements, and in fact, reinforcements such as verbal praise
might again increase intrinsic motivation (Arnold, 1976; Cameron & Pierce, 1994). In
that case, Odessa’s motivation to bake in her free time might remain high if, for
example, customers regularly compliment her baking or cake decorating skills.
These apparent discrepancies in the researchers’ findings may be understood by

considering several factors. For one, physical reinforcement (such as money) and
verbal reinforcement (such as praise) may affect an individual in very different ways.
In fact, tangible rewards (i.e., money) tend to have more negative effects on intrinsic
motivation than do intangible rewards (i.e., praise). Furthermore, the expectation of
the extrinsic motivator by an individual is crucial: If the person expects to receive an
extrinsic reward, then intrinsic motivation for the task tends to be reduced. If, however,
there is no such expectation, and the extrinsic motivation is presented as a surprise,
then intrinsic motivation for the task tends to persist (Deci et al., 1999).
In educational settings, students are more likely to experience intrinsic motivation to

learn when they feel a sense of belonging and respect in the classroom. This
internalization can be enhanced if the evaluative aspects of the classroom are de-
emphasized and if students feel that they exercise some control over the learning
environment. Furthermore, providing students with activities that are challenging, yet
doable, along with a rationale for engaging in various learning activities can enhance
intrinsic motivation for those tasks (Niemiec & Ryan, 2009). Consider Hakim, a first-
year law student with two courses this semester: Family Law and Criminal Law. The
Family Law professor has a rather intimidating classroom: He likes to put students on
the spot with tough questions, which often leaves students feeling belittled or
embarrassed. Grades are based exclusively on assignments and exams, and the
instructor posts results of each test on the classroom door. In contrast, the Criminal
Law professor facilitates classroom discussions and respectful debates in small
groups. The majority of the course grade is not exam-based but centres on a student-
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designed research project on a crime issue of the student’s choice. Research suggests
that Hakim will be less intrinsically motivated in his Family Law course, where students
are intimidated in the classroom setting, and there is an emphasis on teacher-driven
evaluations. Hakim is likely to experience a higher level of intrinsic motivation in his
Criminal Law course, where the class setting encourages inclusive collaboration and
a respect for ideas, and where students have more influence over their learning
activities.
6.2 BIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES TO MOTIVATION
William James (1842–1910) was an important contributor to early research into

motivation. From a biological perspective, an instinct is a species-specific pattern of
behaviour that is not learned. There was, however, considerable controversy among
James and his contemporaries over the exact definition of instinct. James proposed
several dozen special human instincts, but many of his contemporaries had their own
lists that differed. A mother’s protection of her baby, the urge to lick sugar, and hunting
prey were among the human behaviours proposed as true instincts during James’s
era. This view—that human behaviour is driven by instincts—received a fair amount
of criticism because of the undeniable role of learning in shaping all sorts of human
behaviour. In fact, as early as the 1900s, some instinctive behaviours were
experimentally demonstrated to result from associative learning.
Another early theory of motivation proposed that the maintenance of homeostasis is

particularly important in directing behaviour. Homeostasis is the tendency to maintain
a balance, or optimal level, within a biological system. In a body system, a control
centre (which is often part of the brain) receives input from receptors (which are often
complexes of neurons). The control centre directs effectors (which may be other
neurons) to correct any imbalance detected by the control centre. According to the
drive theory of motivation, deviations from homeostasis create physiological needs.
These needs result in psychological drive states that direct behaviour to meet the need
and, ultimately, bring the system back to homeostasis. For example, if it’s been a while
since you ate, your blood sugar levels will drop below normal. This low blood sugar
will induce a physiological need and a corresponding drive state (i.e., hunger) that will
direct you to seek out and consume food. Eating will eliminate hunger, and, ultimately,
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your blood sugar levels will return to normal. Interestingly, drive theory also
emphasizes the role that habits play in the type of behavioural response in which we
engage. A habit is a pattern of behaviour in which we regularly engage. Once we have
engaged in behaviour that successfully reduces a drive, we are more likely to engage
in that behaviour whenever faced with that drive in the future (Graham & Weiner,
1996).
Extensions of drive theory consider levels of arousal as potential motivators. These

theories assert that there is an optimal level of arousal that we all try to maintain
(Figure 4). If we are under aroused, we become bored and will seek out some sort of
stimulation. On the other hand, if we are over-aroused, we will engage in behaviours
to reduce our arousal (Berlyne, 1960). Most students have experienced this need to
maintain optimal levels of arousal over the course of their academic careers. Think
about how much stress students experience toward the end of the semester. They feel
overwhelmed with seemingly endless exams, papers, and major assignments that
must be completed on time. They probably yearn for the rest and relaxation that awaits
them over the extended holidays. However, once they finish the semester, it doesn’t
take too long before they begin to feel bored. Generally, by the time the next semester
is beginning, many students are quite happy to return to school. This is an example of
how the arousal theory works.
Figure 2
Optimal level of arousal
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So, what is the optimal level of arousal? What level leads to the best performance?
Research shows that moderate arousal is generally best; when arousal is very high or
very low, performance tends to suffer (Yerkes & Dodson, 1908). Think of your arousal
level regarding taking an exam for this module. If your level is very low, such as
boredom and apathy, your performance will likely suffer. Similarly, a very high level,
such as extreme anxiety, can be paralyzing and hinder performance. Consider the
example of a soccer team facing a tournament. They are favoured to win their first
game by a large margin, so they go into the game with a lower level of arousal and
get beat by a less skilled team.
But optimal arousal level is more complex than a simple answer that the middle level
is always best. Researchers Robert Yerkes and John Dodson discovered that the
optimal arousal level depends on the complexity and difficulty of the task to be
performed (Figure 5). This relationship is known as Yerkes-Dodson law, which holds
that a simple task is performed best when arousal levels are relatively high and
complex tasks are best performed when arousal levels are low.
Figure 3
Arousal levels
6.3 SELF-EFFICACY AND SOCIAL MOTIVES
Self-efficacy is an individual’s belief in her own capability to complete a task, which

may include a previous successful completion of the exact task or a similar task. Self-
efficacy is different to self-confidence, which denotes confidence with the self and your
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competence in general and across various situations. Self-efficacy is more situational

and refers to a person’s confidence in his or her ability to perform a specific task in a
particular situation. Someone with high self-efficacy believes in having the necessary
skills, resources, energy and abilities to perform a task in a particular context, while
those with low self-efficacy doubt their abilities and resourcefulness to even try. Albert
Bandura (1994) theorized that an individual’s sense of self-efficacy plays a pivotal role
in motivating behaviour. He argues that motivation derives from expectations that we
have about the consequences of our behaviours, and ultimately, it is the appreciation
of our capacity to engage in a given behaviour that will determine what we do and the
future goals that we set for ourselves. For example, if you have a sincere belief in your
ability to achieve in a particular context and task at the highest level, you are more
likely to take on similar tasks and to not let setbacks dissuade you from seeing the
task through to the end. Self-efficacy beliefs can be improved through mastery
experiences, social persuasion and by reducing stress in relation to a particular task.
Mastery experiences are those challenging tasks that have been competed
successfully, while someone is persuaded through social persuasion that they have
the capabilities to perform a task. Reducing stress helps people to have better
perspective on their abilities and resources and can motivate them to attempt a
challenging task.
A number of theorists have focused their research on understanding social motives

(McAdams & Constantian, 1983; McClelland & Liberman, 1949; Murray et al., 1938).
Among the motives they describe are needs for achievement, affiliation, and intimacy.
It is the need for achievement that drives accomplishment and performance. The need
for affiliation encourages positive interactions with others, and the need for intimacy
causes us to seek deep, meaningful relationships. Henry Murray et al. (1938)
categorized these needs into domains. For example, the need for achievement and
recognition falls under the domain of ambition. Dominance and aggression were
recognized as needs under the do domain of human power, and play was a
recognized need in the domain of interpersonal affection.
6.4 MASLOW'S THEORY OF THE HIERARCHY OF NEEDS
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We discuss Maslow’s theory in terms of motivation and what motives people to

behaviour in a certain manner. Maslow’s introduced four human needs and he
systematized these needs into a hierarchy. Bergh and Geldenhuys (2013) asserted
that Maslow theory explains people needs in a hierarchical arrangement and that
before the top needs are satisfied, the bottom needs should be satisfied first for an
individual to function optimally. While the theories of motivation described earlier relate
to basic biological drives, individual characteristics, or social contexts, Abraham
Maslow (1943) proposed a hierarchy of needs that spans the spectrum of motives
ranging from the biological to the individual to the social. These needs are often
depicted as a pyramid (Figure 4). These needs as seen from the below figure are from
bottom to top homeostasis, resources, family, and creativity.
Figure 4
Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs
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At the base of the pyramid are all of the physiological needs that are necessary for
survival Spielman et al., n.d.). Such as the need for air, food, and water. When you
are very hungry, for example, all your behaviour may be motivated by the need to find
food. Once you eat, the search for food ceases, and the need for food no longer
motivates you (Lumencandela n.d.).
These are followed by basic needs for security and safety. Once physiological needs
are satisfied, people tend to become concerned about safety needs. Are they safe
from danger, pain, or an uncertain future? At this stage they will be motivated to direct
their behaviour toward obtaining shelter and protection in order to satisfy this
need (Lumencandela n.d.).
The need to be loved and to have a sense of belonging constitute the third tier of
social needs. Once safety needs have been met, social needs
for love/belonging become important. This can include the need to bond with other
human beings, the need to be loved, and the need to form lasting attachments. Having
no attachments can negatively affect health and well-being; as a result, people are
motivated to find friends and romantic partners (Lumencandela n.d.).
Self-esteem needs denote the need to have self-worth and confidence. Once love
and belonging needs have been satisfied, esteem needs become more salient.
Esteem needs refer to the desire to be respected by one’s peers, to feel important,
and to be appreciated. People will often look for ways to achieve a sense of mastery,
and they may seek validation and praise from others in order to fulfil these
needs (Lumencandela n.d.).
The top tier of the pyramid is self-actualization, which is a need that essentially
equates to achieving one’s full potential, and it can only be realized when needs lower
on the pyramid have been met (Spielman et.al., n.d.). To Maslow and humanistic
theorists, self-actualization reflects the humanistic emphasis on positive aspects of
human nature. Maslow suggested that this is an ongoing, life-long process and that
only a small percentage of people actually achieve a self-actualized state (Francis &
Kritsonis, 2006; Maslow, 1943).
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According to Maslow (1943), one must satisfy lower-level needs before addressing
those needs that occur higher in the pyramid (Spielman et al., n.d.). So, for example,
if someone is struggling to find enough food to meet his nutritional requirements, it is
quite unlikely that he would spend an inordinate amount of time thinking about whether
others viewed him as a good person or not. Instead, all of his energies would be
geared toward finding something to eat. However, it should be pointed out that
Maslow’s theory has been criticized for its subjective nature and its inability to account
for phenomena that occur in the real world (Leonard, 1982). Other research has more
recently addressed that late in life, Maslow proposed a self-transcendence level
above self-actualization—to represent striving for meaning and purpose beyond the
concerns of oneself (Koltko-Rivera, 2006). For example, people sometimes make self-
sacrifices in order to make a political statement or in an attempt to improve the
conditions of others. Nelson Mandela would be an example. By going to prison for his
beliefs he displayed higher-level motives beyond his own needs.
6.5 DRIVE-REDUCTION THEORY OF MOTIVATION
Lumencandela (n.d.) states that according to the drive-reduction theory, humans are
motivated to satisfy physiological needs in order to maintain homeostasis. Motivation
describes the wants or needs that direct behaviour toward a goal. Motivations are
commonly separated into two types: drives are acts of motivation like thirst or hunger
that have primarily biological purposes, while motives are fuelled primarily by social
and psychological mechanisms.
6.5.1 Drives and Homeostasis

An early theory of motivation proposed that the maintenance of homeostasis is
particularly important in directing behaviour. Homeostasis is the tendency to maintain
a balance, or optimal level, within a biological system. In a body system, a control
centre (which is often part of the brain) receives input from receptors (which are often
complexes of neurons). The control centre directs effectors (which may be other
neurons) to correct any imbalance in the body detected by the control centre.
The purpose of biological drives is to correct disturbances of homeostasis. Unsatisfied

drives are detected by neurons concentrated in the hypothalamus in the brain. These
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neurons then produce an integrated response to bring the drive back to its optimal
level. For instance, when you are dehydrated, freezing cold, or exhausted, the
appropriate biological responses are activated automatically (e.g., body fat reserves
are mobilized, urine production is inhibited, you shiver, blood is shunted away from the
body surface, etc.). While your body automatically responds to these survival drives,
you also become motivated to correct these disturbances by eating, drinking water,
resting, or actively seeking or generating warmth by moving. In essence, you are
motivated to engage in whatever behaviour is necessary to fulfil an unsatisfied drive.
One way that the body elicits this behavioural motivation is by increasing physiological
arousal.
The Drive-reduction theory was first developed by Clark Hull in 1943. According to this
theory, deviations from homeostasis create physiological needs. These needs result
in psychological drive states that direct behaviour to meet the need and, ultimately,
bring the system back to homeostasis. When a physiological need is not satisfied, a
negative state of tension is created; when the need is satisfied, the drive to satisfy that
need is reduced, and the organism returns to homeostasis. In this way, a drive can be
thought of as an instinctual need that has the power to motivate behaviour. For
example, if it’s been a while since you ate, your blood sugar levels will drop below
normal. Low blood sugar induces a physiological need and a corresponding drive state
(i.e., hunger) that will direct you to seek out and consume food. Eating will eliminate
hunger, and, ultimately, your blood sugar levels will return to normal. Drive-reduction
theory also emphasizes the role that habits play in the type of behavioural response
in which we engage. A habit is a pattern of behaviour in which we regularly engage;
once we have engaged in behaviour that successfully reduces a drive, we are more
likely to engage in that behaviour whenever faced with that drive in the future (Graham
& Weiner, 1996).
6.5.2 Primary and Secondary Drives
Drive-reduction theory distinguishes between primary and secondary drives. Primary

drives are innate biological needs (e.g., thirst, hunger, and desire for sex) that are
usually necessary for survival. Secondary drives, on the other hand, are not usually
necessary for survival and are often linked to social or identity factors (e.g., the desire
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for wealth). Secondary drives are associated with primary drives because the
satisfaction of secondary drives indirectly satisfies primary drives. For example, the
desire for wealth is not necessary for survival; however, wealth provides you with
money that can be used to acquire food, shelter, and other basic needs, thereby
indirectly satisfying these primary drives. Secondary drives become associated with
primary drives through classical conditioning.
6.5.3 Drive-Reduction Theory and Learning
According to Hull, drive reduction is a major aspect of learning. Drives are thought to
underlie all behaviour in that behaviours are only conditioned, or learned, if the
reinforcement satisfies a drive. Individuals faced with more than one need at the same
time experience multiple drives, and research has shown that multiple drives can lead
to more rapid learning than a single drive.
6.5.4 Critiques of Drive-Reduction Theory
There are several issues that leave the validity of the drive-reduction theory open for
debate. For one, the drive-reduction theory has trouble explaining why humans
voluntarily increase tension by exploring their environments, even when they are not
hungry or thirsty. There are also complications to drive-reduction theory caused by so-
called “pleasure-seeking” behaviours, which seem to be contradictory to the theory’s
precepts. Why would an individual actively seek out more stimulation if it is already in
a state of relaxation and fulfilment? Proponents of the drive-reduction theory would
argue that one is never in a state of complete fulfilment, and thus, there are always
drives that need to be satisfied.
6.6 THE COGNITIVE AND ACHIEVEMENT APPROACHES TO MOTIVATION
Cognitive and achievement approaches to motivation examine how factors like

achievement goals and cognitive dissonance influence motivation. Motivation
describes the wants or needs that direct behaviour toward a goal. When we refer to
someone as being motivated, we mean that the person is trying hard to accomplish a
certain task; being motivated is clearly important for someone to perform well. Both
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the achievement and cognitive approaches to motivation examine the various factors
that influence our motivation.
6.6.1 Achievement Motivation
According to the achievement approach to motivation, the need for achievement drives
accomplishment and performance and thereby motivates our behaviour. People may
be motivated by different goals related to achievement, and each of these goals affects
one’s motivation—and thereby behaviour—differently. For instance, a student might
be motivated to do well in this module because it’s interesting and will be useful to her
in later courses (i.e., to master the material); to get good grades (i.e., to perform well);
or to avoid a poor or failing mark (i.e., to avoid performing poorly). These goals are not
mutually exclusive, and may all be present at the same time.
6.6.2 Mastery and Performance Goals
Mastery goals tend to be associated with the satisfaction of mastering something—in

other words, gaining control, proficiency, comprehensive knowledge, or sufficient skill
in a given area (such as mastering the art of cooking). Mastery goals are a form of
intrinsic motivation (arising from internal forces) and have been found to be more
effective than performance goals at sustaining students’ interest in a subject. In one
review of research about learning goals, for example, students with primarily mastery
orientations toward a course they were taking not only tended to express greater
interest in the course but also continued to express interest well beyond the official
end of the course and to enrol in further courses in the same subject (Harackiewicz,
et al., 2002; Wolters, 2004).
Performance goals, on the other hand, are extrinsically motivated (arising from
external factors) and can have both positive and negative effects. Students with
performance goals often tend to get higher grades than those who primarily express
mastery goals, and this advantage is often seen both in the short term (with individual
assignments) and in the long term (with overall grade point average when graduating).
However, there is evidence that performance-oriented students do not actually learn
the material as deeply or permanently as students who are more mastery-oriented
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(Midgley, Kaplan, & Middleton, 2001). A possible reason is that measures of

performance, such as test scores, often reward relatively shallow memorization of
information; in other words, information that is “crammed” before an assessment is
only remembered in the short-term and often forgotten immediately after the test.
Because the “performance” is over, there are no negative consequences for forgetting
the information relatively quickly, and this can prevent performance-oriented students
from processing the information more thoughtfully or deeply. Another possible reason
is that by focusing on gaining recognition as the top performer in a peer group, a
performance orientation encourages competition with peers. Giving and receiving help
from classmates is thus not in the self-interest of a performance-oriented student, and
the resulting isolation can limit the student’s learning.
6.7 COGNITIVE DISSONANCE
Cognitive approaches to motivation focus on how a person’s motivation are influenced

by their cognitions or mental processes. Of particular interest is the role of cognitive
dissonance on motivation. Cognitive dissonance occurs when a person experiences
conflict, contradiction, or inconsistency in their cognitions. These contradictory
cognitions may be attitudes, beliefs, or awareness of one’s behaviour. Dissonance is
strongest when a discrepancy has been noticed between one’s self-concept and one’s
behaviour. If you do something you are ashamed of or act in a way that is counter to
an idea you have about yourself (for example, if you consider yourself an honest
person but then lie to your colleagues about a task you had to perform, you are likely
to feel cognitive dissonance afterward.
The theory of cognitive dissonance proposes that people have a motivational drive to
reduce dissonance in their cognitions by either changing or justifying their attitudes,
beliefs, and behaviours. How a person chooses to respond to the dissonance depends
on the strength of various motivating factors. For example, smoking cigarettes
increases the risk of cancer, which is threatening to the self-concept of the individual
who smokes. When the smoker hears evidence suggesting that smoking might cause
cancer (cognitive component), they can either choose to stop smoking (change the
behavioural component) or choose to reject the causal link. Since smoking is
physically addictive, most smokers choose to minimize their acknowledgment of the
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risk rather than change their behaviour. The addiction is more motivating than the fear
of possible long-term medical consequences, so the less-motivating idea is minimized
and discounted. Most of us believe ourselves to be intelligent and rational, and the
idea of doing something self-destructive causes dissonance. To reduce this
uncomfortable tension, smokers might make excuses for themselves, such as “I’m
going to die anyway, so it doesn’t matter.” Another application of cognitive dissonance
occurs in the case of effort justification. Dissonance is aroused whenever individuals
voluntarily engage in an unpleasant activity to achieve some desired goal; this
dissonance can be reduced by exaggerating the desirability of the goal. The more
time, money, or effort someone invests in an activity, the more they will convince
themselves that they made a wise choice and that their efforts were worth it.
6.8 TEMPORAL MOTIVATION THEORY
Temporal motivation theory emphasizes the impact of time and deadlines on our
motivation to complete tasks. Temporal motivation theory is an integrative motivational
theory developed by Piers Steel and Cornelius J. Konig. The theory
emphasizes time as a critical motivational factor and focuses on the impact of
deadlines on the allocation of attention to particular tasks. Temporal motivation theory
argues that as a deadline for completing an activity nears, the perceived usefulness
or benefit of that activity increases exponentially. Temporal motivation theory is
particularly useful for understanding human behaviours like procrastination and goal
setting. Temporal motivation theory argues that motivation is heavily influenced by
time. In this theory, Motivation is the desire for a particular outcome. Expectancy, or
self-efficacy, is the likelihood of success; Value is the reward associated with the
outcome; Impulsiveness is the individual’s ability to withstand urges; and Delay is the
amount of time until the realization of the outcome (i.e., the deadline). The greater the
individual’s expectancy for successfully completing the task, and the higher the value
of the outcome associated with it, the higher the individual’s motivation will be. In
contrast, both impulsivity and a greater amount of time before a deadline tend to
reduce motivation.
Consider a student who is given one month to study for a final exam, or a task set by
your supervisor which has a deadline. Throughout the month, there are two options:
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studying/working or socializing. The student enjoys socializing but needs to achieve a

good grade to meet performance standards. At the beginning of the task (where there
is a long delay before the deadline), the reward of studying or working on the task is
not immediate (and therefore has low value); therefore, the motivation to study or work
is lower than the motivation to socialize. However, as the task period diminishes from
several weeks to several days, the motivation to work on the task or study will surpass
the motivation to socialize.
Figure 5
Motivation over time
The graph in Figure 5, illustrates how a student’s motivation tends to change over
time: early in the semester he may be more motivated to socialize with friends; later in
the semester, schoolwork takes precedence. Suppose the student really doesn’t
understand the material and doesn’t feel confident that he will be able to grasp it in
time for the exam (low self-efficacy, or expectancy). In addition, the student just got a
new video game that he has been dying to play (high value) and has a hard time
resisting the urge to play (high impulsiveness). With the exam still, a month away (long
delay), the student’s motivation to study is likely to be low, and he will play the video
game instead. As the exam date approaches (shorter delay), his motivation to study
may increase, leading him to put the video game away.
This concludes the section on motivation in the next section of this lesson we will
consider the role of emotions, which are subjective experiences that involve
physiological arousal and cognitive appraisal.
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6.9 EMOTIONS
Emotions are defined by Bergh and Geldenhuys (2013) as behaviour that directs our
actions towards our physiological and physical feelings. Emotions are characterised
by personal experiences such as Fear, Love, Hate, and Sadness. Humans have an
instinct response to anything and quickly respond to stimuli that are triggers in their
surrounds for instance a thrill of a roller-coaster ride that elicits an unexpected scream,
the horror of a potential plane crash, etc. These responses are signs of emotions
underlying the experience of the trigger. Spielman et al. (n.d.) state that as we move
through our daily lives, we experience a variety of emotions. An emotion is a subjective
state of being that we often describe as our feelings. The words emotion and mood
are sometimes used interchangeably, but psychologists use these words to refer to
two different things. Typically, the word emotion indicates a subjective, affective state
that is relatively intense and that occurs in response to something we experience.
Bergh and Geldenhuys (2013) maintained that emotions play a big role on individuals’
existence; they have been proven to be the main agents influencing human behaviour.
6.10 THEORIES OF EMOTION
According to Spielman et al. (n.d.) our emotional states are combinations of

physiological arousal, psychological appraisal, and subjective experiences. Together,
these are known as the components of emotion and they are informed by our
experiences, backgrounds, and cultures. Therefore, different people may have
different emotional experiences even when faced with similar circumstances. Over
time, several different theories of emotion, have been proposed to explain how the
various components of emotion interact with one another.
The James-Lange theory of emotion asserts that emotions arise from physiological
arousal and they argue that emotions is equal to the pattern of physiological arousal
that a person experiences during an emotion. Recall what you have learned about the
sympathetic nervous system and our fight or flight response when threatened. If you
were to encounter some threat in your environment, like a venomous snake in your
backyard, your sympathetic nervous system would initiate significant physiological
arousal, which would make your heart race and increase your respiration rate.
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According to the James-Lange theory of emotion, you would only experience a feeling
of fear after this physiological arousal had taken place. Furthermore, different arousal
patterns would be associated with different feelings.
Figure 6
James- Lange theory of emotion (Lumencandela n.d.)
Other theorists, however, doubted that the physiological arousal that occurs with
different types of emotions is distinct enough to result in the wide variety of emotions
that we experience. The James-Lange theory was criticised because people
experiencing different emotions may exhibit the same physiological state; emotions
occur faster than physiological change (e.g. do you first cry and then feel sad, or the
other way around?) and physiological arousal can occur without emotional experience
(e.g. when with exercise you sweat and your heart rate accelerates, without any
significant emotional response). Thus, the Cannon-Bard theory of emotion was
developed. According to this view, physiological arousal and emotional experience
occur simultaneously, yet independently (Lang, 1994). So, when you see the
venomous snake, you feel fear at exactly the same time that your body mounts its fight
or flight response. This emotional reaction would be separate and independent of the
physiological arousal, even though they co-occur.
Figure 7
Cannon-Bard theory of emotion (Lumencandella n.d.).
20
The James-Lange and Cannon-Bard theories have each garnered some empirical
support in various studies. For instance, Chwalisz, Diener, and Gallagher (1988)
conducted a study of the emotional experiences of people who had spinal cord injuries.
They reported that individuals who were incapable of receiving autonomic feedback
because of their injuries still experienced emotion; however, there was a tendency for
people with less awareness of autonomic arousal to experience less intense emotions.
More recently, research investigating the facial feedback hypothesis suggested that
suppression of facial expression of emotion lowered the intensity of some emotions
experienced by participants (Davis, Senghas, & Ochsner, 2009). In both of these
examples, neither theory is fully supported because physiological arousal does not
seem to be necessary for the emotional experience, but this arousal does appear to
be involved in enhancing the intensity of the emotional experience.
The Schachter-Singer two-factor theory of emotion is a cognitive variation on

theories of emotions that considers both physiological arousal and the emotional
experience. According to this theory, emotions are composed of two factors:
physiological and cognitive. In other words, physiological arousal is interpreted in
context to produce the emotional experience. In revisiting our example involving the
venomous snake in your backyard, the two-factor theory maintains that the snake
elicits sympathetic nervous system activation that is labelled as fear given the context,
and our experience is that of fear.
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Figure 8
The Schachter-Singer two factor theory (Lumencandella n.d.).
It is important to point out that Schachter and Singer believed that physiological
arousal is very similar across the different types of emotions that we experience, and
therefore, the cognitive appraisal of the situation is critical to the actual emotion
experienced. In fact, it might be possible to misattribute arousal to an emotional
experience if the circumstances were right (Schachter & Singer, 1962).
To test their idea, Schachter and Singer performed a clever experiment. Male
participants were randomly assigned to one of several groups. Some of the
participants received injections of epinephrine that caused bodily changes that
mimicked the fight-or-flight response of the sympathetic nervous system; however,
only some of these men were told to expect these reactions as side effects of the
injection. The other men that received injections of epinephrine were told either that
the injection would have no side effects or that it would result in a side effect unrelated
to a sympathetic response, such as itching feet or headache. After receiving these
injections, participants waited in a room with someone else they thought was another
subject in the research project. In reality, the other person was a confederate of the
researcher. The confederate engaged in scripted displays of euphoric or angry
behaviour (Schachter & Singer, 1962). When those subjects who were told that they
should expect to feel symptoms of physiological arousal were asked about any
emotional changes that they had experienced related to either euphoria or anger
(depending on how their confederate behaved), they reported none. However, the men
who weren’t expecting physiological arousal as a function of the injection were more
22
likely to report that they experienced euphoria or anger as a function of their assigned
confederate’s behaviour. While everyone that received an injection of epinephrine
experienced the same physiological arousal, only those who were not expecting the
arousal used context to interpret the arousal as a change in emotional state (Schachter
& Singer, 1962).
Figure 9 presents a comparison of the aforementioned theories of emotion.
Figure 9
Comparing the theories of emotion
Strong emotional responses are associated with strong physiological arousal. This has
led some to suggest that the signs of physiological arousal, which include increased
heart rate, respiration rate, and sweating, might serve as a tool to determine whether
someone is telling the truth or not. The assumption is that most of us would show signs
of physiological arousal if we were being dishonest with someone. A polygraph, or lie
detector test, measures the physiological arousal of an individual responding to a
23
series of questions. Someone trained in reading these tests would look for answers to
questions that are associated with increased levels of arousal as potential signs that
the respondent may have been dishonest on those answers. While polygraphs are still
commonly used, their validity and accuracy are highly questionable because there is
no evidence that lying is associated with any particular pattern of physiological arousal
(Saxe & Ben-Shakhar, 1999).
The relationship between our experiencing of emotions and our cognitive processing
of them, and the order in which these occur, remains a topic of research and debate.
Arnold’s excitatory theory of emotion and Lazarus’s (1991) cognitive-mediational
theory emphasise the importance of cognitive appraisal in the emotional response
and regards physiological arousal as a by-product of the emotional response rather
being responsible for it. The cognitive-mediational theory asserts that our emotions
are determined by two major appraisals of the stimulus namely, i) primary appraisal of
the meaning or significance of the stimulus, and ii) secondary appraisal of the person’s
ability to cope with the event or stimulus. Emotional reactions of people are thus
influenced by the interaction between emotion-eliciting events and one’s coping
resources. The primary and secondary appraisals mediate between the stimulus and
the emotional response, and the emotional response is immediate and often
unconscious. Accordingly, people cope through either one of two processes –
changing the conditions in the stimulus through action, or through cognitive
reappraisals of the stimulus (changing the way you think).
Two other prominent views arise from the work of Robert Zajonc and Joseph LeDoux.
Zajonc asserted that some emotions occur separately from or prior to our cognitive
interpretation of them, such as feeling fear in response to an unexpected loud sound
(Zajonc, 1998). He also believed in what we might casually refer to as a gut feeling—
that we can experience an instantaneous and unexplainable like or dislike for someone
or something (Zajonc, 1980). LeDoux views some emotions as requiring no cognition:
some emotions completely bypass contextual interpretation. His research into the
neuroscience of emotion has demonstrated the amygdala’s primary role in fear
(Cunha, Monfils, & LeDoux, 2010; LeDoux 1996, 2002). A fear stimulus is processed
by the brain through one of two paths: from the thalamus (where it is perceived) directly
to the amygdala or from the thalamus through the cortex and then to the amygdala.
24
The first path is quick, while the second enables more processing about details of the
stimulus.
6.11 CULTURAL IMPACT ON THE WAY WE DISPLAY EMOTIONS
Culture can impact the way in which people display emotion. Some emotions are
acknowledged in certain cultures while not in others or at least they are not expressed
or conceptualised in the same way across different cultures. A cultural display rule is
one of a collection of culturally specific standards that govern the types and
frequencies of displays of emotions that are acceptable (Malatesta & Haviland, 1982).
Therefore, people from varying cultural backgrounds can have very different cultural
display rules of emotion. For example, research has shown that individuals from the
United States express negative emotions like fear, anger, and disgust both alone and
in the presence of others, while Japanese individuals only do so while alone
(Matsumoto, 1990). Furthermore, individuals from cultures that tend to emphasize
social cohesion are more likely to engage in suppression of emotional reaction, so
they can evaluate which response is most appropriate in a given context (Matsumoto,
Yoo, & Nakagawa, 2008). Other distinct cultural characteristics might be involved in
emotionality. For instance, there may be gender differences involved in emotional
processing. While research into gender differences in emotional display is equivocal,
there is some evidence that men and women may differ in regulation of emotions
(McRae, Ochsner, Mauss, Gabrieli, & Gross, 2008).
Despite different emotional display rules, our ability to recognize and produce facial
expressions of emotion appears to be universal. In fact, even congenitally blind
individuals produce the same facial expression of emotions, despite their never having
the opportunity to observe these facial displays of emotion in other people. This would
seem to suggest that the pattern of activity in facial muscles involved in generating
emotional expressions is universal, and indeed, this idea was suggested in the late
19th century in Charles Darwin’s book The Expression of Emotions in Man and
Animals (1872). In fact, there is substantial evidence for seven universal
emotions that are each associated with distinct facial expressions. These include:
happiness, surprise, sadness, fright, disgust, contempt, and anger (Figure 10) (Ekman
& Keltner, 1997).
25
Figure 10
Universal emotions
Figure 10 The seven universal facial expressions of emotion are shown. (credit:
modification of work by Cory Zanker)
Does smiling make you happy? Or does being happy make you smile? The facial
feedback hypothesis asserts that facial expressions are capable of influencing our
emotions, meaning that smiling can make you feel happier (Buck, 1980; Soussignan,
2001; Strack, Martin, & Stepper, 1988). Recent research explored how Botox, which
paralyzes facial muscles and limits facial expression, might affect emotion. Havas,
Glenberg, Gutowski, Lucarelli, and Davidson (2010) discovered that depressed
individuals reported less depression after paralysis of their frowning muscles with
Botox injections. Of course, emotion is not only displayed through facial expression.
We also use the tone of our voices, various behaviours, and body language to
communicate information about our emotional states. Body language is the
expression of emotion in terms of body position or movement. Research suggests that
we are quite sensitive to the emotional information communicated through body
language, even if we’re not consciously aware of it (de Gelder, 2006; Tamietto et al.,
2009).
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6.12 CONCLUSION
Motivation to engage in each behaviour can come from internal and/or external factors.
Multiple theories have been put forward regarding motivation. More biologically
oriented theories deal with the ways that instincts and the need to maintain bodily
homeostasis motivate behaviour. Bandura postulated that our sense of self-efficacy
motivates behaviours, and there are several theories that focus on a variety of social
motives. Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is a model that shows the relationship
among multiple motives that range from lower-level physiological needs to the very
high level of self-actualization.
Emotions are subjective experiences that consist of physiological arousal and

cognitive appraisal. Various theories have been put forward to explain our emotional
experiences. The James-Lange theory asserts that emotions arise as a function of
physiological arousal. The Cannon-Bard theory maintains that emotional experience
occurs simultaneous to and independent of physiological arousal. The Schachter-
Singer two-factor theory suggests that physiological arousal receives cognitive labels
as a function of the relevant context and that these two factors together result in an
emotional experience.
The ability to produce and recognize facial expressions of emotions seems to be

universal regardless of cultural background. However, there are cultural display rules
which influence how often and under what circumstances various emotions can be
expressed. Tone of voice and body language also serves as a means by which we
communicate information about our emotional states.
27
REFERENCES
Attribution
Lumencandela, (n.d.). Theories of Motivation. OER Commons. Retrieved June 5,

2020 from https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-
psychology/chapter/theories-of-motivation/
Spielman, R., M., Dumper, K., Jenkins, W., Lacombe, A., Lovett, M., & Perlmutter,
M. (n.d.). Psychology. OER Commons. Retrieved June 2, 2020,
from https://www.oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15345/overview
Reference
Bergh, Z & Geldenhuys, D. (2013) Psychology in the Work Context. Oxford
28
Lesson 7
SENSATION AND PERCEPTION,
ATTITUDES AND VALUES
In the world and African context
Learning outcomes of lesson 7
After studying lesson 7, students should be able to explain and apply

concepts and principles of the psycho-social behavioural processes
sensation and perception, and demonstrate an understanding of the nature, function
and roles of attitudes and values, which affect how people behave in the work context.
Once you have studied lesson 7, you should be able to:
• differentiate the processes and principles of sensation and perception.

• describe the function of each of our senses and outline the anatomy of the sense
organs
• explain different principles of perception
• apply knowledge of sensation and perception to real world examples.
• explain the nature of attitudes and values
• explain and apply the functions of attitudes and values in the work context
• describe different approaches to individual values and to values in a cultural context
• explain and apply attitude and value change
Prescribed Reading Material for Lesson 7

There are two pdf documents containing the learning material relevant to
lesson 7. The first is chapter 3 from the book “Essentials in Psychology”
(2018) by JS Nevid, which focusses on the topic of “Sensation and
Perception”. The second is chapter 9 by Jerome Kiley on “Attitudes and Values” from
the book “Psychology in the work context” by ZC Bergh and DJ Geldenhuys (5th
1
edition). You will need to study each of these documents to reach the learning
outcomes in this lesson. The sections that follow here on myUnisa about lesson 7 are
aimed to guide you through the learning material in a logical and comprehensive
manner. These documents are:
Nevid, JS. 2018. Sensation & Perception. In JS Nevid, Essentials in Psychology.

(chapter 3, pp 86-131). Cengage.
Kiley, J. 2014. Attitudes & Values. In Z Bergh & D Geldenhuys, Psychology in Work
Context, (chapter 9, pp 114-143). Goodwood, Cape Town: Oxford University
Press.
Key concepts
Can be downloaded from the Lesson 7 folder on myUnisa
INTRODUCTION
Part of developing your understanding of psychological and social processes in the
work and self-employment context, entails becoming aware of the role and functioning
of basic behavioural processes such as sensation and perception, as well as attitudes
and values, because these processes affect how people behave in the workplace. In
this lesson we focus on these four processes that are inherent to all humans. These
four processes are therefore of a psychological nature, because they manifest in the
mind and body of the individual. Yet, they are also socially derived, because our
perceptions, attitudes and values are formed in a specific social context and influenced
by this context. The topics that we will cover are:
7.1 The difference between sensation and perception
7.2 Basic principles of sensation
7.3 Our senses and their functions

Vision
Audition
Smell and taste
Touch
Kinesthetic and vestibular
7.4 Perception
What is perception?
Principles and theories of perception
Gestalt principles of perceptual organization
Perceptual constancy
Depth and motor perception
2
Visual illusions
Subliminal and extrasensory perception
7.5 Attitudes and values

The nature of attitudes and values
The function of attitudes and values
Different approaches to understanding individual values
Attitudes and values in the work context
Culture and values
Attitude and value change
Ethics
7.1 THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SENSATION AND PERCEPTION
Study Chapter 3, in Sensation & Perception. In JS Nevid, Essentials in

Psychology. (pp 86-131) to understand the topics in sections 7.1 to 7.4 of
sensation and perception
Sensation and perception are two of the most basic, yet complex psychological
processes in a human being. They are distinct processes, but they cannot be
separated from one another, because the one automatically leads to the other and
they mutually affect one another. Psychophysics is the study of how we perceive and
experience our environment through our senses.
Sensation refers to the process of receiving, transforming and processing stimuli from
our environment through our sense organs and their sensory receptors, such as
through touching, tasting, seeing, hearing and smelling. Received sensory information
is sent via neural impulses from our skin, tongue, eyes, ears and nose to our brain for
further processing. Section 3.1 in your learning material explains sensation and the
most important concepts related to sensation.
Perception is about how the brain interprets our sensory information and this is
explained in section 3.5 of the relevant chapter in your reading material. Perception
entails the process by which the brain selects, organizes, and interprets all the
information received by our senses. Our senses constitute the physiological basis of
perception and perception helps us to make sense of and ascribe meaning to
everything around us. In this way sensation and perception are equally important in
how human beings view, understand and interpret their worlds. These two processes
play complimentary roles in how we react to and behave in the world of work.
3
: Which of the following is mainly sensation and which is perception?
Sensation Perception
Saltiness of food
Comfortable chair
Soothing music
Loud noise
Happy taste of lemons
Itchy skin
Familiar smell of mother
Odor
7.2 BASIC PRINCIPLES OF SENSATION

Stimuli are received by the relevant sensory receptors, namely our skin, tongues,
eyes, ears and noses. These sensory receptors contain special neurons, enabling
each to respond to specific types of stimuli. When sensory information is detected by
a sensory receptor, the process of sensation has occurred. When light, for example,
enters the eye, it causes chemical changes in the neurological cells at the back of the
eye. These cells transform the received data as neurological messages, in the form of
action potentials (as you learned in lesson 4), to the central nervous system. This
conversion process, changing the sensory stimulus energy to action potential, is
known as transduction.
Several basic principles influence the way our senses work. The first of these is called
the absolute threshold and refers to the smallest number of sensory stimuli to be
present for a stimulus to be detected. We can, however, also receive subliminal
messages, which are those messages we are not consciously aware of receiving.
Another principle pertains to the ability to notice the difference in intensity between two
stimuli. This is referred to as the differential threshold for each sense. It is, for
example, easier to see the colour difference between black and yellow, than to detect
difference in similar shades of blue. According to Weber’s Law, bigger stimuli require
larger differences for them to be distinguished.
Click on the link to watch the video of an increasingly higher-frequency

sound. Note when you are not able to hear it anymore and ask
someone 10 years older or younger than you to do the same. Do you
have a different threshold?
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kQXFw6JFbVQ
4
7.3 OUR SENSES AND THEIR FUNCTIONS
To sense something from our environment, means to receive the stimuli from the
environment physiologically through our senses. Our senses include the basic five
senses, namely sight (vision), hearing (audition), smell (olfaction), taste (gustation)
and touch (somatosensation). We also have more complex sensory systems that
provide information about movement (proprioception and kinesthesia) and balance
(vestibular sense) as well as pain (nociception) and temperature (thermoception). In
this lesson 7 we will focus mainly on the five basic senses and only touch on the
vestibular sense and the experience of pain.
7.3.1 Vision (seeing)

Our eyes are our visionary receptors and we receive stimuli in the form of light waves
that enter the eye through the cornea. The amount of light that enters is managed by
the iris and the pupil. Light travels through the pupil and the lens to the retina. You
need to understand the function of each of the parts of the eye and be able to identify
them (see figure 7.1).
We can see three-dimensional objects because we have two eyes that converge their
focus on images from different angles. In the retina, photoreceptors (rods for seeing
at night and cones for seeing during the day and for seeing colour) convert light
into electrical signals, which then travel down ganglion cells into the optic nerve, the
thalamus and to the primary visual cortex. It is in the cortex where information about
light orientation and movement come together for more complex processing. That is
why damage to the visual areas of the cortex can be detrimental for one’s sight. The
blind spot on the retina contains no photoreceptor cells.
Figure 7.1. Diagram of the human eye. Notice the Retina, labelled here: this is the
location of the Cones and Rods in the eye. [Image: Holly Fischer,
https://goo.gl/ozuG0Q, CC BY 3.0, https://goo.gl/TSIsIq]
5
Two different theories about colour vision help us to explain some of the visual effects
we experience on a day-to-day basis. According to the trichromatic theory of colour
vision, you should see white when you stare at a white wall after staring at a picture
for around 30 seconds. Try this: stare at the image of the flag in Figure 7.2 for 30
seconds and then immediately look at a sheet of white paper or a wall.
Figure 7.2. Stare at the centre of the Canadian flag for 30 seconds. Then, shift your
eyes away to a white wall or blank piece of paper. You should see an "after image" in
a different colour scheme.
When looking at the white wall after having stared at the figure for 30 seconds, you do
not see a white wall, but an afterimage of the figure you stared at. This visual effect is
explained by the opponent-process theory, developed by Hering.
Phenomena we often refer to as optical illusions provide misleading information to

these “higher” areas of visual processing (see Additional Resources for websites
containing amazing optical illusions).
People can be defined as trichomats, monochromats and dichromats, depending

on the colour they can see and distinguish. Colour blindness is rare, but interesting
research has been done on how colour affects people’s judgements in certain life
situations. Study section 3.2 in your reading material to enhance your knowledge and
understanding of the eye, sight and vision.
7.3.2 Audition (hearing)

Sound waves, the physical stimulus for audition reach our ears, which enable us to
distinguish the amplitude, the pitch or frequency of a sound wave. This helps us to
distinguish between bright and dull sounds as well as natural and synthesized
instruments. Consult your learning material in section 3.3 to understand how our
auditory tools (parts of the ear) work to receive and carry sound waves from our outer
ear to our middle and inner ear. Sound waves are transformed by auditory hair cells
into electrical signals that are sent through the cochlea through the thalamus, to the
primary auditory cortex of the temporal lobe, where perceptual processing (ascribing
meaning to sensory data) commences. Again, having an ear on each side of the head
6
allows us to locate sound effectively in a three-dimensional space. See Figure 7.3 for
a visual structure of the ear.
Figure 7.3. Diagram of the human ear. Notice the cochlea labelled
here: it is the location of the auditory hair cells that are tonotopically
organised.
The vestibular system in the inner ear also helps us to balance ourselves. The ear is
therefore not only functional in the sense of hearing.
How we hear the pitch of sounds is explained by two different theories, namely place
theory and pitch theory. We also need to protect our ears to protect ourselves from
deafness. Deafness can have different causes. Damage to the middle ear can cause
conduction deafness and damage to the inner ear may lead to nerve deafness.
Please study how these are caused and what each type of deafness means.
7.3.5 Smell and taste: the chemical senses

The chemicals of the receptors involved in our perception of smell and taste bind
directly with the stimuli they transduce. The receptor cells transduce the information
from the environment through the olfactory nerve to the olfactory bulb for further
processing. It is the only sense that do not travel through the thalamus to the brain.
Section 3.4 in your reading material deals with olfaction, the parts of the ear and how
it functions to help us smell. Please study this section in the reading material carefully.
Humans have 400 smelling receptors and may be able to distinctively smell over 1
trillion scents. Although animals can distinguish many more smells, the more evolved
human brain enables people to process smells in much more complex ways. Smelling
happens with the olfactory nerve, on the roof of the nasal cavity. Odours in the
7
environment are bound by receptor cells in the olfactory nerve and they transmit
messages to the olfactory bulb, which processes the information and gives the
experience of certain odours. Poor smelling ability may be a symptom of a medical
condition such as schizophrenia and depression. Our sense of smell also decreases
in old age and can be influenced by head trauma. Of interest is also how many animal
and insect species communicate with one another by secreting pheromones.
Pheromones are chemical substances secreted by animals for others to pick up
through their taste or smell.
Our sense of smell is closely related to our sense of taste. Taste is also called the
gustatory sense. Taste can be broken down into the perception of four different
tastes: salty, sweet, sour and bitter. There is also a fifth taste, called umami, which
refers to our sense of savoury. There may be many other flavours that have not yet
been discovered. Interestingly, spicy is not a taste, but is categorised as a pain signal.
The sense of taste aided in human evolution, because taste helped people to test the
food they ate. A bitter or sour taste, for example, indicated that a plant might be
poisonous or rotten. Something salty or sweet, however, often meant the food was
rich in nutrients.
Taste is sensed in the taste buds, of which an adult has between 2000 to 4000. Most
taste buds are found on the tongue, and some also line the back of the throat, the
epiglottis, the nasal cavity and the oesophagus. Sensory taste cells on the taste buds
form capsules. The tips of these capsules have pores that work like funnels with tiny
taste hairs. Proteins on the hairs bind chemicals to the cells for tasting.
7.3.4 Touch
The skin is the largest organ in the human body and plays a major role in the sense of
touch. Touch is the sensory process, also referred to as somatosensation, in which
different sensations received from the skin and mucous membranes as well as from
limbs and joints are transduced by mechanoreceptors into electrical potentials that
can be processed by the brain.
Somatosensation is also known as the tactile sense and occurs all over the exterior of
the body and at some interior locations as well. There are a variety of receptor types
embedded in the skin, mucous membranes, muscles, joints and one’s internal organs
that are involved in the tactile sense. These receptors consist of different specialised
neurons that are receptive to distinct sensations such as pressure, temperature, light
touch, vibration, pain and other sensations. Tactile stimuli are received and converted
by mechanoreceptors, which sends messages through the thalamus to the primary
somatosensory cortex, which is organised in a somatotopic map. The
somatotopic map indicates which areas of the skin are more sensitive than
others. Put simply, various areas of the skin, such as lips and fingertips, are more
sensitive than others, such as shoulders or ankles. This sensitivity can be represented
8
by the distorted proportions of the human body shown in Figure 7.4. The neural
processing of certain tactile stimuli is essential to human survival, such as our sense
to feel and appropriately respond to different temperatures and pain.
Figure 7.4. A drawing of the somatosensory cortex in the brain and the areas in the
human body that correspond to it - they are drawn in proportion to the most sensitive
or the most innervated parts of the body.
Touch is thought to be the first sense that humans develop. It is, however, not just a
physical sense but relates to human well-being, as it is used to communicate emotions
such as compassion towards other people.
Your reading material contains a very interesting section on pain management

techniques and explain how we can manage our pain through distraction,
bottlenecking, changing thoughts and attitudes, obtaining accurate information and
through meditation and biofeedback.
7.3.4 Kinaesthetic and vestibular senses

Kinaesthesia is the sense that keeps us informed about movement of the parts of the
body and their position in relation to each other. This is the sense that helps us to ride
a bike or play a guitar. Receptors responsible for sensing position and movement and
balance are located in the joints, ligaments and muscles. Our vestibular sense helps
us to know where we are; it keeps us informed about balance and the position of our
9
body in space. Our vestibular sense is connected to the functioning of receptor
organs (semi-circular canals and vestibular sacs) in the inner ear.
7.4 PERCEPTION
Perception is dealt with in section 3.5 in the learning material. We first explain what
perception is and the different principles underlying the process of perception.
Thereafter we discuss the various theories on how our sensation are organised and
interpreted, and therefore, how we make sense of what we see, hear, taste, touch,
and smell.
7.4.1. What is perception

While we constantly receive sensory information through our senses, how we interpret
that information ultimately affects how we behave, respond and interact with the
world. Perception is the psychological process we use to interpret sensory
information in the brain and refers to the way sensory information is organised,
interpreted, and consciously experienced. Perceiving the same sensory stimuli
frequently differ between people because each person’s brain interprets the stimuli
differently and in relation to that person’s previous experience, learning, memory,
emotions and expectations.
7.4.2. Principles or theories of perception

There are also a few theories that explain how the process of perception work. These
theories of perception explain principles of how our sensations are organised and
interpreted. These theories help us to understand not only how we make sense of
what we see, hear, taste, touch, and smell, but also how we in the work context find
differences in opinion, miscommunication and subjective responses to the same
stimuli. The main principles of perception are explained thoroughly in your learning
material in section 3.5. They include selective attention, perceptual set, bottom-up
processing and top-down processing.
Attention is the first action in the process of perception. When we focus on something
and our minds filter out other stimuli, we call this selective attention. Our values and
emotional states determine what we select to focus on and what we miss. We can also
form habits in focusing only on certain types of information that interest us. Selective
attention in this way is almost similar to the principle of perceptual set. Perceptual set
is the tendency we have to perceive what we expect to see or hear. Sometimes we
anticipate something because of previous experience and that may influence us to
miss important information or make mistakes.
Bottom-up processing refers to the fact that perceptions are built by recognising
pieces of sensory input in relation to our memory to form a whole. On the other hand,
we interpret stimuli as a meaningful whole based on our available knowledge,
experiences and our thoughts, whilst omitting important detail. This is called top-down
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processing. The best way to illustrate these two concepts is with our ability to read.
Read the following quote out loud:
Figure 7.5. An example of stimuli processing
Notice anything odd while you were reading the text in the triangle? Did you notice the
second “the”? If not, it’s likely because you were reading this from a top-down
approach. Having a second “the” doesn’t make sense. We know this. Our brain knows
this and doesn’t expect there to be a second one, so we tend to skip right over it. In
other words, your past experience has changed the way you perceive the writing in
the triangle! A beginning reader — one who is using a bottom-up approach by carefully
attending to each piece — would be less likely to make this error.
Look at the shape in Figure 7.6 below. Seen alone, your brain engages in bottom-up
processing. There are two thick vertical lines and three thin horizontal lines. There is
no context to give it a specific meaning, so there is no top-down processing involved.
Figure 7.6. What is this image? Without any context, you must use bottom-up
processing.
Now, look at the same shape in two different contexts. Surrounded by sequential
letters, your brain expects the shape to be a letter and to complete the sequence. In
that context, you perceive the lines to form the shape of the letter “B.”
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Figure 7.7. With top-down processing, you use context to give meaning to this image.
Surrounded by numbers, the same shape now looks like the number “13.”
Figure 7.8. With top-down processing, you use context to give meaning to this image.
When given a context, your perception is driven by your cognitive expectations. Now
you are processing the shape in a top-down fashion. One way to think of this concept
is that sensation is a physical process, whereas perception is psychological. For
example, upon walking into a kitchen and smelling the scent of baking cinnamon rolls,
the sensation is the scent receptors detecting the odour of cinnamon, but
the perception may be “Mmm, this smells like the bread Grandma used to bake when
the family gathered for holidays.”
Although our perceptions are built from sensations, not all sensations result in
perception. In fact, we often don’t perceive stimuli that remain relatively constant over
prolonged periods of time. This is known as sensory adaptation. Imagine entering a
classroom with an old analogue clock. Upon first entering the room, you can hear the
ticking of the clock; as you begin to engage in conversation with classmates or listen
to your professor greet the class, you are no longer aware of the ticking. The clock is
still ticking, and that information is still affecting sensory receptors of the auditory
system. The fact that you no longer perceive the sound demonstrates sensory
adaptation and shows that while closely associated, sensation and perception are
different.
7.4.3 Gestalt principles of perceptual organisation

Gestalt psychologists like Wertheimer developed theories of perceptual organisation.
These theories of perceptual organisation explain how we perceive information from
our environment by grouping pieces of information into meaningful wholes. Primary
theories of perceptual organisation include figure-ground perception and gestalt
laws of grouping.
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Figure and ground perception explain how people perceive objects in terms of it being
a figure against a background or ‘ground’. When it is not clear how the figure and the
ground in a visual picture can be distinguished, we experience ambiguity.
Figure 7.9. The concept of figure-ground relationship explains why this image can be
perceived either as a vase or as a pair of faces.
Gestalt laws of grouping explain how people group bits of information together to
form a whole. Information are grouped according to the principles of proximity,
similarity, continuity, closure and symmetry.
The principle of proximity asserts that things that are close to one another tend to be
grouped together. As the figure below illustrates.
Figure 7.10. The Gestalt principle of proximity suggests that you see (a) one block of
dots on the left side and (b) three columns on the right side.
We might also use the principle of similarity to group things in our visual fields.
According to this principle, things that are similar, tend to be grouped together. For
example, when watching a football game, we tend to group individuals based on the
colours of their uniforms. When looking at this array of dots below, we likely perceive
alternating rows of colours. We are grouping these dots according to the principle of
similarity.
13
Figure 7.11. Two additional Gestalt principles are the law of continuity (or good
continuation) and closure. The law of continuity suggests that we are more likely to
perceive continuous, smooth flowing lines rather than jagged, broken lines.
The principle of closure states that we organise our perceptions into complete objects
rather than as a series of parts.
Figure 7.12. Good continuation would suggest that we are more likely to perceive this
as two overlapping lines, rather than four lines meeting in the centre.
Figure 7.13. Closure suggests that we will perceive a complete circle and rectangle
rather than a series of segments.
7.4.4 Perceptual constancy

We tend to perceive objects as having a constant size, shape, colour and brightness,
even when the image they cast on our retina’s changes. There are different types of
constancy that determine how we tend to perceive stimuli. The tendency to perceive
an object as being the same shape even when the object is viewed from different
perspectives is called shape constancy. The tendency to perceive an object as being
the same size despite changes in the size of the retinal image it casts is known as size
constancy. Colour constancy explain how people perceive objects as retaining their
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colour even when lighting conditions change. Brightness constancy similarly explain
our tendency to perceive the brightness or lightness of something as constant even
though illumination changes is made.
7.4.5 Depth and motion perception

The ability to distinguish when things are closer to us and others further, or how
things are moving, rely on visual cues from either using both eyes (binocular cues)
or from just using one eye (monocular cues). Binocular cues for depth perception
include retinal disparity and convergence. Monocular cues for depth perception
include relative size, interposition, relative clarity, texture gradient, linear perspective
and shadowing. We see movement because the image projects on different points of
the retina or we use the size of the object – if something small gets bigger, we know
it is coming closer.
7.4.4 Visual illusions

Sometimes what we think we see, is not actually so. A visual illusion such as the
well-known Müller-Lyer and Ponzo illusions are misperceptions of visual stimuli, in
which our eyes seemingly play tricks on us. Other examples are that of impossible
figures and the moon illusion. Visually we sometimes see movement thought it is
not really there, for instance when we see the rapid succession of still images as in
cartoon pictures. This is called stroboscopic movement. Some cross-cultural
studies have shown that previous experience plays a role in one’s perceptibility to
visual illusions.
7.4.4 Subliminal and extrasensory perception

There are some controversial phenomena in the study of perceptions. Phenomena
such as subliminal perception and extrasensory perception entice researchers to
explore how stimuli presented below conscious awareness (subminimal perception)
can influence people’s attitudes and actions. Similarly, aren’t we all curious about that
so-called sixth sense, when we ‘sense’ things without using any of our known senses?
This is called extrasensory perception or ESP. Paranormal events, or phenomena
fall under the umbrella of ESP and are studied in the field of parapsychology. The
forms of paranormal phenomena most commonly identified with ESP are telepathy,
clairvoyance, precognition and psychokinesis.
7.5 Attitudes and values
Study Chapter 9, Attitudes & Values. In Z Bergh & D Geldenhuys, Psychology in

Work Context, (pp 114-143) to understand the topics in sections 7.5 of attitudes
and values
People have many different ideas about other people, things in the world and what we
prefer, or regard as good or appropriate. These ideas influence the way we think about
15
and judge other people, how we evaluate situations and determine what we chose to
do. These ideas also reflect people’s attitudes and values. Both attitudes and values
are psychological constructs related to perception, because we develop certain
attitudes and values throughout our lives by making meaning of what we experience.
Attitudes and values are related but are two different constructs that influence our
behaviour towards other people and at work. In this section we discuss the nature of
attitudes and values, their functioning and different approaches to understanding
individual values. We also discuss culture and values and look at the process of value
and attitude change.
7.5.1 The nature of values and attitudes
7.5.1.1 Attitudes
What is your opinion on the death penalty? In your opinion, which political party in
South Africa is better for the future of our country? Do you think that religion should be
taken out of South African schools? You probably have fairly strong opinions about
questions such as these, and your opinion is based on the attitudes that you have
developed in your life. Your attitudes influence what you believe is good/bad,
appropriate/inappropriate and acceptable/not acceptable.
Pixabay: https://pixabay.com/illustrations/impossible-possible-attitude-4505790/
The study of attitudes stems from the field of social psychology. An attitude is a learned
tendency to evaluate things in a certain way. Such evaluations are often positive or
negative, but they can also be uncertain at times. Attitudes consist of three
components:
Cognitive component: Your thoughts and beliefs about the subject

Affective component: How the object, person, issue, or event makes you feel
Behavioural component: How attitude influences your behaviour
People hold attitudes about many different abstract (e.g., ideologies such as
democracy and liberalism) and concrete (e.g., people, places, and things) attitude
objects. Attitudes can also be explicit and implicit. Explicit attitudes are those that we
16
are consciously aware of and that clearly influence our behaviours and beliefs. Implicit
attitudes are unconscious but still have an effect on our beliefs and behaviours.
There are a number of factors that can influence how and why attitudes form, namely
through our interactions with our parents, during critical periods of our development,
through media exposure and by socialising in the work context. Social roles and social
norms can have a strong influence on attitudes. Social roles relate to how people are
expected to behave in a role or context. Social norms involve society's rules about
behaviours that are considered appropriate. We learn attitudes by observing others
that are important to us: role models such as parents, teachers and co-workers,
mentors and managers. When someone you admire greatly espouses a particular
attitude, you are more likely to develop the same beliefs. For example, children spend
a great deal of time observing the attitudes of their parents and usually begin to
demonstrate similar outlooks.
Attitude strength indicates when people are more likely to behave according to their
attitudes. We are likely to behave according to our attitudes under certain conditions:
• When your attitudes are the result of personal experience
• When you are an expert on the subject
• When you expect a favourable outcome
• When the attitudes are repeatedly expressed
• When you stand to win or lose something due to the issue
Attitudes from part of prejudice, bias, stereotyping and discrimination.
7.5.1.2 Values
Values are a bit more difficult to define, yet also represent a very deep-seated belief
about what is good, desirable, important, and worthwhile to us. Values are therefore
strongly linked to our emotions. Frequently values seem to appear as the attribute of
a thing or event, but it is actually our perception of that thing or event. Values also
comprise three components: an evaluative component, a target and a preference to
act towards that target. Values are basic and fundamental beliefs that guide or
motivate attitudes or actions. They help us to determine what is important to us and
describe the personal qualities we choose to identify with and to guide our interaction
with the world around us. For some people, knowledge is more important than money;
for others, money is more important than time and yet for others, people are more
important than time.
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Pixabay: https://pixabay.com/illustrations/scale-money-value-balance-cost-3671883/
Values are somewhat like general guidelines for how we are and conduct ourselves.
If we know what is important to us, we act according to that.
Have a quick look at this somewhat humorous video to understand

how our value of things impact life changing decisions we make:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZrxaJ5L8CNg
Values also have an ethical component. Personal values can be described as personal
beliefs about right and wrong and may or may not be considered moral. Cultural values
are values accepted by religions or societies and reflect what is important in each
context.
7.5.2 The function of values and attitudes

According to Rokeach’s structure of beliefs and values (see section 9.3 in your
learning material), our beliefs influence our values, which in turn influence our attitudes
and behaviour. We are social beings and develop values and attitudes by growing up
in a culture. Our culture creates this system of social knowledge that manifest in what
we believe and value; influencing how we think and do. So, our value systems act as
an organised set of standards which reflect a desirable state and which we use to
judge and evaluate what we do, who we interact with and what we choose. Values are
developed during our early upbringing as well as from our work and professional
exposure. One way to measure people’s values is to measure their attitude about
something, because values underlie attitudes.
Our attitudes also act as a guide for our behaviour. If we feel positive about something,
we will pursue it. If we feel negative, we won’t. While attitudes can have a powerful
effect on behaviour, they are not set in stone. Sometimes people may change their
attitudes so that their attitudes better align with their behaviour. In addition to your
learning material, the following theories are important in understanding that the same
influences that lead to attitude formation can also create attitude change:
• Learning Theory of Attitude Change: Classical conditioning, operant

conditioning and observational learning can be used to bring about attitude
change. Classical conditioning can be used to create positive emotional
18
reactions to an object, person, or event by associating positive feelings with the
target object. Operant conditioning can be used to strengthen desirable
attitudes and weaken undesirable ones. People can also change their attitudes
after observing the behaviour of others.
• Elaboration Likelihood Theory of Attitude Change: This theory

of persuasion suggests that people can alter their attitudes in two ways. First,
they can be motivated to listen and think about the message, thus leading to an
attitude shift. Or, they might be influenced by the characteristics of the speaker,
leading to a temporary or surface shift in attitude. Messages that are thought-
provoking and that appeal to logic are more likely to lead to permanent changes
in attitudes.
• Dissonance Theory of Attitude Change: Cognitive dissonance is a

phenomenon in which a person experiences psychological distress due to
conflicting thoughts or beliefs. In order to reduce this tension, people may
change their attitudes to reflect their other beliefs or actual behaviours.
7.5.3 Different approaches to understanding individual values

Values are at the core of our personalities and three different approaches have
developed for us to better understand values. Read section 9.4 in the learning material
to understand and apply Milton Rokeach’s terminal and instrumental values,
Spranger’s value orientations and Schwart’s theory on universal values.
7.5.4 Attitudes and values in the work context

Read section 9.5 in your learning content. Values have a direct bearing on whether
we experience work as meaningful or not. Because we come from different cultures,
people of diverse backgrounds value different things. To manage the cultural diversity
in South Africa, it is important to understand the importance and function of values. It
is also important to have knowledge and understanding about different value
perspectives from different cultures.
Attitudes that have been researched in the work context because of their importance
to employees’ work performance are the attitudes of job satisfaction, organisational
commitment and job engagement. You need to understand these attitudes and the
role they play in the work performance of an employee.
Determining our core values can help us to understand why we will be happier in
certain jobs and less so in others. It is because the jobs that reflect our values or allow
us to act according to them, will fit us better.
19
Follow the link below to engage in some interesting activities that you
can do to determine your core values. This will help you to understand
what is important to you and why you act in certain ways.
https://psychcentral.com/blog/8-creative-activities-to-discover-your-
values/
You can also do the following fun, quick quiz:

https://www.quizony.com/what-are-my-values/index.html
Or a longer more theoretically and scientifically sound questionnaire:

https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/tests/personality/values-profile
7.5.5. Culture and values
From a cultural perspective, whether it is a societal culture or the organisation’s

culture, values are defined as the shared ideas about what is good and right in that
culture. The importance of how values relate to the norms of behaviour in a specific
cultural context is described in section 9.6 in your learning material. This knowledge
will help you understand how values and related psychological phenomena such as
norms guide people and employees in specific cultural contexts on how things should
be done in that context.
Norms are related to values but refer to what is regarded as appropriate behaviour in
a specific social context (an organisation, a society, a team, etc). A norm is held by a
group, whereas a value is an individual predisposition. Neither values nor norms are
universally held. It is first important to understand the different type of norms, how they
influence our social behaviour and are influenced by social consequences (sanctions).
Culture is described as the shared system of norms and values that guide how things
are done in a particular social context. Schein is one of the major scientists in defining
organisational culture as he specifically highlighted how some aspects of culture are
observable (artefacts), others are espoused (not necessarily seen, but talked about)
values and norms, while the deepest layer of culture are the shared basic assumptions
people in that culture hold. The last layer is at the core and people are not always
consciously aware of them. However, these assumptions automatically determine
behaviour in that context.
Another important researcher in the culture domain is Hofstede. His research helps us
to understand how people in national cultures share collective values that are distinct
from other cultures. He identified six dimensions according to which cultures differ,
namely power distance, individualism/collectivism, masculinity/femininity, uncertainty
avoidance, long-term orientation and indulgence/restraint. He developed a survey
20
which indicate people to either score high or low on each of these dimensions,
reflecting a characteristic way of doing in that culture.
The cultural framework developed by Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner specifically

explains how a culture describes the way in which people of that culture solve
problems and dilemmas. They identified the following seven cultural dimensions that
are descriptive of the behaviour of a specific group of people:
• Universalism versus pluralism

• Individualism versus communitarianism
• Specific versus diffuse
• Affectivity versus neutrality
• Achieved versus ascribed status
• Inner-directed versus outer-directed
It is interesting to apply the cultural frameworks of Hofstede and Trompenaars on

South African society. Your learning material contains a thought-provoking piece,
doing just that. It is also interesting to apply our knowledge about shared values and
norms (culture) on the organisation. Research has shown that organisations hold
certain values and norms that are shared by its employees and espoused as the way
things are done and expected to be done in that organisation. Specific researchers
such as Hofstede and Waisfisz also developed a descriptive value framework
according to which organisations’ cultures can be assessed, called the Organisational
Culture Model.
When we think about South African culture, the word UBUNTU

immediately springs to mind. The values represented in the Ubuntu
philosophy is what we as South Africans espouse. You can learn more
about Ubuntu in lesson 10. For now, the question is, do we succeed
in living by its principles? Check out this video by our own Madiba, the
person who really showed us the spirit of Ubuntu:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HED4h00xPPA
7.5.6 Attitude and value change
Change in attitudes or values can result from changes in the individual’s cognitions or
behaviour. The individual is then an active agent in his/her attitude change. The
theories of cognitive dissonance and self-perception explain attitude change when
the individual is an active agent in his/her own change.
Change can, however, also result when the individual receives information through
communication, persuading him/her to change. The success of such persuasive
21
communication depends on the credibility of the communicator, characteristics of the
communication and the nature of the situation itself.
7.5.7 Ethics
Pixabay: https://pixabay.com/photos/ethics-right-wrong-ethical-moral-2991600/
Values are essential to ethics. Ethics is concerned with human actions and the choice
of those actions. Ethics evaluates those actions and the values that underlie them. It
determines which values should be pursued and which shouldn't. Courage is one such
value. Those who value courage are willing to stand up for what they believe, even in
the face of strong condemnation. Courage is a moral value when it deals with
behaviour as being either right and wrong. The difference between values and ethics
is that values are beliefs, while ethics are our behaviour that is directed by our beliefs.
Values specify a relationship between a person and a goal. It is relational in the sense
that what one person values may not be what another person values, even in the same
situation. For example, a person who values honesty might blow the whistle on
financial wrongdoing by a superior, whereas another person who values loyalty may
remain silent. This is an example of values conflict. The honest person may believe
there are limits to loyalty and keeping quiet about a wrongful act out of loyalty might
harm others. The loyal person may believe in the importance of keeping one’s
confidence even if it might harm others because of the trusting relationship.
Some values stand up well over the test of time; they are always seen as good or
rightful behaviour. Honesty and kindness are two such examples. It is difficult to
imagine having a satisfying relationship without honesty and kindness, because they
build trust in relationships. There are always exceptions, but they are rare. For
example, if a criminal out to do harm to your friend knocks on the door and asks
whether you have seen the friend, you’re probably not going to say yes and rationalise
your behaviour out of a sense of honesty. Here, the greater good, so to speak, is to
protect your friend from harm.
22
Behaving ethically is based on the premise that our values can be turned into good
character traits when we practise and repeat them. We become ethical by being
ethical. However, in society that is characterised by differences in upbringing, socio-
economic status and education, people naturally value different things. This results in
us regarding different types of behaviour as right and wrong. The question is whether
there are core universal ethical values that all people should uphold. What are they?
To understand the relation of values to ethical behaviour, you can

watch the following youTube video:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zPsoFhUDLuU
References
The section on sensation and perception for lesson 7 has been compiled from
the following OERs:
Biology. Authored by: OpenStax. Provided by: OpenStax College. Located

at: http://cnx.org/contents/185cbf87-c72e-48f5-b51e-
f14f21b5eabd@9.44:1/Biology. License: CC BY: Attribution
Hearing & Balance: Crash Course A&P #17. Authored by: CrashCourse. Located
at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ie2j7GpC4JU&feature=youtu.be. License: All
Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube license
Lumen Learning. Module 5: Sensation and perception. Available online at:

https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wmopen-psychology/chapter/outcome-sensation-
and-perception/ (accessed 15 February 2020)
Lumen Learning. Biology II: The senses. Available online at:

https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-biology2xmaster/
Privitera, AJ. 2015. Sensation and perception. In R. Biswas-Diener & E. Diener

(Eds), Noba textbook series: Psychology. Champaign, IL: DEF publishers.
DOI:nobaproject.com.
The section on attitudes and values for lesson 7 has been compiled from the
following OERs:
Kendra Cherry, K. (Updated on January 10, 2020). Attitudes and Behavior in

Psychology. Available online at https://www.verywellmind.com/attitudes-how-they-
form-change-shape-behavior-2795897 (accessed 22 February 2020).
23
IOP1501 LESSON 7 KEY CONCEPTS
Sensation the process by which physical stimuli that impinge on our

sensory organs are converted into neural impulses used
by the brain to create the experience of vision, touch,
hearing, taste and smell
Sensory receptors components found on the sensory organs that detect
physical stimuli and convert them into neural impulses for
the brain
Absolute threshold the smallest amount of a stimulus that a person can
sense
Difference threshold the minimal difference between two stimuli that a person
can reliably detect
Sensory adaptation the process by which sensory receptors adapt to
constant stimuli by becoming less sensitive to them
Inattentional blindness failure to notice something that is completely visible
because of a lack of attention
Kinesthesia our sense of movement and position of our body parts
Vestibular sense our sense of the body’s balance and position in space
Perception the process by which the brain integrates, organizes and
interprets sensory information to create meaning
Bottom-up processing system in which perceptions are built from sensory input
Top-down processing interpretation of sensations, as influenced by available
knowledge, experiences and thoughts
Weber’s law Ernst Weber’s discovery that the difference threshold is
a constant fraction of the original stimulus and bigger
stimuli require larger differences to be noticed
Selective attention attending to certain stimuli that we find meaningful and
filtering out irrelevant stimuli
Selective attention the tendency for our perceptions to be influenced by our
expectations or preconceptions
Laws of perceptual Gestalt psychology principles that describe how the brain
organization groups sensory information to form meaningful wholes
Extrasensory perception without using known physical senses
perception
Subliminal message message presented below the threshold of conscious
awareness
Values deeply held personal beliefs with a strong emotional
connotation, about what is desirable, worthy and
important, that influence thoughts, behavior and attitudes
Attitude a belief or opinion about something that is either positive
or negative
Job satisfaction a predominantly positive attitude towards your work
situation
Organisational the degree to which you identify with your employing
commitment organization and its goals
Norms socially accepted standards that define and guide
acceptable and unacceptable behavior in a situation or
context
Organisational culture a pattern of shared assumptions held by employees
about the way things are done in the organisation
1
Cognitive dissonance an imbalance between two or more of a person’s

thoughts or beliefs, which should actually be logically
consistent with each other
2
IOP1501 Lesson 8 Learning and Cognition
LESSON 8: LEARNING AND COGNITION
INTRODUCTION
This lesson will focus on the essential need to learn and develop through adult training
and development in an organisation. Training in organisations offers an opportunity
for a wide range of benefits to employees. This lesson will detail description of training
and development. Furthermore, the aspects that cover the importance of learning an
organisation will be discussed.
Learning outcomes
Students who have acquired knowledge of the concepts in this

lesson, will be able to:
• define the concept of learning.
• describe and explain the behaviourist approach to learning.
• describe and explain the cognitive approach to learning.
• define the basic concepts associated with training and development.
• explain the importance of training and development in organisations.
• understand the different characteristics of individual and organisational

training.
1
Study material
To reach the learning outcomes of this lesson you need to download the
following two (2) book chapters from the link on the module site
1. For section 8.1 you would need, Gross, R. (2015). Learning and Cognition. In R.
Gross, (Eds.), Psychology: The Science of Mind and Behaviour (7th ed.,). Study
chapter 11.
2. For section 8.2 you would need, Woods, A., Dinh, J., & Salas, E. (2017). How do I
Learn what to do? How the science of training supports learning. In N. Chmiel, F.
Fraccaroli & M. Sverke, (Eds.), An Introduction to work and organizational psychology:
An international perspective (pp. 121-134), Wiley Blackwell. Study Chapter 18.
Key concepts
As the key concepts are translated into the different South African
languages, they will be made available on the module site.
Training: Developing individuals for workplace improvements through acquiring

different skills.
Active Learning: Learning new transformative skills for desired and positive goal.
Technology: Enhance organisations productivity and helps reduce efforts and costs
with great innovative ideas.
Knowledge, skills, and abilities: understanding, capabilities, technical or manual

aptitudes to enable the necessity of workplace performance.
The sections to follow will guide you through the learning content.
8.1 APPROACHES TO LEARNING
8.1.1 What is learning?
According to Gross (2015), learning is a hypothetical construct and normally implies a

fairly permanent change in a person’s behavioural performance. There appears to be
difference between learning (behavioural potential) and performance (actual
behaviour). Learning is also not entirely separate from any other of our abilities, such
2
as memory. What we learn at any given time is influenced by our previous learning.
There is agreement among psychologists that learning is relatively permanent.
However, there is less agreement over what changes take place and what kinds of
past experiences are involved. There is one important issue which divides
psychologists as regards the nature of learning: whether the focus is on either the
overt, behavioural changes or on the covert, cognitive changes.
8.1.2 Behaviourist approach
Gross (2015) states that learning, from a behaviourist approach, considers the
different ways learning occurs through conditioning, which mostly entails a stimulus
response between learning and observed behaviour. Study these concepts of
conditioning in the learning material:
Classical
conditioning
Higher order
conditioning
Classical
conditioning
Operant
conditioning
Classical conditioning
Should these concepts require more explanation the video at this link may be useful.
https://youtu.be/qSqWiTG-o2Y
Research has found that learning does not only occur through stimulus and response
associations – the role of cognition in learning also needs to be considered. In the next
section of the lesson, we focus on the cognitive approaches to learning.
3
8.1.3 Cognitive approach
You will note a statement in the learning material that there is more to conditioning
than strengthening the stimulus-response association. Relations between events also
need to be considered. Study the following sections to gain an understanding the
relations between events and the following:
• Cognition and classical conditioning

• Cognition and operant conditioning
• Tolman’s cognitive behaviourism
• Insight learning
• Learning sets
Operant conditioning
Should these concepts require more explanation the video at this link may be useful.
https://youtu.be/ne6o-uPJarA
8.1.4 Transfer of learning
Chapter 11 of Gross (2015) concludes with thoughts on transfer of learning. This

brings us to the next section of this lesson.
8.2 LEARNING AND TRAINING
8.2.1 What is training?
Learning refers to the necessity for permeant change by developing relevant skills
and transferring of knowledge. How do we learn? Organisations can facilitate learning
through implementing training.
Training refers to strengthen desired skills that should help employees improve in an
organisation. Organisations need to employ instructional strategies that will provide
effective productivity of employees. These instructional strategies will include
information that will target learning outcomes and how they should be successfully
delivered. Additionally, the organisation should implement a design and delivery phase
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for employee's training needs and training competencies (Knowledge, skills, and
attitude).
Learning can be defined as the permanent change in behaviour due to direct and
indirect experience. It means change in behaviour, attitude due to education
and training, practice, and experience. It is completed by acquisition of knowledge
and skills, which are relatively permanent.
8.2.2 Characteristics of Learning and Training.
Chimel, Franccaroli & Sverve, (2017) state that learning involves appropriate change
in attitude by gaining experience directly or indirectly through proper practice and
training.
• Training in organisations can have many positive outcomes and it has been
proven that training provides individuals with an opportunity to learn. As such,
learning is achieved through training.
• Training can also be achieved through a range of individual, social and
observational factors, for instance when people share their different experiences
for everyone to learn from.
• Social factors can also have a direct impact on training and learning, for
example, the presence of a great support system or informal and formal positive
feedback.
8.2.3 Analysing training needs
It is important for every organisation to understand the needs and resources they will
need (Chimel, Franccaroli & Sverve, 2017). Thus, an organisation should know that
any training programme should address an appropriate training need.
The following steps should form part of the implementation of training:
1. Training needs assessment: This refers to an organisation seeking

the relevant data to identify the essential programmes that should be
designed to meet the training needs. These programmes should also
advance the organisation’s objectives and goals.
2. Organisational analysis: This step aims to determine the kind of
training that should be offered and the basis for implementing this training.
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Hiring statistics and performance review systems could be highly useful tools
in this regard.
3. Job analysis: This involves gathering and analysing information
regarding specific job roles, job requirements and Knowledge, Skills,
Abilities, and Other (KSAOs).
4. Individual analysis: This involves determining an individual’s level of
performance in an organisation. This is usually done based on the outcome
of the performance review, following which some individuals will be required
to receive training according based on the low scores recorded on their
performance review reports.
Activity: Training needs in Organisations
Consider and reflect on what you have learnt thus far, and the
position you hold in your organisation.
• Analyse your job and its specific requirements.

• Does the training you receive to do your job, fits with the training needs of your
organisation?
• How do you think the organisation identified those needs and what impact does
this have on your performance?
• If you had to change anything, what would it be?
8.2.4 A learning climate
Chimel, Franccaroli & Sverve (2017) state that factors that are relevant to the learning
climate should be considered in an environment where training should occur. Training
needs should be conducive to the workplace learning.
Factors that make up the learning climate are categorised as Individual
characteristics and Organisational characteristics.
8.2.5 Individual characteristics
This section explains the individual’s ability to learn. The mental ability of individuals
to learn that may affect training is defined as cognitive ability. Cognitive ability is often
described as the capability of an individual to analyse and solve problems and use
abstract thinking skills, also known as general intellect. Cognitive ability predicts how
6
individuals will attain knowledge, which will positively impact on their self-esteem and
improve their performance.
It has also been established that cognitive ability can affect individuals' capability to
learn, for instance, it can affect their self-efficacy. Self-efficacy refers to an individual's
belief in his or her capacity to execute behaviours necessary to produce specific
performance attainments congruent to the training aims of a specific training
programme. Motivation can also influence an individual’s ability to learn. Motivation
refers to the needs, desires and intensity within people that enable them to achieve
their goals. Individuals who are motivated to learn are observed as active participants
interested in attaining and achieving learning related to training. An individual's
motivation to learn predicts the degree to which learning will occur as a result of a
training programme.
8.2.6 Organisational characteristics
Organisational characteristics are comprised of workplace factors and people factors

(Chimel, Franccaroli & Sverve 2017). Organisational commitment to and support of
the training efforts can impact positively on training. Organisation-related features of
training include the following:
• organisational support
• autonomy level
• attendance requirements
• framing
In order to demonstrate its support to employees, organisations should allow

individuals to set their own goals. This will enhance the likelihood that knowledge is
gained during training, which can then be successfully transferred to the work setting.
8.2.7 Design and delivery methods impacting learning
The needs analysis and organisational climate discussed above, provide boundaries
and constraints within which the training and learning will occur. As such, instructional
strategies must be adapted accordingly. This involves the way in which learning is
designed and should be delivered.
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Below are the essential themes and practices within training.
8.2.7.1 Theoretical drives
This section of chapter 11 of your learning material deals with learning that is informed
by theories. For many years, various theorists have been studying learning. and there
are many different perspectives regarding learning, such as the learner-centred
perspective and many more.
8.2.7.2 Active learning
Individuals should play a part in promoting self-learning. Active learning differentiates

itself from other learner-centred approaches by integrating formal training design
elements into the learning process. Furthermore, active learning influences and
shapes effective, behavioural, and cognitive processes relevant to the acquisition of
knowledge and skills. A number of theorists have focused on active learning as a
training need.
8.2.7.3 Delivery methods
Chimel, N, Franccaroli, F & Sverve, M (2017) highlights the methods of delivery as a

way to transfer knowledge (Figure 8.1). Four categories are distinguished, namely
information, demonstration, practise, and feedback. These categories are seen as
stages, with information components preceding the demonstration of training
competencies, which should turn into supplemented opportunities for the learner to
practise newly learned Knowledge, Skills, Abilities and Other (KSAOs).
8.2.7.4 Feedback
During training, individuals go through different stages. The feedback section, that
takes place after individuals have been given the opportunity to practise learned
KSAOs, covers the main aspects of the information that has been received. Feedback
is considered a key element, as it enhances individuals' ability to learn from their
mistakes.
8.2.7.5 Technology
The use of technology in the different spheres of life is growing at a rapid pace.
Technological elements, i.e., video and audio, are being utilised by trainers and
8
educators for different training programmes that can be delivered through web-based
platforms and are easily accessible on tablets and smartphones devices. The aims of
using technology in the learning environment have expanded considerably. The use
of technology in learning in the modern world has proven to be cost-effective in
conducting training, facilitation, and staffing.
Technology also provides the ability for many systems to generate immediate,
objective feedback, which is a critical component of feedback effectiveness.
8.2.7.6 Simulation-based training
This refers to the creation of a simulated environment representing the real-world

setting in which trained Knowledge, Skills, Abilities, and Other (KSAOs) will need to
be used, to teach targeted competencies. Simulation-based training enables learners
to practise using information that they have learned, and they receive immediate
feedback of their performance.
8.2.7.7 Team training
Team training in different organisations has been shown to improve performance

among individuals if practised properly. A team is a group consisting of more than two
members who are united by one common goal. These teams mostly use frequent
interactions to complete and achieve certain objectives. In organisations, teams can
be effective mostly in providing constructive solutions towards complex problems that
require cooperative resolutions.
8.2.8 Transfer of learning
The primary and end goal of learning in organisations, whether in groups or

individually, is to transfer informative knowledge and develop relevant information.
Learning transfer can be influenced by the learning climate. Learning climate affects
the learning process because after training has taken place, events that occur
subsequently determine how successfully trained competencies transfer back to the
post-training environment. Thus, if the learning environment is purely positive, it could
mean that the individual learning is positively impacted. As such, the individual
learning will be transferred on another learning setting successfully.
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8.2.9 Evaluation
The effectiveness of training in organisations is monitored by means of evaluation.

There are four levels of training evaluation, namely:
• Reaction: Captures trainee perceptions of the training programme.

• Learning: Refers to the identification and assessment of the knowledge that
has been acquired through training.
• Behaviour: Determines how behaviour that occurs in the post-training
environment is attributable to the training programme.
• Results: Refers to the organisational objectives with regard to training, such as
reductions in turnover, high level of retention and increased productivity.
Conclusion
The lesson’s aim was to introduce the concept of learning. While psychologists may
not agree on what learning is, learning is more than just a stimulus-and-response
action. On numerous occasions it has been proven that learning and training are
essential in societies and organisations. The applications of training and development
in organisations depend on the necessity of the particular training needed. That which
has been learnt, may not necessarily relate to performance. Therefore, organisations’
strategies to implement training should also evolve from a critically evaluated decision
to limit wasting resources. Training in organisations has the potential to grow in diverse
contexts. An understanding of the concepts regarding how we learn could assist
organisations in providing effective training programmes to improve the performance
of employees and enhance the facilitation of learning.
Attribution
https://cnx.org/contents/Sr8Ev5Og@10.23:bT_lgq6S@13/11-4-Learning-
Approaches?minimal=true
Reference
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Gross, R. (2015). Learning and Cognition. In R. Gross, (Eds.), Psychology: The

Science of Mind and Behaviour (7th ed.,).
Woods, A., Dinh, J., & Salas, E. (2017). How do I Learn what to do? How the science
of training supports learning. In N. Chmiel, F. Fraccaroli & M. Sverke,
(Eds.), An Introduction to work and organizational psychology: An international
perspective (pp. 121-134), Wiley Blackwell.
11
IOP1501 Lesson 9 Social processes and group behaviour
LESSON 9: SOCIAL PROCESSES AND GROUP BEHAVIOUR
INTRODUCTION
This lesson assumes that a thorough understanding of people requires a thorough

understanding of groups. Each of us is an autonomous individual seeking our own
objectives, yet we are also members of groups—groups that constrain us, guide us,
and sustain us. Just as each of us influences the group and the people in the group,
so, too, do groups change each one of us. Joining groups satisfies our need to belong,
gain information and understanding through social comparison, define our sense of
self and social identity, and achieve goals that might elude us if we worked alone.
Groups are also practically significant, for much of the world’s work is done by groups
rather than by individuals. Success sometimes eludes our groups, but when group
members learn to work together as a cohesive team their success becomes more
certain. People also turn to groups when important decisions must be made, and this
choice is justified if groups avoid such problems as group polarization and groupthink.
Learning outcomes
• Define groups and describe types of groups

• Describe the fundamental of need to belong to a group
• Describe how groups change over time.
• Discuss the stages of group development
• Apply the theory of groupthink to a well-known decision-making group
1
• Discuss the factors that facilitate and delay group performance and decision
making.
Study material
To reach the learning outcomes of Lesson 9 you need only study this study
guide.
Key concepts
As the key concepts are translated into the different South African
languages. As they become available you will find them on the module
site.
9.1 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF GROUPS
Psychologists study groups because nearly all human activities—working, learning,

worshiping, relaxing, playing, and even sleeping—occur in groups. The lone individual
who is cut off from all groups is a rarity. Most of us live out our lives in groups, and
these groups have a profound impact on our thoughts, feelings, and actions. Many
psychologists focus their attention on single individuals, but social psychologists
expand their analysis to include groups, organizations, communities, and even
cultures.
This lesson examines the psychology of groups and group membership. It begins with
a basic question: What is the psychological significance of groups? People are,
undeniably, more often in groups rather than alone. What accounts for this marked
gregariousness and what does it say about our psychological makeup? The module
then reviews some of the key findings from studies of groups. Researchers have asked
many questions about people and groups: Do people work as hard as they can when
they are in groups? Are groups more cautious than individuals? Do groups make wiser
decisions than single individuals? In many cases the answers are not what common
sense and folk wisdom might suggest.
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[Image: CC0 Public Domain, https://goo.gl/m25gce]
9.2 The Psychological Significance of Groups
Many people loudly proclaim their autonomy and independence. Like Ralph Waldo
Emerson, they avow, “I must be myself. I will not hide my tastes or aversions. I will
seek my own” (1903/2004, p. 127). Even though people can live separate and apart
from others, they join with others because groups meet their psychological and social
needs.
9.3 The Need to belong
Across individuals, societies, and even eras, humans consistently seek inclusion over
exclusion, membership over isolation, and acceptance over rejection. As Roy
Baumeister and Mark Leary conclude, humans have a need to belong: “a pervasive
drive to form and maintain at least a minimum quantity of lasting, positive, and
impactful interpersonal relationships” (1995, p. 497). And most of us satisfy this need
by joining groups. When surveyed, 87.3% of Americans reported that they lived with
other people, including family members, partners, and roommates (Davis & Smith,
2007). The majority, ranging from 50% to 80%, reported regularly doing things in
groups, such as attending a sports event together, visiting one another for the evening,
sharing a meal together, or going out as a group to see a movie (Putnam, 2000). What
3
about you? Do you belong to any group or groups? Think about all the groups you are
a member of and write them down.
People respond negatively when their need to belong is unfulfilled. For example,
college students often feel homesick and lonely when they first start college, but not if
they belong to a cohesive, socially satisfying group (Buote et al., 2007). People who
are accepted members of a group tend to feel happier and more satisfied. But should
they be rejected by a group, they feel unhappy, helpless, and depressed. Studies of
ostracism—the deliberate exclusion from groups—indicate this experience is highly
stressful and can lead to depression, confused thinking, and even aggression
(Williams, 2007). When researchers used a functional magnetic resonance imaging
scanner to track neural responses to exclusion, they found that people who were left
out of a group activity displayed heightened cortical activity in two specific areas of the
brain—the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex and the anterior insula. These areas of the
brain are associated with the experience of physical pain sensations (Eisenberger,
Lieberman, & Williams, 2003). It hurts, quite literally, to be left out of a group.
The need to belong is a strong psychological motivation. [Image: CC0 Public

Domain, https://goo.gl/m25gce]
9.4 Affiliation in Groups
Groups not only satisfy the need to belong, but they also provide members with
information, assistance, and social support. Leon Festinger’s theory of social
4
comparison (1950, 1954) suggested that in many cases people join with others to
evaluate the accuracy of their personal beliefs and attitudes. Stanley Schachter (1959)
explored this process by putting individuals in ambiguous, stressful situations and
asking them if they wished to wait alone or with others. He found that people affiliate
in such situations—they seek the company of others. Although any kind of
companionship is appreciated, we prefer those who provide us with reassurance and
support as well as accurate information. In some cases, we also prefer to join with
others who are even worse off than we are. Imagine, for example, how you would
respond when the teacher hands back the test and yours is marked 85%. Do you want
to affiliate with a friend who got a 95% or a friend who got a 78%? To maintain a sense
of self-worth, people seek out and compare themselves to the less fortunate. This
process is known as downward social comparison.
9.5 Identity and Membership
Groups are not only founts of information during times of ambiguity, but they also help
us answer the existentially significant question, “Who am I?” Common sense tells us
that our sense of self is our private definition of who we are, a kind of archival record
of our experiences, qualities, and capabilities. Yet, the self also includes all those
qualities that spring from memberships in groups. People are defined not only by their
traits, preferences, interests, likes, and dislikes, but also by their friendships, social
roles, family connections, and group memberships. The self is not just a “me,” but also
a “we.” Even demographic qualities such as sex or age can influence us if we
categorize ourselves based on these qualities. Social identity theory, for example,
assumes that we don’t just classify other people into such social categories as man,
woman, Anglo, elderly, or college student, but we also categorize ourselves.
Moreover, if we strongly identify with these categories, then we will ascribe the
characteristics of the typical member of these groups to ourselves, and so stereotype
ourselves. If, for example, we believe that college students are intellectual, then we
will assume we, too, are intellectual if we identify with that group (Hogg, 2001).
Groups also provide a variety of means for maintaining and enhancing a sense of self-
worth, as our assessment of the quality of groups we belong to influences
our collective self-esteem (Crocker & Luhtanen, 1990). If our self-esteem is shaken
by a personal setback, we can focus on our group’s success and prestige. In addition,
5
by comparing our group to other groups, we frequently discover that we are members
of the better group, and so can take pride in our superiority. By denigrating other
groups, we elevate both our personal and our collective self-esteem (Crocker & Major,
1989).
Mark Leary’s sociometer model goes so far as to suggest that “self-esteem is part of
a sociometer that monitors peoples’ relational value in other people’s eyes” (2007, p.
328). He maintains self-esteem is not just an index of one’s sense of personal value,
but also an indicator of acceptance into groups. Like a gauge that indicates how much
fuel is left in the tank, a dip in self-esteem indicates exclusion from our group is likely.
Disquieting feelings of self-worth, then, prompt us to search for and correct
characteristics and qualities that put us at risk of social exclusion. Self-esteem is not
just high self-regard, but the self-approbation that we feel when included in groups
(Leary & Baumeister, 2000).
9.6 Evolutionary Advantages of Group Living
Groups may be humans’ most useful invention, for they provide us with the means to
reach goals that would elude us if we remained alone. Individuals in groups can secure
advantages and avoid disadvantages that would plague the lone individuals. In his
theory of social integration, Moreland concludes that groups tend to form whenever
“people become dependent on one another for the satisfaction of their needs” (1987,
p. 104). The advantages of group life may be so great that humans are biologically
prepared to seek membership and avoid isolation. From an evolutionary psychology
perspective, because groups have increased humans’ overall fitness for countless
generations, individuals who carried genes that promoted solitude-seeking were less
likely to survive and procreate compared to those with genes that prompted them to
join groups (Darwin, 1859/1963). This process of natural selection culminated in the
creation of a modern human who seeks out membership in groups instinctively, for
most of us are descendants of “joiners” rather than “loners.”
9.7 Motivation and Performance
Groups usually exist for a reason. In groups, we solve problems, create products,
create standards, communicate knowledge, have fun, performing arts, create
6
institutions, and even ensure our safety from attacks by other groups. But do groups
always outperform individuals?
9.8 Social facilitation in groups
Do people perform more effectively when alone or when part of a group? Norman
Triplett (1898) examined this issue in one of the first empirical studies in psychology.
While watching bicycle races, Triplett noticed that cyclists were faster when they
competed against other racers than when they raced alone against the clock. To
determine if the presence of others leads to the psychological stimulation that
enhances performance, he arranged for 40 children to play a game that involved
turning a small reel as quickly as possible (see Figure 1). When he measured how
quickly they turned the reel, he confirmed that children performed slightly better when
they played the game in pairs compared to when they played alone (Stroebe,
2012; Strube, 2005).
Figure 1: The "competition machine" Triplett used to study the impact of competition
on performance. Triplett's study was one of the first laboratory studies conducted in
the field of social psychology. Triplett, N. (1898).
Triplett succeeded in sparking interest in a phenomenon now known as social

facilitation: the enhancement of an individual’s performance when that person works
in the presence of other people. However, it remained for Robert Zajonc (1965) to
specify when social facilitation does and does not occur. After reviewing prior
research, Zajonc noted that the facilitating effects of an audience usually only occur
when the task requires the person to perform dominant responses, i.e., ones that are
well-learned or based on instinctive behaviours. If the task requires nondominant
7
responses, i.e., novel, complicated, or untried behaviours that the organism has never
performed before or has performed only infrequently, then the presence of others
inhibits performance. Hence, students write poorer quality essays on complex
philosophical questions when they labour in a group rather than alone (Allport, 1924),
but they make fewer mistakes in solving simple, low-level multiplication problems with
an audience or a cofactor than when they work in isolation (Dashiell, 1930).
Social facilitation, then, depends on the task: other people facilitate performance when
the task is so simple that it requires only dominant responses, but others interfere
when the task requires nondominant responses. However, several psychological
processes combine to influence when social facilitation, not social interference,
occurs. Studies of the challenge-threat response and brain imaging, for example,
confirm that we respond physiologically and neurologically to the presence of others
(Blascovich, Mendes, Hunter, & Salomon, 1999). Other people also can
trigger anxiety, particularly when we feel that our individual performance will be known
to others, and those others might judge it negatively (Bond, Atoum, & VanLeeuwen,
1996). The presence of other people can also cause perturbations in our capacity to
concentrate on and process information (Harkins, 2006).
9.9 Social Loafing
Groups usually outperform individuals. A single student, working alone on a paper, will
get less done in an hour than will four students working on a group project. One person
playing a tug-of-war game against a group will lose. A crew of movers can pack up
and transport your household belongings faster than you can by yourself. As the
saying goes, “Many hands make light the work” (Littlepage, 1991; Steiner, 1972).
Groups, though, tend to be underachievers. Studies of social facilitation confirmed the
positive motivational benefits of working with other people on well-practiced tasks in
which each member’s contribution to the collective enterprise can be identified and
evaluated. But what happens when tasks require a truly collective effort? First, when
people work together they must coordinate their individual activities and contributions
to reach the maximum level of efficiency—but they rarely do (Diehl & Stroebe, 1987).
Three people in a tug-of-war competition, for example, invariably pull and pause at
slightly different times, so their efforts are uncoordinated. The result is coordination
8
loss: the three-person group is stronger than a single person, but not three times as
strong. Second, people just don’t exert as much effort when working on a collective
endeavour, nor do they expend as much cognitive effort trying to solve problems, as
they do when working alone. They display social loafing (Latané, 1981).
Bibb Latané, Kip Williams, and Stephen Harkins (1979) examined both coordination
losses and social loafing by arranging for students to cheer or clap either alone or in
groups of varying sizes. The students cheered alone or in 2- or 6-person groups, or
they were led to believe they were in 2- or 6-person groups (those in the “pseudo-
groups” wore blindfolds and headsets that played masking sound). As Figure 2
indicates, groups generated more noise than solitary subjects, but the productivity
dropped as the groups became larger in size. In dyads, each subject worked at only
66% of capacity, and in 6-person groups at 36%. Productivity also dropped when
subjects merely believed they were in groups. If subjects thought that one other person
was shouting with them, they shouted 82% as intensely, and if they thought five other
people were shouting, they reached only 74% of their capacity. These loses in
productivity were not due to coordination problems; this decline in production could be
attributed only to a reduction in effort—to social loafing (Latané et al., 1979,
Experiment 2).
Figure 2: Sound pressure per person as a function of group or pseudo group size.
Latane, B. (1981)
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9.10 Teamwork
Social loafing is no rare phenomenon. When sales personnel work in groups with
shared goals, they tend to “take it easy” if another salesperson is nearby who can do
their work (George, 1992). People who are trying to generate new, creative ideas in
group brainstorming sessions usually put in less effort and are thus less productive
than people who are generating new ideas individually (Paulus & Brown, 2007).
Students assigned group projects often complain of inequity in the quality and quantity
of each member’s contributions: Some people just don’t work as much as they should
to help the group reach its learning goals (Neu, 2012). People carrying out all sorts of
physical and mental tasks expend less effort when working in groups, and the larger
the group, the more they loaf (Karau & Williams, 1993).
Groups can, however, overcome this impediment to performance through teamwork.

A group may include many talented individuals, but they must learn how to pool their
individual abilities and energies to maximize the team’s performance. Team goals
must be set, work patterns structured, and a sense of group identity developed.
Individual members must learn how to coordinate their actions, and any strains and
stresses in interpersonal relations need to be identified and resolved (Salas, Rosen,
Burke, & Goodwin, 2009).
Researchers have identified two key ingredients to effective teamwork: a shared

mental representation of the task and group unity. Teams improve their performance
over time as they develop a shared understanding of the team and the tasks they are
attempting. Some semblance of this shared mental model is present nearly from its
inception, but as the team practices, differences among the members in terms of their
understanding of their situation and their team diminish as a consensus becomes
implicitly accepted (Tindale, Stawiski, & Jacobs, 2008).
Effective teams are also, in most cases, cohesive groups (Dion, 2000). Group
cohesion is the integrity, solidarity, social integration, or unity of a group. In most
cases, members of cohesive groups like each other, and the group and they also are
united in their pursuit of collective, group-level goals. Members tend to enjoy their
10
groups more when they are cohesive, and cohesive groups usually outperform ones
that lack cohesion.
This cohesion-performance relationship, however, is a complex one. Meta-analytic

studies suggest that cohesion improves teamwork among members, but that
performance quality influences cohesion more than cohesion influences performance
(Mullen & Copper, 1994; Mullen, Driskell, & Salas, 1998). Cohesive groups also can
be unproductive if the group’s norms stress low productivity rather than high
productivity i.e. Groups cohesiveness aims to achieve better results when they work
positively towards tasks (Seashore, 1954).
9.11 Group Development
In most cases groups do not become smooth-functioning teams overnight. As Bruce

Tuckman’s (1965) theory of group development suggests, groups usually pass
through several stages of development as they change from a newly formed group
into an effective team. As noted in Focus Topic 1, in the forming phase, the members
become oriented toward one another. In the storming phase, the group members find
themselves in conflict, and some solution is sought to improve the group environment.
In the norming, phase standards for behavior and roles develop that regulate behavior.
In the performing, phase the group has reached a point where it can work as a unit to
achieve desired goals, and the adjourning phase ends the sequence of development;
the group disbands. Throughout these stages groups tend to oscillate between the
task-oriented issues and the relationship issues, with members sometimes working
hard but at other times strengthening their interpersonal bonds (Tuckman & Jensen,
1977).
Group Development Stages and Characteristics
Stage 1 – “Forming”. Members expose information about themselves in polite but

tentative interactions. They explore the purposes of the group and gather information
about each other’s interests, skills, and personal tendencies.
11
Stage 2 – “Storming”. Disagreements about procedures and purposes surface, so

criticism and conflict increase. Much of the conflict stems from challenges between
members who are seeking to increase their status and control in the group.
Stage 3 – “Norming”. Once the group agrees on its goals, procedures, and leadership,
norms, roles, and social relationships develop that increase the group’s stability and
cohesiveness.
Stage 4 – “Performing”. The group focuses its energies and attention on its goals,
displaying higher rates of task-orientation, decision-making, and problem-solving.
Stage 5 – “Adjourning”. The group prepares to disband by completing its tasks,

reduces levels of dependency among members, and dealing with any unresolved
issues. Sources based on Tuckman (1965) and Tuckman & Jensen (1977)
We also experience change as we pass through a group, for we don’t become full-
fledged members of a group in an instant. Instead, we gradually become a part of the
group and remain in the group until we leave it. Richard Moreland and John Levine’s
(1982) model of group socialization describes this process, beginning with initial entry
into the group and ending when the member exits it. For example, when you are
thinking of joining a new group—a social club, a professional society, a fraternity or
sorority, or a sports team—you investigate what the group has to offer, but the group
also investigates you. During this investigation stage you are still an outsider:
interested in joining the group, but not yet committed to it in any way. But once the
group accepts you and you accept the group, socialization begins: you learn the
group’s norms and take on different responsibilities depending on your role. On a
sports team, for example, you may initially hope to be a star who starts every game or
plays a particular position, but the team may need something else from you. In time,
though, the group will accept you as a full-fledged member and both sides in the
process—you and the group itself—increase their commitment to one another. When
that commitment wanes, however, your membership may come to an end as well.
12
9.12 Making Decisions in Groups
Groups are particularly useful when it comes to making a decision, for groups can
draw on more resources than can a lone individual. A single individual may know a
great deal about a problem and possible solutions, but his or her information is far
surpassed by the combined knowledge of a group. Groups not only generate more
ideas and possible solutions by discussing the problem, but they can also more
objectively evaluate the options that they generate during discussion. Before accepting
a solution, a group may require that a certain number of people favour it, or that it
meets some other standard of acceptability. People generally feel that a group’s
decision will be superior to an individual’s decision.
Groups, however, do not always make good decisions. Juries sometimes render
verdicts that run counter to the evidence presented. Community groups take radical
stances on issues before thinking through all the ramifications. Military strategists
concoct plans that seem, in retrospect, ill-conceived and short-sighted. Why do groups
sometimes make poor decisions?
9.13 Group Polarisation

Let’s say you are part of a group assigned to make a presentation. One of the group
members suggests showing a short video that, although amusing, includes some
provocative images. Even though initially you think the clip is inappropriate, you begin
to change your mind as the group discusses the idea. The group decides, eventually,
to throw caution to the wind and show the clip—and your instructor is horrified by your
choice.
This hypothetical example is consistent with studies of groups making decisions that
involve risk. Common sense notions suggest that groups exert a moderating, subduing
effect on their members. However, when researchers looked at groups closely, they
discovered many groups shift toward more extreme decisions rather than less extreme
decisions after group interaction. Discussion, it turns out, doesn’t moderate people’s
judgments after all. Instead, it leads to group polarization: judgments made after group
discussion will be more extreme in the same direction as the average of individual
judgments made prior to discussion (Myers & Lamm, 1976). If a majority of members
feel that taking risks is more acceptable than exercising caution, then the group will
13
become riskier after a discussion. For example, in France, where people generally like
their government but dislike Americans, group discussion improved their attitude
toward their government but exacerbated their negative opinions of Americans
(Moscovici & Zavalloni, 1969). Similarly, prejudiced people who discussed racial
issues with other prejudiced individuals became even more negative, but those who
were relatively unprejudiced exhibited even more acceptance of diversity when in
groups (Myers & Bishop, 1970).
9.13.1 Common Knowledge Effect

One of the advantages of making decisions in groups is the group’s greater access to
information. When seeking a solution to a problem, group members can put their ideas
on the table and share their knowledge and judgments with each other through
discussions. But all too often groups spend much of their discussion time examining
common knowledge—information that two or more group members know in
common—rather than unshared information. This common knowledge effect will result
in a bad outcome if something known by only one or two group members is very
important.
Researchers have studied this bias using the hidden profile task. On such tasks,
information known to many of the group members suggests that one alternative, say
Option A, is best. However, Option B is definitely the better choice, but all the facts
that support Option B are only known to individual groups members—they are not
common knowledge in the group. As a result, the group will likely spend most of its
time reviewing the factors that favour Option A, and never discover any of its
drawbacks. In consequence, groups often perform poorly when working on problems
with nonobvious solutions that can only be identified by extensive information sharing
(Stasser & Titus, 1987).
9.14 Groupthink
Groupthink helps us blend in and feel accepted and validated but it can also lead to
problems.
Groups sometimes make spectacularly bad decisions. In 1961, a special advisory
committee to President John F. Kennedy planned and implemented a covert invasion
of Cuba at the Bay of Pigs that ended in total disaster. In 1986, NASA carefully, and
14
incorrectly, decided to launch the Challenger space shuttle in temperatures that were
too cold.
Irving Janis (1982), intrigued by these kinds of blundering groups, carried out a number
of case studies of such groups: the military experts that planned the defence of Pearl
Harbor; Kennedy’s Bay of Pigs planning group; the presidential team that escalated
the war in Vietnam. Each group, he concluded, fell prey to a distorted style of thinking
that rendered the group members incapable of making a rational decision. Janis
labelled this syndrome groupthink: “a mode of thinking that people engage in when
they are deeply involved in a cohesive in-group, when the members’ strivings for
unanimity override their motivation to realistically appraise alternative courses of
action” (p. 9).
Janis identified both the tell-tale symptoms that signal the group is experiencing
groupthink and the interpersonal factors that combine to cause groupthink. To Janis,
groupthink is a disease that infects healthy groups, rendering them inefficient and
unproductive. And like the physician who searches for symptoms that distinguish one
disease from another, Janis identified a number of symptoms that should serve to warn
members that they may be falling prey to groupthink. These symptoms include:
• overestimating the group’s skills and wisdom,
• biased perceptions and evaluations of other groups and people who are outside
of the group,
• strong conformity pressures within the group, and
• poor decision-making methods.
Janis also singled out four group-level factors that combine to cause groupthink:
cohesion, isolation, biased leadership, and decisional stress.
• Cohesion: Groupthink only occurs in cohesive groups. Such groups have many
advantages over groups that lack unity. People enjoy their membership much
more in cohesive groups, they are less likely to abandon the group, and they
work harder in pursuit of the group’s goals. But extreme cohesiveness can be
dangerous. When cohesiveness intensifies, members become more likely to
accept the goals, decisions, and norms of the group without reservation.
Conformity pressures also rise as members become reluctant to say or do
15
anything that goes against the grain of the group, and the number of internal
disagreements—necessary for good decision making—decreases.
• Isolation. Groupthink groups too often work behind closed doors, keeping out
of the limelight. They isolate themselves from outsiders and refuse to modify
their beliefs to bring them into line with society’s beliefs. They avoid leaks by
maintaining strict confidentiality and working only with people who are members
of their group.
• Biased leadership. A biased leader who exerts too much authority over group
members can increase conformity pressures and railroad decisions. In
groupthink groups, the leader determines the agenda for each meeting, sets
limits on discussion, and can even decide who will be heard.
• Decisional stress. Groupthink becomes more likely when the group is stressed,
particularly by time pressures. When groups are stressed, they minimize their
discomfort by quickly choosing a plan of action with little argument or
dissension. Then, through collective discussion, the group members can
rationalize their choice by exaggerating the positive consequences and
minimizing the possibility of negative outcomes.
9.15 You and Your Groups
Most of us belong to at least one group that must make decisions from time to time: a
community group that needs to choose a fund-raising project; a union or employee
group that must ratify a new contract; a family that must discuss your college plans; or
the staff of a high school discussing ways to deal with the potential for violence during
football games. Could these kinds of groups experience groupthink? Yes, they could,
if the symptoms of groupthink discussed above are present, combined with other
contributing causal factors, such as cohesiveness, isolation, biased leadership, and
stress. To avoid polarization, the common knowledge effect, and groupthink, groups
should strive to emphasize open inquiry of all sides of the issue while admitting the
possibility of failure. The leaders of the group can also do much to limit groupthink by
requiring full discussion of pros and cons, appointing devil’s advocates, and breaking
the group up into small discussion groups.
If these precautions are taken, your group has a much greater chance of making an
informed, rational decision. Furthermore, although your group should review its goals,
16
teamwork, and decision-making strategies, the human side of groups—the strong

friendships and bonds that make group activity so enjoyable—shouldn’t be
overlooked. Groups have instrumental, practical value, but also emotional,
psychological value. In groups we find others who appreciate and value us. In groups
we gain the support we need in difficult times, but also have the opportunity to
influence others. In groups we find evidence of our self-worth and secure ourselves
from the threat of loneliness and despair. For most of us, groups are the secret source
of well-being.
This concludes Lesson 9 Social processes and group behaviour.
Attributions
https://nobaproject.com/modules/the-psychology-of-groups
Forsyth, D. R. (2020). The psychology of groups. In R. Biswas-Diener &

E. Diener (Eds), Noba textbook series: Psychology. Champaign, IL:
DEF publishers. Retrieved from http://noba.to/trfxbkhm
17
STUDY GUIDE - LESSON 10: LEADERSHIP
Image: Pixabay: https://pixabay.com/illustrations/leadership-line-executive-3331244/

After studying lesson 10, students should be able to explain and apply
concepts and principles of leadership and demonstrate an
understanding of different approaches to leadership and their relevance
in a Western, African and South African context. Once you have studied lesson 10,
you should be able to:
• define leadership
• explain the role of power in relation to leadership
• distinguish between leadership and management
• describe the importance of ethical leadership in the South African context and in
the workplace
• distinguish, compare and apply different leadership theories
• distinguish and apply different leadership styles
• explain gender role stereotypes and how it affects leadership
• describe and compare ubuntu and servant leadership as typical to African
leadership
1
Go to the Unisa library or copy and paste the link
http://oasis.unisa.ac.za/search/r to download the chapter that is the
learning material for lesson 10. You will need to study the chapter in detail
to reach the learning outcomes of lesson 10. The citation for the chapter is:
Donald, F. 2015. Leadership, in Organisational Behaviour, edited by A Moerdyk, N

Dodd, F Donald, J Kiley, G van Hoek & L van Hoek. Oxford University Press:
Goodwood, Cape Town. (ISBN: 9780195995053)
Key concepts
The key concepts of Lesson 10 have been translated into several South African
languages. These are uploaded on myUnisa for your ease of reference.
Leadership: influencing and empowering followers to achieve a vision and the goals
of the organisation
Management: planning, organising and controlling resources towards task
completion according to established organisational policies and procedures
Power: the source and level of influence a leader has on followers
Ethical leadership: leading in a way that considers what is best for the greater good
of everybody involved and according to the principles of respect, honesty, equity,
justice and service
Autocratic leadership: leading followers through strong coercive actions, controlling
rules and regulations
Democratic leadership: using communication and collaboration to direct work and
providing followers with a high level of discretionary influence
Laissez-faire leadership: a hands-off leadership style in which the leader mostly
abdicates responsibility
Transactional leadership: a leadership style that is concerned with maintaining
operational flow by allocating work, making routine decisions, monitoring performance
and interacting with various organisational functions
Transformational leadership: designing a vision and strategies to advance
organisational growth and change and inspiring followers accordingly
Ubuntu: a relational orientation to life that embraces a spirit of caring, community,
harmony and respect
Servant leadership: a style of leadership that emphasises the equality of all, allows
participative decision making beyond self-interest with the view of serving and growing
others
2
Lesson Content: Study Guide
INTRODUCTION
Leadership is an important skill in the workplace and is not always linked to a position
in the organisational hierarchy. In this lesson you will learn about the difference
between leadership and management and how power influences leadership. We then
highlight the value of ethical leadership and discuss different theories of leadership
and how these explain leadership styles in the workplace. We then explain and
distinguish between transformational and transactional leadership style
characteristics. Charismatic leadership is explained as a unique leadership style that
is sometimes confused with transformational leadership. The last two important
aspects in this lesson deals with leadership and gender and the understanding an
application of an original African leadership.
We hope you enjoy this lesson and will be able to apply the knowledge you derive from
it in your place of work and in the way that you lead other people in your life. The topics
that we will cover are:
10.1 Leadership, power • Leadership and power

• Leadership versus management
and management • Formal and informal leader
• The importance of ethical leadership in Africa

10.2 Ethical leadership • The importance of ethical leadership in the work context
• Activity: Video
• Trait theories
10.3 Leadership theories • Behavioural theories
• Contingency theories
10.4 Transformational and • Transformational leadership style characteristics

transactional leadership • Transactional leadership style characteristics
10.5 Charismatic • Activity: Download pdf and video

leadership
10.6 Leadership and

gender
• Ubuntu
10.7 African leadership • Activity: Download article and reflective questions

• Servant leadership
• Activity: Download pdf and article and reflective questions
3
10.1 Leadership, power and management
Study Section 8.2 (pages 179-182) in your learning material to understand the topics
of leadership, power and management
Although there are different definitions of leadership, most emphasise that leaders
empower or influence their followers. From these definitions universal characteristics
that typify a good leader can be identified, such as decisiveness, ethical, risk-taking,
integrity, accountable, self-confident, flexible, trustworthy, courage, visionary,
strategic, inspiring, good communication skills, quality driven and so forth. Leadership
is more than just having certain personality attributes; it includes having the relevant
knowledge and skills in your field of work.
To define leadership, we need to understand the role of power in leadership positions

and be able to distinguish leadership from management.
10.1.1 Leadership and power
In organisations, leaders use power related to their positions to influence others

towards attaining a common goal. Leaders’ power often also stems from their personal
influence which derives from their personalities or their knowledge and skills.
Therefore, there are different types of power, which we can define as either formal
(position-related) or informal (related to the person). Formal power can be either
coercive, reward and legitimate power. Informal power includes referent and expert
power. It is important to not misuse power and to ensure ethical leadership. Your
learning material provides a good explanation of each of these sources of power.
4
Not all forms of power are equally effective. Different types of power elicit different
forms of compliance.
• Leaders who, for example, rely on coercive power often alienate followers who
resist their influence attempts.
• Leaders who rely on reward power develop followers who are very attuned to
external rewards and develop an attitude of consistently measuring whether
they are getting enough.
• The use of referent power produces identification with the leader and his cause.
Figure 10.1 below depicts the leader-follower power relationship and shows that
effective leadership most likely comes from the use of rationality, expert power, and/or
moralistic appeal. These power bases generally elicit commitment and the
internalisation of the leader’s goals.
Figure 10.1: The Leader-Follower Power Relationship
Leaders who use referent and expert power commonly experience a favorable
response in terms of follower satisfaction and performance. Research suggests that
rationality is the most effective influence tactic in terms of its impact on follower
commitment, motivation, performance, satisfaction and group effectiveness. Reward
and legitimate power (that is, relying on one’s position to influence others) produce
inconsistent results. Sometimes these powers lead to follower performance and
satisfaction, yet they also sometimes fail. Coercive power can result in favourable
performance, yet follower and resistance dissatisfaction are not uncommon.
Good leaders, whether formal or informal, develop many sources of power. Leaders
who rely solely on their legitimate power and authority seldom generate the influence
necessary to help their organisation and its members succeed. In the process of
building their power base, effective leaders have discovered that the use of coercive
power tends to dilute the effectiveness of other powers, while the development and
use of referent power tends to magnify the effectiveness of other forms of power. A
5
compliment or reward from a person we like, generally has greater value than one
from someone we dislike, and punishment from someone we love (such as “tough
love” from a parent) is less offensive than the pain inflicted by someone we dislike.
One key to effective leadership relates to the type of power employed by the leader.
Overall leader effectiveness will be higher when people follow because they want to
follow. This is much more likely to happen when the leader’s influence flows out of
intrinsic sources such as rationality, expertise, moralistic appeal, and/or referent
power.
10.1.2 Leadership versus management
It is sometimes difficult to distinguish between leadership and management, because

people frequently act as both a manager and a leader in the organisation. Yet, there
are essential differences between a leader and a manager, which you need to be able
to recognise. Frequently, to be a good manager one needs to be an effective leader.
Many executives are hired for their leadership skills, namely their ability to develop a
vision and inspire others to commit to that vision, to bring about progressive change
in the organisation. Effective leadership also often needs the ability to manage;
namely, to set goals; plan, devise and implement strategy; make decisions and solve
problems; and organise and control.
The processes of management and leadership distinguish the concepts further.

Management entails a process of planning, organising, directing and controlling.
Leadership is a social or interpersonal process reflected in the influence relationship
between two or more people who are dependent on each other for goal attainment.
Managers are generally appointed to their role. Although people are also often
appointed to positions of influence, their leadership depends on their relationship with
others and on their followers’ acceptance or rejection of the leader. Thus, leaders often
emerge out of events that unfold among members of a group.
Managers and leaders often differ in terms of the types and sources of the power they
exercise. Managers commonly derive their power from the larger organisation and
from their position. Their positional power is related to the right to use certain rewards
and punishments in the organisation to ensure compliance of their employees.
Leaders can also secure power in this way, however, it is more common for leaders
to derive power from followers’ perception of their knowledge (expertise), their
personality and attractiveness, and the working relationship that has developed
between them and their followers. The subordinate to a manager frequently complies
because of the role authority or positional power of the manager. The followers of a
leader comply because they want to. Thus, leaders motivate primarily through intrinsic
processes, while managers motivate primarily through extrinsic processes. The
6
characteristics of managers and leaders differ – consult your learning material to be
able to distinguish these.
10.1.3 Formal and informal leader
Organisations have two kinds of leaders: formal and informal. A formal leader is that
individual who is recognised by those outside the group as the official leader of the
group. Often, the formal leader is appointed by the organisation to serve in a formal
capacity as an agent of the organisation. Practically all managers, supervisors and
appointed team leaders act as formal leaders as part of their assigned role. Informal
leaders, by contrast, are not assigned by the organisation. The informal leader is that
individual whom members of the group acknowledge as their leader. Athletic teams
often have informal leaders, individuals who exert considerable influence on team
members even though they hold no official, formal leadership position. In fact, most
work groups contain at least one informal leader. Just like formal leaders, informal
leaders can benefit or harm an organisation depending on whether their influence
encourages group members to behave consistently with organisational goals.
10.2 Ethical leadership
Study Section 8.3 (pages 182-185) in your learning material to address the issue of
ethical leadership.
10.2.1 What is ethical leadership
A leader drives and influences followers to achieve a common goal. It is an ethical

responsibility of the leader to treat subordinates with respect and to remember that the
leader models to followers, behaviour of right and wrong, good and bad. The ethical
culture in an organisation is therefore developed by its leader/s due to the influential
role they play. Ethics is essential to leadership and leaders should display the values
of dignity and respect, service to others or a bigger goal, justice, community and
honesty.
10.2.2 The importance of ethical leadership in South Africa
The learning material gives special attention to the importance of ethical leadership in
South Africa. In the past decade we have seen so many examples of corrupt,
fraudulent and dishonest leadership in the country that have led to poor service
delivery, mismanagement of organisational funds and deterioration in infrastructure.
We have a long road ahead of us in training our managers and leaders in the country
to be sensitive to the needs of their followers and to follow the five principles of ethical
leadership that include respect, honesty, service, justice and equity.
7
The type of person you are and the values you hold may determine the type of leader
you will be and what ethical behaviour you will ascribe to. This way of looking at being
ethical is called ‘virtue ethics”. Watch the video below for a nice explanation by using
Batman as an example to understand virtue ethics and its implication for leadership.
Image: pixabay
Is Batman an ethical leader?
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NMblKpkKYao
10.2.3 Ethical leadership in the organisation
Ethics is also very important for leaders in the organisation. Executives and managers
should not only make decisions to their own benefit but need to think of the
organisation’s survival and of the benefit and wellbeing of their employees. They are
responsible to establish an ethical culture in the organisation by instilling certain values
in, for example, a code of ethics. Your learning material provides a list of such values
that can potentially be part of an organisation’s code of ethics.
Confidentiality
Conflict of
Duty of care
interest
Code of Conduct
Conflict of Professional
interest conduct
Quality
assurance
8
10.3 Leadership theories
To understand Leadership theories, the relevant section in your learning

material that you need to study for Lesson 10, is section 8.4 (pages 185-190).
Different leadership theories evolved over time as researchers attempted to

understand leader and follower behaviour and as organisations grew in complexity
and the world of work started to change. In this section, theories that have developed
over time are chronologically discussed. These include trait theories, behavioural
theories and contingency theories – all explained in detail in your learning material,
which you are required to study. Additional information is provided here in the lesson
notes.
10.3.1. Early trait theories
The great man theory of leadership states that some people are born with the
necessary attributes to be great leaders. Alexander the Great, Julius Caesar, Joan of
Arc, Catherine the Great, Napoleon, and Mahatma Gandhi are cited as naturally great
leaders, born with a set of personal qualities that made them effective leaders. In our
own history we may think of people like Shaka Zulu, Nelson Mandela and Albertina
Sisulu as natural born leaders. Even today, the belief that truly great leaders are born
is common. During the early 1900s, scholars endeavoured to understand leaders and
leadership. They wanted to know, from an organisational perspective, what
characteristics are typical to leaders so that they could identify and recruit people with
these characteristics and place them in key organisational positions. This gave rise to
early research efforts and to what is referred to as the trait approach to leadership.
The trait approach emphasises the virtues that a good leader must have. Allport was
the first psychologist to identify certain traits or characteristics definitive of a good
9
leader. In your learning material, you will see that Allport categorised these leadership
characteristics into a hierarchy of three levels, namely cardinal, central and
secondary leadership characteristics. You need to be able to identify the
characteristics in each of these levels.
In a review of the trait research from the University of Maryland, it was noted that
successful leaders possess a set of core characteristics that are different from those
of other people. Although these core traits do not solely determine whether a person
will be a leader — or a successful leader — they are seen as a basic set of personality
markers that set leaders apart from followers. Among the core traits identified are:
Drive—a high level of effort, including a strong desire for achievement as well as
high levels of ambition, energy, tenacity, and initiative
Leadership motivation — an intense desire to lead others
Honesty and integrity — a commitment to the truth, where word and deed
correspond
Self-confidence — an assurance in one’s self, one’s ideas, and one’s ability
Cognitive ability — conceptually skilled, capable of exercising good judgment,
having strong analytical abilities, possessing the capacity to think strategically and
multidimensionally
Knowledge of the business — a high degree of understanding of the company,
industry, and technical matters
Other traits — charisma, creativity/originality, and flexibility/adaptiveness
While leaders may be “people born with the right stuff,” effective leadership requires
more than simply possessing the correct set of motives and traits. Knowledge, skills,
ability, vision, strategy and effective vision implementation are all necessary for the
person who has the “right stuff” to realise their leadership potential. According to
Locke, people endowed with these traits engage in behaviours that are associated
with leadership. As followers, people are attracted to and inclined to follow individuals
who display, for example, honesty and integrity, self-confidence, and the motivation to
lead.
There is not much empirical evidence supporting trait theories. Even though twin
studies indicate that our genes do have an influence on our personality characteristics,
so is there abundant evidence to show that people’s development of certain skills,
values and attributes are also determined by the development context of their lives.
10.3.2 Behavioural leadership theories
Instead of focussing on the traits or characteristics of a leader, behaviourists such as

Kurt Lewin study the behaviours of leaders. Lewin identified three leadership styles
that each displays distinct behaviours, namely the autocratic leader, the democratic
10
leaders and the laisses-faire leadership style. A summary of the different types of
behaviours typically descriptive of each of these three styles is provided in your
learning material.
The leadership theory of Blake and Mouton is also based on the behavioural approach
and distinguishes different leadership styles according to the extent of a leader’s
concern for people and concern for the task. Their theory was displayed visually in the
form of a grid, called the managerial grid or the leadership grid. The grid depicts two
dimensions (one on the Y-axis and one on the X-axis) of leader behaviour. Concern
for people (accommodating people’s needs and giving them priority) is shown on the
Y-axis. Concern for production (keeping tight schedules and focussing on the task)
shown on the X-axis. Each dimension ranges from low (1) to high (9), creating 81
different positions in which the leader’s style may fall. Figure 10.2 depicts the
leadership grid. It is also in your learning material, but note the error in the learning
material, where the Y-axis is named “concern for people”. It should be “concern for
production”.
Figure 10.2. The managerial grid

(Source: Blake & Mouton, 1985:12).
Five different styles are identified in the grid and describe the specific attitudes and
behaviours that direct the behaviour of that type of leader (see Figure 10.3). The five
styles are: Impoverished or Minimal Management (1, 1), Task management (9, 1),
Middle-of-the-Road (5, 5), Country Club (1, 9) and Team Management (9, 9).
11
Figure 10.3. Blake and Mouton’s Leadership Grid
Source: http://rachelelizabethnash.blogspot.com/2010/04/leadership.html
Use the grid to plot your own management style. What kind of a leader are you,
according to the grid?
During management or leadership training the grid is used to help managers

understand their leadership behaviour and to strive towards a 9,9 combination. Blake
and Mouton contend that the best leadership style shows a high concern for results
and a high concern for people (i.e. the 9,9 style). While the Leadership Grid® is
appealing and well structured, research to date suggests that there is no universally
effective style of leadership (9,9 or otherwise). There are well-identified situations in
which a 9,9 style is in fact unlikely to be effective. Organisational members of high-
involvement organisations who are experts and self-responsible, for example require
little production-oriented leader behaviour. Likewise, there is little time for people-
oriented behaviour during an emergency.
Following the behavioural theories, researchers started to recognise that leaders can
adjust their leadership behaviour according to the requirements of the situation. This
led to the contingency leadership theories.
12
10.3.3 Contingency leadership theories
Contingency leadership theorists believe that the leadership behaviour or style should
be appropriate to the specific situation, and that different situations call for different
leadership styles. Your learning material discusses the contingency theory of Fiedler;
Hersey and Blanchard’s situational leadership theory and the leader-member
exchange theory (LMX). It is important that you study each of these to enable you to
describe the theory, recognise the behaviours or style in the behaviour of others and
be able to distinguish when each of these styles play an important role in the
organisation.
Fiedler
LMX
Hersey &
Blanchard
Another contingency theory that is not discussed in your learning material, is the path-
goal theory of House and Evans. Path-goal theory also proposes that the type of
leadership needed to enhance organisational effectiveness depends on the situation
in which the leader is placed. Unlike Fiedler, however, House and Evans focus on the
leader’s observable behaviour. Thus, managers can either match the situation to the
leader or modify the leader’s behaviour to fit the situation.
The path-goal theory of leadership is further based on the motivational function of

leaders and suggests that an effective leader provides organisational members with
a path to a valued goal. Effective leaders therefore reward employees through pay,
recognition, promotions, or any other incentive to work hard to achieve goals. Effective
leaders also give clear instructions so that ambiguities about work are reduced and
followers understand how to do their jobs effectively. They provide coaching, guidance
and training so that followers can perform the tasks expected of them. They also
remove barriers to task accomplishment, correcting shortages of materials,
inoperative machinery, or interfering policies.
According to the path-goal theory, leaders must analyse situations and identify the
most appropriate leadership style. For example, experienced employees who work on
13
a highly structured assembly line don’t need a leader to spend much time telling them
how to do their jobs — they already know this. Second, leaders must be flexible
enough to use different leadership styles as appropriate and engage in a wide variety
of behaviours. Without an extensive repertoire of behaviours at their disposal, leaders'
effectiveness is limited. All team members will not, for example, have the same need
for autonomy. The leadership style that motivates organisational members with strong
needs for autonomy (participative leadership) is different from that which motivates
and satisfies members with weaker autonomy needs (directive leadership). The
degree to which leadership behaviour matches situational factors will determine
members’ motivation, satisfaction and performance, as in Figure 10.4 below:
Figure 10.4 The Path-Goal Leadership Model

Source: Rice University, OpenStax, under CC-BY 4.0 license
According to the path-goal theory, there are four important leader behaviour styles,
each of which is suited to a particular set of situational demands:
14
Supportive leadership Directive leadership
•At times, effective leaders demonstrate •At times, effective leaders set goals and
concern for the well-being and personal performance expectations, let
needs of organisational members. organisational members know what is
Supportive leaders are friendly, expected, provide guidance, establish
approachable and considerate to rules and procedures to guide work, and
individuals in the workplace. Supportive schedule and coordinate the activities of
leadership is especially effective when an members. Directive leadership is called
organisational member is performing a for when role ambiguity is high.
boring, stressful, frustrating, tedious or Removing uncertainty and providing
unpleasant task. If a task is difficult and a needed guidance can increase members’
group member has low self-esteem, efforts, job satisfaction and job
supportive leadership can reduce some performance.
of the person’s anxiety, increase his
confidence, and increase satisfaction and
determination as well.
Participative leadership Achievement-oriented leadership
• At times, effective leaders consult • At times, effective leaders set

with group members about job- challenging goals, seek
related activities and consider improvement in performance,
their opinions and suggestions emphasise excellence, and
when making decisions. demonstrate confidence in
Participative leadership is organisational members’ ability to
effective when tasks are attain high standards.
unstructured. Participative Achievement-oriented leaders
leadership is used to great effect thus capitalise on members’
when leaders need help in needs for achievement and use
identifying work procedures and goal-setting theory to great
whenfollowers have the expertise advantage.
to provide this help.
10.4 Transformational and transactional leadership
Study transformational and transactional leadership in Section 8.5 (pages 191-

192) in your learning material.
As the world of work started to change and employees' needs and demands started
to transform, Bass (1985) developed the view that there are two types of management
activities, each demanding a different set of leadership skills. He distinguished
between transactional and transformational activities and the corresponding
leadership characteristics required of transactional and transformational leaders. Your
15
learning material provides a thorough discussion of these leadership characteristics in
section 8.5, and below is a visual summary of the types of characteristics of
transactional versus transformational leaders.
• Charisma • Contingient reward

• Vision & mission • Management by
• Inspiration exception (active)
• Intellectual • Management by
stimulation exception (passive)
• Individual inspiration • Laissez-faire
Transformational Transactional
Because charisma is one of the typical characteristics of transformational leaders,

people sometimes confuse a charismatic leader with a transformational leader. The
charismatic leader, however, is a distinct leadership style, which is discussed next.
10.5 Charismatic leadership
Charismatic leadership is very briefly referred to in Section 8.5 (page 192) in

your learning material. Below is additional information to study.
The effectiveness of charismatic leaders originates to a large extent from their

charisma. This is a personality with a special magnetic charm and appeal that arouses
loyalty and enthusiasm in others. Examples of charismatic leaders are Julius Malema,
Martin Luther King, Hitler and Eugene Terre'Blanche.
The charismatic leadership phenomenon involves a complex interplay between the

attributes of the leader and followers’ needs, values, beliefs and perceptions. On the
one hand, charismatic leaders are very skilled communicators; they are not only
verbally very eloquent, but also able to communicate to others on a deep, emotional
level (Riggio, 2012). Their relationship with their followers is characterised by
followers’ unquestioning acceptance, trust in the leader’s beliefs, affection, willing
obedience to and identification with the leader. Followers show emotional involvement
16
with the leader’s mission and feelings of self-efficacy are directed toward the leader’s
mission.
This can work to the benefit of business and employees, but it can also be disastrous.
Charismatic leaders have a strong need for power and the tendency to rely heavily on
referent power as their primary power base. Charismatic leaders also are extremely
self-confident and convinced of the supreme rightness of their own beliefs and ideals.
This self-confidence and strength of conviction make people trust the charismatic
leader’s judgement, unconditionally following the leader’s mission and directives for
action. The result is a very strong emotional bond between leader and followers, a
bond built primarily around the leader’s personality. Cults have been known to be
established and destroyed by their charismatic leaders.
Download the .pdf file in the Lesson 10 folder on myUnisa to read the
case study about Jim Jones, a famous cult leader and the devastating
story of the People’s Temple in America.
Although there have been many effective charismatic leaders, those who succeed the
most have coupled their charismatic capabilities with behaviours consistent with the
same leadership principles followed by other effective leaders. Those who do not add
these other dimensions still attract followers but do not meet organisational goals as
effectively as they could. They are (at least for a time) the pied pipers of the business
world, with lots of followers but no constructive direction.
It is sometimes difficult to distinguish charismatic leaders from transformational

leaders, because transformational leaders typically have strong personalities and also
exert emotional influence over their followers. The difference may be in that
transformational leader are also visionary and they influence their followers both
emotionally and/or intellectually to energise and generate commitment, meaning for
action, and performance in relation to goal attainment.
Watch the following video on YouTube to see the differences between

charismatic and transformational leaders and how the charismatic
leader is more attuned to achieving his/her own goals and visions.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yW-ls6hRPVc
17
10.6 Leadership and gender
Section 8.6 (pages 192-103) in your learning material addressed the issue of
leadership and gender.
Image: pixabay
With the advent of democracy, equity laws started to give women more access to
organisations and to positions of leadership within organisations. Women have,
however, experienced many barriers to climbing the organisational ladder, largely
stemming from deeply engrained socio-cultural gender stereotypes. Women are
traditionally expected to be dependent, compliant, emotional, careful and to follow men
– see the gender-based stereotypes for women depicted in the picture below, whereas
men are traditionally seen as independent, assertive and natural leaders. Such
stereotypes result in discriminatory behaviour in the workplace, making it difficult for
women to attain and remain in positions of leadership.
Image: pixabay
Despite the fact that much has been done to eradicate discrimination and address
gender role stereotypes, some research has drawn distinctions between the
leadership styles of men and women, as discussed in your learning material. How do
you think things are changing with regard to gender stereotyping, to allow women to
successfully take leadership roles in organisations? Reflect on your own organisation.
How many females are in management and leadership positions? What is your
personal view regarding women in leadership?
18
10.7 Original African leadership
Section 8.7 (pages 193-196) in your learning material address the issue of
original African leadership.
All the theories about leadership that have been developed and discussed in this
lesson, originate from Western countries and their social scientists. It is only recently
that Africa has started to add its voice to this field of study. Some say that Africa faces
a leadership crisis, and in South Africa we have certainly seen the consequences of
poor leadership over the past decade. There are, however, proponents of African
leadership who endorse Afrocentric values in the way they lead and influence. Two of
these values are discussed extensively in your learning material, namely ubuntu and
servant leadership.
10.6.1. Ubuntu
To understand the essence of Ubuntu as a leadership framework for Africa, please

download and read the following article from the Lesson 10 folder on myUnisa:
Ncube, LB. 2010. Ubuntu: A transformative leadership

philosophy. Journal of Leadership Studies 4(3):77–82.
After having read the article by Ncube (2010) on Ubuntu, reflect on

the following:
• Is Ubuntu a cultural value system, a leadership style or a theory
of leadership?
• How can Ubuntu address Africa’s need for transformational
leadership?
• List 10 words that describe the values of Ubuntu
• Do all South African leaders demonstrate Ubuntu?
• What are the elements of the framework for Ubuntu as a
leadership philosophy?
• How can Ubuntu be applied practically as a leadership
philosophy?
19
10.6.2 Servant leadership
The theory of servant leadership and the development of leadership models based on
this theory is said to have been primarily developed and discussed in the American
context (Brubacker, 2013). However, many have drawn links between principles of
Ubuntu and servant leadership, placing it at the heart of African leadership. This is
also the approach taken in your learning material, which provides you with a
description of typical servant leadership attributes and a conceptualisation of the
servant leadership style.
Download the .pdf document from the Lesson 10 folder on myUnisa

and have a look at the profiles of five (5) well-known servant leaders.
After having read the profiles of five (5) well-known servant leaders,
reflect on the following:
• Do you know servant leaders in your personal life, whom you
can describe according to the characteristics of servant
leadership?
Download and read the article from the Lesson 10 folder on myUnisa:
Kgatle, MS. 2018. ‘Servant leadership: An urgent style for the current
political leadership in South Africa’. Verbum et Ecclesia 39(1), May.
a1815. https://doi.org/ 10.4102/ve.v39i1.1815:
After having read the article by Kgatle (2010) on servant leadership,

reflect on the following:
• What are the three elements in the political leadership of South
Africa that call for a change towards a trustworthy and
accountable governance system in the country?
• What leadership characteristics and style do you think Mr Jacob
Zuma exemplified when he was the South African president?
• What are the key principles of servant leadership?
• How does a humble leader look like?
• What does stewardship mean?
• What does an organisational leader have to do to get moral
authority?
20
Conclusion
This lesson focussed on leadership. To understand what leadership is, we first

discussed the power bases that authorise people in leadership positions; second, we
distinguished leadership from management. We then highlighted the value of ethical
leadership and discussed different theories of leadership and how these explain
leadership styles in the workplace. Specifically, you learnt about traditional leadership
theories such as the trait theories, behavioural theories and contingency theories. We
then explained and distinguished between transformational and transactional
leadership style characteristics. Charismatic leadership was presented as a unique
leadership style that is sometimes confused with transformational leadership. The last
two important aspects in this lesson dealt with leadership and gender and the
understanding an application of African leadership phenomena. We hope you enjoyed
this lesson and will be able to apply the knowledge you derived from it in your place of
work and in the way that you lead other people in your life.
21
References
Blake, R.R., & Mouton, J.S. (1985). The managerial grid III. Gulf Publishing
Company.
Brubaker, T.A. (2013). Servant leadership, Ubuntu, and leader effectiveness in

Rwanda. Emerging Leadership Journeys 6(1):114-147.
Bright, D.S., Hartmann, E., Parboteeah, K.P., Pierce, J.L., Reece, M., Shah, A.,
Terjesen, S., Weiss, J., White, M.A., Gardner, D.G., Lambert, J., Leduc, L.M.,
Muldoon, J., & O’Rourke, J.S. (2019). Principles of Management. Openstax. Publish
Date: Mar 20, 2019. Digital ISBN-10: 0-9986257-7-9; ISBN-13: 978-0-9986257-7-5.
License: Principles of Management by OpenStax is licensed under Creative
Commons Attribution License v4.0
Juneja, P. Leadership Basics. Management Study Guide. Available at:

https://www.managementstudyguide.com/leadership_basics.htm (accessed on 1 April
2020).
Kgatle, M.S., (2018). ‘Servant leadership: An urgent style for the current political
leadership in South Africa’. Verbum et Ecclesia 39(1), a1815. https://doi.org/
10.4102/ve.v39i1.1815.
Ncube, L.B. (2010). Ubuntu: A transformative leadership philosophy. Journal of

Leadership Studies 4(3):77-82.
Riggio, R.E. (2012). What Is Charisma and Charismatic Leadership?, Psychology

Today. Available at: https://www.psychologytoday.com/za/blog/cutting-edge-
leadership/201210/what-is-charisma-and-charismatic-leadership.
22
IOP1501 LESSON 11: PSYCHOLOGICAL PROCESSES IN THE WORK AND SELF-EMPLOYED CONTEXT
LESSON 11: SUSTAINABLE EMPLOYABILITY
Learning outcomes
On completion of this lesson, you should be able to
• describe the concept of careers.

• explain the four elements and features of a sustainable career.
• differentiate between and explain concepts of career adaptation.
• explain the concept of sustainable employability.
Study material
following book chapter from the library. See the link to the library on the
landing page of Lesson 11: Sustainable Employability. On the library site:
Chapter 2 of Schreuder, AMG & Coetzee, M. 2020. Careers – An Organisational

Perspective. 5th edition. Johannesburg: Juta and Company Ltd.
INTRODUCTION
In Lesson 2 of this module, you learnt what an entrepreneurial ecosystem entail. In

this lesson we shift our attention to careers as an ecosystem. According to Schreuder
and Coetzee (2020), the manner in which people’s careers develop within labour
1
markets resembles an ecosystem, i.e., a system comprising loosely coupled or

interconnected actors such as individuals, employers, businesses, organisations,
sectors, industries, nations, and societies who are interdependent for their survival.
The career ecosystem is embedded within a larger constellation of economic,
technological, political, and social elements that influence the career ecosystem
(Baruch, 2015). The Fourth Industrial Revolution (4IR) is crafting a drastically new and
evolutionary space for work and careers. Rapidly evolving technological innovation will
continue to profoundly influence the career ecosystem. The digital and the post-digital
eras are characteristic of Industry 4.0. We have already witnessed revolutionary and
transformative changes, growth (and decline) in the structures and nature of
organisations, work, jobs, and occupations during these era’s (Hirschi, 2018; Lent,
2018).
11.1 WHAT ARE CAREERS?
Schreuder and Coetzee (2020) state that careers are made possible by the life-long
search for, and engagement with decent, meaningful work, which is of importance to
employed, self-employed, unemployed, and underemployed individuals. A career is
therefore a salient life element that focuses on the working life of individuals. The
career represents the evolving sequence of a person’s work experience over
time, including the process of development and growth along a path of diverse
experiences and multiple roles in one or more organisational and work contexts within
a specific sociocultural-economic-political-technological labour market space. In the
digital era (and post-digital era), organisations continue to be important workspaces
(i.e., office, home, virtual, or mobile) that offer the economic means for survival and
quality of life and psychological and career advancement through personal growth and
development opportunities (Baruch, 2015).
11.2. CAREERS AND ORGANISATIONAL PERSPECTIVE
In the organisational career context, careers are managed simultaneously by

individuals and their employers. Employees are taking greater ownership and agency
of their career management whereas organisations provide career development
support to ensure the commitment, satisfaction, performance, and productivity of their
employees.
2
11.3 SUSTAINING CAREERS
11.3.1 Four elements characterising a sustainable career
According to Schreuder and Coetzee (2020), a sustainable career is one that is

successfully integrated in the broader life domain, that is, meaningful balance is
achieved between work and family-related aspects of the life in a manner that fits with
one’s core work, career, and life values (Greenhaus & Kossek, 2014). It is
characterised by flexibility and an agility in adapting to changing needs and interests
that are aligned with changing employment contexts. The sustainable career is
continuously renewed through proactive career self-management and characterises
meaningful individual growth and development over the lifespan (Van der Heijden &
De Vos, 2015).
The changing nature of careers includes four elements of the "new" type of career:
• The time frame of careers

• The social space of careers
• Agency in career management
• The meaning of a career for individuals.
These four elements characterise the sustainable career described as "the sequence
of individuals’ diverse set of career experiences reflected through a variance in
continuity over time, across several social spaces, and characterised by individual
agency and a sense of meaningfulness"(Schreuder & Coetzee, 2020).
11.3.2 Time frame of careers: A composite career
Study section 2.3 of your learning material (Careers and Organisational perspective,
Chapter 2) to gain a deeper understanding of these concepts.
An example of a composite career is to express those parts of one’s multiple possible
selves that are excluded from the narrow world of one-job-for-life can be seen in the
way the South African personality Thando Thabethe expanded her brand in 2017.
https://www.sowetanlive.co.za/entertainment/2017-06-11-thando-thabethe-expands-
her-brand/
You will not be assessed on the contents of the link
3
11.3.3 Social space of careers: A boundaryless career
Ex Finance Minister Tito Mboweni characterises the boundaryless career by

displaying a high degree of personal flexibility, and psychological and physical
mobility between, across, and within organisations on a global scale.
www.sahistory.org.za/people/tito-mboweni
11.3.4 Agency in career management
In section 2.3 of your learning material, you learnt about the meaning that careers
have for individuals. However, an advertisement was placed for a position which
stated:
• We can’t promise you how long we’ll be in business.

• We can’t promise you that we won’t be bought by another company.
• We can’t promise you that there will be room for promotions.
• We can’t promise that your job will exist until you reach retirement age.
• We can’t promise that the money will be available for your pension.
• We can’t expect your undying loyalty and we aren’t sure we want it. (Hall &
Mirvis, 1995a:326)
Imagine if you were reading the advertisement placed by an organisation you wanted
to work at do you think it would create a feeling of agency in your own career
management?
Entrepreneurs as a key to career agency? Read about some of South Africa’s

emerging entrepreneurs at www.ns-businesshub.com/business/south-africa-young-
entrepreneurs/
11.3.5 Meaning of career: An individualised self-project
In your learning material you will notice that career success is not a smooth process.
Individuals may encounter a number of hurdles, such as:
• Background-related hurdles
4
• Trait-like hurdles
• Motivational hurdles
• Skill-related hurdles
• Social networking hurdles
• Organisational and job hurdles
Activity
For this non-compulsory activity consider the hurdles and reflect on your personal
career. Evaluate the extent to which the current work conditions of your job contribute
or thwart your experiences of career success. Identify the career hurdles that may
explain your current career concerns and feelings of job satisfaction or dissatisfaction.
11.4 CAREER ADAPTION
INTRODUCTION
Section 2.4 of your learning material (Careers an organisational perspective, Chapter

2) states that the concept of career adaptation differentiates between various
psychological and behavioural attributes of individuals. Individuals must first develop
an adaptive readiness (i.e., embrace an adaptivity orientation toward change), which
activates the use of adaptability resources. Adaptivity is an important psychological
trait of willingness and flexibility to meet the unfamiliar, complex, and ill-defined
problems and challenges presented by changing career and work contexts. Such
individuals are willing to make changes to oneself or environments in order to achieve
adaptive career outcomes (Guan et al, 2017; Hirschi, Herrmann, & Keller, 2015). The
future work-self is an important characteristic of career adaptivity. Career adaptive
individuals have a self-starting motive, that is, they have a strong reason to pursue
desirable future career possibilities. Individuals with a clear, inspiring future work-self
eagerly engage in various proactive behaviours such as career planning, skill
development, career consultation, and network building (Guan et al, 2017).
5
Familiarise yourself with the different core concepts of career adaption, as indicated
in the figure below. In the sections to follow we will guide you through these core
concepts as you study your learning material for this lesson.
11.4.1 Core concepts of career adaption
11.4.2 Career Motivation
According to Schreuder and Coetzee (2020), section 2.4.1, career motivation is ‘a

multi-dimensional construct internal to the individual, influenced by the situation and
reflected in the individual’s decisions and behaviours’ (London, 1983:620). Career
motivation consists of the following three major domains:
• Career identity
• Career insight
• Career resilience
These three domains describe an individual's psychological readiness to grow as a

person and adapt to change.
11.4.3 Career agility
6
Similar to individuals’ career motivation, career agility signals individuals’ adaptive

readiness or willingness to adapt and proactively respond to technological change.
Individuals’ adaptive readiness for the exponential changes of Industry 4.0 and beyond
is expressed in terms of three facets of career agility:
• Their technological adaptivity

• Their capability for agile learning
• Their career navigation orientation
These three facets of career agility reflect a positive mindset, which functions as an
internal adaptivity signal to approach adaptability resources and continue in the advent
of technological change (Coetzee et al, 2020).
11.4.4 Career adaptability
Career adaptability takes a holistic perspective, in which the individual is perceived in

adaptive interaction with his or her surroundings or environment, such as the changing
employment context (Savickas et al, 2009; Savickas, 2012).
Individuals’ career adaptability develops along the lines of four syndromes. These
syndromes or domains are seen to relate to important vocational developmental tasks
that entail a primary adaptive goal which, when accomplished, constitute key
resources that foster adaptive responses in the form of proactive career self-
management behaviours that build a foundation for career success, sustainable
employability, future adaptability, and growth (Coetzee et al, 2016; Del Corso, 2013;
Hartung, 2013; Savickas & Porfeli, 2012):
1. Career concern: ‘Do I have a future?’

2. Career control: ‘Who owns my future?’
3. Career curiosity: ‘What do I want to do with my future?
4. Career confidence: ‘Can I do it?’
The four resources of career adaptability (i.e., career concern, career curiosity, career
control, career confidence) foster adaptive fitness (career adaptability), which is
supported by their career motivation, career agility and career maturity, and which
results in higher levels of career self-management capability, optimal career
development and sustainable employability.
7
11.4.5 Career Self-Management
Individuals’ career self-management capability reflects their orientation or attitude

toward the working world. The way they relate to the working world influences the
choice as to which opportunities presented in the socioeconomic context of work are
pursued (Williams et al., 2016). Career self-management behaviours are classified
into three domains of adapting responses:
• Behaviour directed at the individual self

• Behaviour directed at the work environment context
• Behaviour directed at the regulation of career self-management processes
11.4.6 Career development
Optimal career development through the lifespan is an adaptation outcome of

successful career self-management behaviours in response to changes in work and
career conditions. Career development consists of four phases:
• Developing appropriate work-related behaviours — known as a work

personality — that allow individuals to meet the interpersonal demands of the work
environment (e.g., appropriate social interactions with others, timeliness, and
appropriate on-task behaviour)
• Developing a vocational (career) identity through which individuals become
aware of their career interests, goals, skills, and talents (i.e., self-concept
crystallisation)
• Engaging in effective career decision making by identifying appropriate work
environments that allow individuals to express their vocational identity
• Developing the ability to effectively find a job, resulting in employment, as well
as sustaining one’s employability (Strauser, Lustig & Çiftçi, 2008).
11.4.7 Employability
Sustained employability is an important outcome of successful adaptation to changing

work and career conditions through effective career self-management (Williams et al,
2016). Research suggests that the notion of lifetime employment is being replaced by
the notion of lifetime employability (Gandolfi, 2007; Williams et al, 2016). Job or
8
employment security therefore lies in employability rather than in employment (Hall,

2013; Savickas, 2011; Schreuder & Coetzee, 2016).
Employability refers to an individual’s capacity and willingness to become and remain

attractive in the labour market (in other words, firm internal and firm external
employability). It also refers to the individual’s capability to be successful in a wide
range of jobs (job match employability) (Carbery & Garavan, 2005). Employability is
about being capable of getting, or creating, and keeping fulfilling work and having the
knowledge, understanding, skills, experience, and personal attributes to move self-
sufficiently within the labour market and to realise one’s potential through sustainable
and fulfilling employment experiences throughout the course of one’s life.
11.4.8 Employability and economically marginalised groups
Marginalisation captures exclusion from resources as well as discrimination based on

one’s identity, ethnicity, gender, and age. Economic marginalisation and economic
constraints influence individuals’ perceptions and experiences of employability. Due
to rising costs of education, many individuals from lower-income societies and families
may be limited in their ability to freely choose where they will attend tertiary education
and the choices they can make in terms of further studies. Economic marginalisation
negatively influences the human capital of individuals and their prospects of decent
work employment (Garriott, 2020).
Marginalised groups generally tend to enhance their employability by cultivating their
aspirational capital, social and navigational capital, familial capital and resistant capital
(Garriott, 2020).
Building aspirational capital means that individuals from marginalised groups

maintain hope despite barriers. Aspirational capital is evident in the ability to exhibit
high levels of resilience and the ability to cope with disadvantaged conditions (Garriott,
2020).
The ability to connect with supportive communities and sponsors signals social and
navigational capital. Familial capital refers to the emotional support and
aspirational capital drawn from the family and the desire to support one’s family and
community, which enable individuals to remain resilient in the job search. Family and
9
community capital may include the emotional support and encouragement received
for pursuing higher education or a specific career path, and the sense of pride,
meaning and motivation one derives from experiences that represent the family and
community (Garriot, 2020).
Resistant capital arises from the knowledge and skills fostered through oppositional
behaviour that challenges inequality (Garriott, 2020). In South Africa, the “fees must
fall” campaign and the demand for free high-quality tertiary education from students is
an example of resistant capital.
CONCLUSION
Changes in work and careers are the result of external pressures brought about by the
knowledge economy and rapid advances in technology that characterise the industry
4.0 workplace. The challenge is to remain adaptable and employable, and individuals
should regard themselves as entrepreneurs in crafting sustainable careers even if they
are permanently employed. The career of the new decade is about experience, skill,
flexibility, career agility, and personal development. It does not involve pre-defined
career paths or employment security.
Employers should heed the psychological impact of the digital-era work environment
on people. Organisations should guard against being insensitive to the fact that people
have social needs to satisfy and that work is regarded by many as a source of
economic income, creativity, identity, mastery and fulfilling a higher purpose.
Individuals should be educated and trained in processes and capabilities of career
adaptation for ensuring decent work, quality of life, career wellbeing and sustainable
careers and employability.
Schreuder and Coetzee (2020) state that Careers are made possible by the life-long
search for, and engagement with decent, meaningful work, which is of importance to
employed, self-employed, unemployed, and underemployed individuals. A career is
therefore a salient life element that focuses on the working life of individuals. The
career represents the evolving sequence of a person’s work experience over time,
including the process of development and growth along a path of diverse experiences
and multiple roles in one or more organisational and work contexts within a specific
sociocultural-economic-political-technological labour market space. In the digital era
(and post-digital era), organisations continue to be important workspaces (i.e., office,
10
home, virtual, or mobile) that offer the economic means for survival and quality of life
and psychological and career advancement through personal growth and
development opportunities (Baruch, 2015).
References
Schreuder, AMG & Coetzee, M. 2020. Careers – An Organisational Perspective. 5th

edition. Juta and Company Ltd
11
CHAPteR 11
LeARnInG AnD ConDItIonInG
What is learning?
Cognitive approaches
Behaviourist approaches
IntRoDUCtIon and oVeRVIeW a fairly permanent change in a person’s behavioural

We’ve seen in earlier chapters how American performance. However, permanent changes in
Psychology in particular was dominated by behaviour can also result from things that have
behaviourism for much of the first half of the twentieth nothing to do with learning, such as the effects of
century. Given the central role of learning in brain damage on behaviour, or the changes associated
philosophical behaviourism, it’s not surprising that with puberty and other maturational processes. So, if a
the topic of learning itself should be central within change in behaviour is to be counted as learning, the
Psychology as a whole. change must be linked to some kind of past experience
The concept of learning is a good example of the (regardless of whether there was any attempt to bring
discrepancy between the everyday, common-sense about that change).
use of a term and its technical, scientific use (see For these reasons, Psychologists usually define
Chapter 1). In everyday conversation, the emphasis learning as ‘a relatively permanent change in
is usually on what is learned (the end product), such behaviour due to past experience’ (Coon, 1983)
as learning to drive a car, use the internet or speak or ‘the process by which relatively permanent
French. But when Psychologists use the term, changes occur in behavioural potential as a result of
their focus is on how the learning takes place (the experience’ (Anderson, 1995a).
learning process).
When the focus is on the end product, we
Learning versus performance
generally infer that the learning is deliberate. For Anderson’s definition has one major advantage over
example, we pay for driving lessons that will help Coon’s, namely that it implies a distinction between
us, eventually, to acquire a driving licence. But, learning (behavioural potential) and performance
for Psychologists, learning can take place without (actual behaviour).
a ‘teacher’. We can learn, for example, by merely
observing others, who may not even know they’re Ask Yourself
being observed. Learning can also happen without
other people being involved at all, as when we ● What things have you learned to do/learned
observe recurring environmental events (‘thunder about that you’re not actually doing/thinking
always follows lightning’). about right now?
Partly because the concept of learning as used by
Psychologists is very broad, they disagree as to exactly
what’s involved in the learning process. Watson, the If you can swim, you’re almost certainly not doing so
founder of behaviourism, was the first Psychologist to as you read this chapter – but you could readily do so
apply Pavlov’s concept of the conditioned reflex/response if faced with a pool full of water! So what you could
to human behaviour. A more active view of learning do (potential behaviour based on learning) and what
was taken by Thorndike, whose work formed the basis you’re actually doing (current performance) are two
of Skinner’s operant conditioning. Skinner’s contribution, different things. Ultimately, of course, the only proof
above all others, made behaviourism such a force of learning is a particular kind of performance (such
within Psychology as a whole (see Chapter 2). as exams). Performance can fluctuate due to fatigue,
drugs and emotional factors, and so is much more
WHAt Is LeARnInG? variable than learning, which is more permanent.
Learning is a hypothetical construct: it cannot (Exams come to mind again – many students have left
be directly observed, but only inferred from an exam knowing what they could not demonstrate
observable behaviour. Learning normally implies during the exam itself.)
9781471829734.indb 175 04/05/15 9:41 AM

Learning and other abilities Classical conditioning: why do dogs drool
Howe (1980) defines learning as ‘a biological device over bells?
that functions to protect the human individual and Ivan Pavlov was a physiologist interested in the
to extend his capacities’. In this context, learning process of digestion in dogs. He was awarded the
is neither independent of, nor entirely separate Nobel Prize in 1904 (the year Skinner was born).
from, several other abilities, in particular memory He developed a surgical technique for collecting a
and perception. Indeed, learning and memory dog’s salivary secretions: a tube was attached to the
may be regarded as two sides of the same coin (see outside of its cheek, so the drops of saliva could easily
Chapter 17). be measured.
According to Howe, learning is also cumulative: what Pavlov (1927) noticed that the dogs would often
we learn at any time is influenced by our previous start salivating before they were given any food:
learning. Also, most instances of learning take the form when they looked at the food or saw the feeding
of adaptive changes, as reflected in Anderson’s (1995a) bucket, or even when they heard the footsteps
definition as ‘the mechanism by which organisms can of the laboratory assistant coming to feed them.
adapt to a changing and nonpredictable environment’. These observations led to the study of what’s
now called classical (or Pavlovian) conditioning: a
Some basic questions about learning stimulus (such as a bell), which wouldn’t normally
While it’s generally agreed by Psychologists that produce a particular response (such as salivation),
learning is relatively permanent and due to past eventually comes to do so by being paired with
experience, there’s much less agreement about exactly another stimulus (such as food) which does normally
THE BIOLOGICAL BASIS OF BEHAVIOUR AND EXPERIENCE
what changes when learning takes place, and what produce the response.
kinds of past experience are involved. Put another
way, how do the changes occur and what mechanisms
are involved? One important issue that divides
Psychologists is the extent to which they focus on
the overt, behavioural changes as opposed to the covert,
cognitive changes.
BEHAVIOURIST APPROACHES
Skinner (1938) made the crucial distinction between
respondents (or respondent behaviour), which are triggered
automatically by particular environmental stimuli,
and operants (or operant behaviour), which are essentially
voluntary. A related distinction is that between classical
or respondent (Pavlovian) conditioning and operant or Figure 11.2 The apparatus used by Pavlov in his
instrumental (Skinnerian) conditioning. experiments on conditioned reflexes
B.F. Skinner
(1904–1990)
Respondent Operant
behaviour behaviour
C.L. Hull
(1884–1952)
Classical I. Pavlov E.L. Thorndike Operant
conditioning (1849–1936) (1874–1949) (or instrumental)
conditioning
E. Tolman
(1886–1959)
J.B. Watson
(1878–1958) B.F. Skinner
Figure 11.1 Major figures in the behaviourist (learning theory) tradition
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Before conditioning, the taste of food will naturally Table 11.1 Four types of classical conditioning based on
11: LEARNING AND CONDITIONING

●
and automatically make the dog salivate, but the different CS–UCS relationships
sound of a bell won’t. So, the food is referred to as
an unconditioned stimulus (UCS), and the salivation 1. Delayed or The CS is presented before the UCS,
is an unconditioned response (UCR): an automatic, forward and remains ‘on’ while the UCS is
reflex, biologically built-in response. The dog presented and until the UCR appears.
doesn’t have to learn to salivate in response to food, Conditioning has occurred when
because it does so naturally. the CR appears before the UCS is
● During conditioning, the bell is paired with the
presented. A half-second interval
food. Because the bell doesn’t naturally produce produces the strongest learning.
salivation, it’s called a conditioned stimulus (CS): it As the interval increases, learning
only produces salivation on the condition that it’s becomes poorer. This type of
paired with the UCS. It’s also neutral with regard to conditioning is typically used in the
salivation prior to conditioning. laboratory, especially with non-
● If the bell and food are paired often enough, the
humans.
dog starts to salivate as soon as it hears the bell 2. Backward The CS is presented after the UCS.
and before the food is presented. When this occurs, Generally this produces very little, if
conditioning has taken place. The salivation is any, learning in laboratory animals.
now referred to as a conditioned response (CR), However, much advertising uses
because it’s produced by a conditioned stimulus backward conditioning (e.g. the
(CS) – the bell. idyllic tropical scene is set, and then
This basic procedure can be used with a variety of the coconut bar is introduced).
conditioned stimuli, such as buzzers, metronomes,
lights, geometric figures, and so on. The exact 3. Simultaneous The CS and UCS are presented together.
relationship between the CS and the UCS can also be Conditioning has occurred when the
varied to give different kinds of conditioning. What CS on its own produces the CR. This
I’ve described above is delayed/forward conditioning (see type of conditioning often occurs in
Table 11.1). real-life situations (e.g. the sound of the
dentist’s drill accompanies the contact
of the drill with your tooth).
Ask Yourself
4. Trace The CS is presented and removed
● In the basic procedure described above, before the UCS is presented, so that
the CS is presented about a half-second before only a ‘memory trace’ of the CS
the UCS. remains to be conditioned. The CR
● What do you think might happen if the CS is is usually weaker than in delayed or
presented after the UCS? simultaneous conditioning.
Stage 1
Food Salivation
(before learning)
(unconditioned stimulus) (unconditioned response)
(UCS) A bell does NOT produce salivation (UCR)
Stage 2 Bell Food Salivation

(during learning) (conditioned (unconditioned (unconditioned
stimulus) stimulus) response)
CS UCS UCR
Stage 3
Bell Salivation
(after learning)
(conditioned stimulus) (conditioned response)
CS CR
Figure 11.3 The basic procedure involved in classical conditioning
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Higher-order conditioning Box 11.1 Experimental neurosis: how to
Pavlov demonstrated that a strong CS could be used
instead of food, to produce salivation in response to a drive a dog mad
new stimulus that had never been paired with food. ● Pavlov (1927) trained dogs to salivate to a
For example, a buzzer (previously paired with food) circle but not to an ellipse, and then gradually
is paired with a black square. After ten pairings (using changed the shape of the ellipse until it
delayed conditioning), the dog will salivate a small became almost circular.
but significant amount at the sight of the black square ● As this happened, the dogs started behaving in
before the buzzer is sounded. Remember, the black ‘neurotic’ ways – whining, trembling, urinating
square has never been associated with food directly, but and defecating, refusing to eat, and so on.
only indirectly, through association with the buzzer. ● It was as if they didn’t know how to respond:
The CS is functioning as a UCS. was the stimulus a circle (in which case, through
The buzzer and food combination is referred to as generalisation, they ‘ought’ to salivate) or was it
first-order conditioning, and the black square and buzzer an ellipse (in which case, through discrimination,
pairing as second-order conditioning. Pavlov found with they ‘ought not to’ salivate)?
dogs that learning couldn’t go beyond third- or
fourth-order conditioning. Even so, conditioning is
beginning to look a rather more complex process. Extinction and spontaneous recovery
Generalisation and discrimination If dogs have been conditioned to salivate to a bell,
In generalisation, the CR transfers spontaneously to and the bell is repeatedly presented without food,
stimuli similar to, but different from, the original the CR of salivation gradually becomes weaker and
CS. For example, if a dog is trained using a bell eventually stops altogether (extinction). However, if a
of a particular pitch and is then presented with dog that’s undergone extinction is removed from the
a bell a little higher or lower in pitch, it will still experimental situation, and then put back a couple
salivate, although only one bell (the original CS) of hours or so later, it will start salivating again.
was actually paired with food. However, if the dog Although no further pairing of the bell and food has
is presented with bells that are increasingly different occurred, the CR of salivation reappears in response
from the original, the CR will gradually weaken to the bell (spontaneous recovery). This shows that
and eventually stop altogether – the dog is showing extinction doesn’t involve an ‘erasing’ of the original
discrimination. learning, but rather a learning to inhibit or suppress
the CR when the CS is continually presented
without a UCS.
CS1 (The bell used in the original conditioning procedure) CR (salivation)
Classical conditioning and human behaviour
Bells CS2, CS3 and CS4
are of increasingly Salivation is gradually There have been many laboratory demonstrations
lower pitch but still CS2 CR becoming weaker as
CS3 CR the pitch becomes lower
involving human participants. It’s relatively easy to
produce salivation
through CS4 CR compared with CS1 classically condition and extinguish CRs, such as the
GENERALISATION eye-blink and galvanic skin response (GSR). But what
Bells CS5, CS6 and CS7 relevance does this have for understanding human
fail to produce learning and memory, let alone thinking, reasoning or
salivation because
they’re sufficiently
CS5 CR problem-solving (see Chapter 20)?
CS6 CR No salivation occurs
different from CS1 CS7 CR
In normal adults, the conditioning process can
The dog is showing apparently be overridden by instructions: simply
DISCRIMINATION
telling participants that the UCS won’t occur causes
Figure 11.4 An example of discrimination occurring instant loss of the CR, which would otherwise
spontaneously as a result of generalisation stopping extinguish only slowly (Davey, 1983). Most participants
in a conditioning experiment are aware of the
Pavlov also trained dogs to discriminate in the original experimenter’s contingencies (the relationship between
conditioning procedure. For example, if a high-pitched stimuli and responses), and in the absence of such
bell is paired with food but a low-pitched bell isn’t, awareness often fail to show evidence of conditioning
the dog will start salivating in response to the former, (Brewer, 1974).
but not the latter (discrimination training). An interesting There are also important differences between
phenomenon related to discrimination is what Pavlov very young children, or those with severe learning
called experimental neurosis (see Box 11.1). difficulties, and older children and adults, regarding
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their behaviour in a variety of operant conditioning They might have attempted to remove it through

and discrimination learning experiments. These seem the method of direct unconditioning, as used by
largely attributable to language development (Dugdale Jones (1924). See Key Study 11.2. This is an early
and Lowe, 1990; see Chapter 19). example of what Wolpe (1958) called systematic
All this suggests that people have rather more desensitisation (see Chapter 45).
efficient, language- or rule-based forms of learning
at their disposal than the laborious formation of
associations between a CS and UCS. Even behaviour Key Study 11.2
therapy, one of the apparently more successful
applications of conditioning principles to human The case of Little Peter (Jones, 1924)
behaviour, has given way to cognitive-behavioural therapy ● Peter was a 2-year-old living in a charitable
(Mackintosh, 1995; see Chapter 45). institution. Jones was mainly interested in
those children who cried and trembled when
Classical conditioning and phobias shown an animal (such as a frog, rat or rabbit).
Watson was the first Psychologist to apply the Peter showed an extreme fear of rats, rabbits,
principles of classical conditioning to human feathers, cotton wool, fur coats, frogs and fish,
behaviour. He did this in what’s considered to be one although in other respects he was regarded
of the most ethically dubious Psychology experiments as well-adjusted. It wasn’t known how these
ever conducted. See Key Study 11.1. phobias had arisen.
● Jones, supervised by Watson, put a rabbit in
Ask Yourself a wire cage in front of Peter while he ate his
lunch. After 40 such sessions, Peter ate his lunch
● Why do you think Watson and Rayner’s experiment with one hand and stroked the rabbit (now on
is considered to be so ethically unsound? his lap) with the other.
● In a series of 17 steps, the rabbit (still in the
cage) had been brought a little closer each day,
It’s unclear whether Watson and Rayner intended then let free in the room, eventually sitting on
to remove Albert’s phobia; what’s certain is that his Peter’s lunch tray.
mother removed him before this could happen.
Key Study 11.1

The case of Little Albert (Watson and ● The CR transferred spontaneously to the rabbit,
Rayner, 1920) the dog, a sealskin fur coat, cotton wool, Watson’s
hair and a Santa Claus mask. But it didn’t generalise
● Albert was described as ‘healthy from birth’ and
to Albert’s building blocks, or to the hair of two
‘on the whole stolid and unemotional’. When he
was about 9 months old, his reactions to various observers (so Albert was showing discrimination).
stimuli were tested – a white rat, a rabbit, a dog, a ● Five days after conditioning, the CR produced by
monkey, masks with and without hair, cotton wool, the rat persisted. After ten days it was ‘much less
burning newspapers and a hammer striking a four- marked’, but was still evident a month later.
foot steel bar just behind his head. Only the last of
these frightened him, so this was designated the UCS
(and fear the UCR). The other stimuli were neutral,
because they didn’t produce fear.
● When Albert was just over 11 months old, the rat
and the UCS were presented together: as Albert
reached out to stroke the animal, Watson crept up
behind the baby and brought the hammer crashing
down on the steel bar.
● This occurred seven times in total over the next
seven weeks. By this time, the rat (the CS) on its
own frightened Albert, and the fear was now a CR. Figure 11.5 A very rare photograph of
Watson and Rayner had succeeded in deliberately John Watson and Rosalie Rayner during
producing in a baby a phobia of rats. the conditioning of Little Albert
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Behaviour therapists, such as Eysenck, regard the Little before the experiments began, and so were highly
Albert experiment as demonstrating how all phobias motivated. After eating the fish, the cats were put
are acquired in everyday life. straight back in, and the whole process was repeated.
Ask Yourself
● How could the basic classical conditioning procedure
help to explain someone’s fear of the dentist?
A fear of the dentist could be learnt in the

following way:
● drill hitting a nerve (UCS) → pain/fear (UCR)
● sound of drill (CS) + drill hitting nerve (UCS) →
pain/fear (UCR)
● sound of the drill (CS) → fear (CR).
If you’re looking at the dentist who’s peering into your
mouth, you may become afraid of upside-down faces;
if s/he’s wearing a mask, you may acquire a fear of
masks too. Also, through generalisation, you can come
to fear all drill-like noises or white coats worn by
Figure 11.6 Thorndike’s puzzle-box

medical personnel or lab technicians.
Human phobias may be perpetuated through At first the cats struggled to get out, behaving in a
avoiding the object of our fears. In other words, we purely random way, and it was only by chance that
don’t give the fear a chance to undergo extinction the first escape was made. But each time they were
(see Chapters 44 and 45). This occurs in conjunction returned to the puzzle-box, it took them less time to
with operant conditioning, whereby the avoidance operate the latch and escape. For instance, with one
behaviour becomes strengthened through negative of the boxes, the average time for the first escape was
reinforcement. 5 minutes, but after 10–20 trials this was reduced to
about 5 seconds.
Operant conditioning: why do rats press Thorndike accounted for this by claiming that
levers? the learning was essentially random or trial and error.
When Skinner drew the distinction between There was no sudden flash of insight into how the
respondent and operant behaviour, he wasn’t rejecting releasing mechanism worked, but rather a gradual
the discoveries of Pavlov and Watson. Rather, he reduction in the number of errors made and hence
was arguing that most animal and human behaviour escape time (see Chapter 20). What was being
isn’t triggered or elicited by specific stimuli. He was learned was a connection between the stimulus
interested in how animals operate on their environment, (the manipulative components of the box) and the
and how this operant behaviour is instrumental in response (the behaviour that allowed the cat to
bringing about certain consequences, which then escape). Further, the stimulus–response connection
determine the probability of that behaviour being is ‘stamped in when pleasure results from the act,
repeated. Skinner saw the learner as much more active and stamped out when it doesn’t’ (law of effect). This
than did Pavlov or Watson. is crucially important as a way of distinguishing
Just as Watson’s ideas were based on the earlier work classical and operant conditioning, which Skinner
of Pavlov, so Skinner’s study of operant conditioning did 40 years later.
grew out of the earlier work of another American,
Edward Thorndike. Skinner’s ‘analysis of behaviour’
Skinner used a form of puzzle-box known as a Skinner
Thorndike’s law of effect box. This was designed for a rat or pigeon to do things
Thorndike (1898) built puzzle-boxes for use with in, rather than escape from. The box has a lever (in
cats, whose task was to operate a latch that would the case of rats) or illuminated discs (in the case of
automatically cause the door to spring open, freeing pigeons), under which is a food tray. The experimenter
them. Each time they managed to escape from decides exactly what the relationship shall be between
the puzzle-box, there was a piece of fish, visible pressing the lever and the delivery of a food pellet,
from inside the puzzle-box, waiting for them. The providing total control of the animal’s environment. But
cats were deprived of food for a considerable time it’s the animal that has to do the work.
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According to Skinner’s version of the law of

effect, ‘behaviour is shaped and maintained by its
consequences’. The consequences of operants can be
positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement or punishment.
While both positive and negative reinforcement
strengthen behaviour (making it more probable), each
works in a different way. Positive reinforcement involves
presenting something pleasurable (such as food), while
negative reinforcement involves the removal or avoidance
of some ‘aversive’ (literally ‘painful’) state of affairs
(such as electric shock). Punishment weakens behaviour
(making it less probable), through the presentation of
an aversive stimulus.
Primary and secondary reinforcers
Primary reinforcers (such as food, water, sex) are natural
reinforcers (reinforcing in themselves). Secondary
reinforcers acquire their reinforcing properties through
association with primary reinforcers – that is, we
have to learn (through classical conditioning) to find
Figure 11.7 Rat in a Skinner box (or ‘operant chamber’)
them reinforcing. Examples of human secondary (or
conditioned) reinforcers are money, cheques and tokens
Skinner used the term strengthen in place of (see Chapter 45).
Thorndike’s ‘stamping in’, and weaken in place of In a Skinner box, if a click accompanies the
‘stamping out’. He regarded Thorndike’s terms as presentation of each pellet of food, the rat will
too mentalistic, and his own as more objective and eventually come to find the click on its own
descriptive. reinforcing. The click can then be used as a reinforcer
for getting the rat to learn some new response. (Clickers
are used in dog training, at first in conjunction with a
Box 11.2 Skinner’s analysis of behaviour primary reinforcer, such as a food ‘treat’, then on their
(or the ABC of operant conditioning) own.) Secondary reinforcers are important, because they
‘bridge the gap’ between the response and the primary
The analysis of behaviour requires an accurate reinforcer, which may not be presented immediately.
but neutral representation of the relationship (or
contingencies) between:
Schedules of reinforcement
● Antecedents (the stimulus conditions, such as the Another important aspect of Skinner’s work is
lever, the click of the food dispenser, a light that concerned with the effects on behaviour of how
may go on when the lever is pressed) frequently and how regularly (or predictably)
● Behaviours (or operants, such as pressing the lever) reinforcements are presented. Ferster and Skinner
● Consequences (what happens as a result of the (1957) identified five major schedules, each of
operant behaviour – reinforcement or punishment). which is associated with a characteristic pattern of
This is the ABC of operant conditioning. responding. This part of Skinner’s research is largely
counterintuitive (Walker, 1984).
Strengthen
Positive behaviours which
reinforcers result in their
presentation
Weaken
behaviours which
Punishers result in their
Strengthen presentation
behaviours which
Negative result in their
reinforcers removal or
avoidance
Figure 11.8 The consequences of behaviour and their effects
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Rats and pigeons (and probably most mammals along the horizontal axis. Skinner called this a
and birds) typically ‘work harder’ (press the lever/ ‘cumulative record’ (see Figure 11.9).
peck the disc at a faster rate) for scant reward: when A continuous schedule is normally used only when some
reinforcements are relatively infrequent and irregular new response is being learned. Once it’s being emitted
or unpredictable, they’ll go on working long after the regularly and reliably, it can be maintained by using
reinforcement has actually been withdrawn. So, each one of the four partial or intermittent schedules. But this
schedule can be analysed in terms of (a) pattern and rate change must be gradual. If the animal is switched from
of response; and (b) resistance to extinction (see Table 11.2). a continuous schedule to, say, a VR 50, it will soon stop
The rate of response can be represented by responding. Skinner (1938) originally used an interval
plotting responses cumulatively as steps along a schedule because a reinforcer is guaranteed, sooner or
vertical axis, against the time when they’re made later, so long as one response is made during the interval.
Table 11.2 Common reinforcement schedules, and associated patterns of response and resistance to extinction
Reinforcement Example Pattern and rate of Resistance to Example of human

schedule response extinction behaviour
Continuous Every single response Response rate is low Very low – the 1. Receiving a high
reinforcement is reinforced but steady quickest way to bring grade for every
(CRF) about extinction assignment
2. Receiving a tip for

every customer served
Fixed interval A reinforcement is Response rate speeds Fairly low – extinction 1. Being paid regularly
(FI) given every 30 seconds up as the next occurs quite quickly (every week or month)
(FI 30), provided the reinforcement becomes 2. Giving yourself a
response occurs at available; a pause after 15-minute break for
least once during that each reinforcement. every hour’s studying
time Overall response rate done
fairly low
Variable interval A reinforcement is Response rate is very Very high – extinction Many self-employed
(VI) given on average stable over long occurs very slowly and people receive
every 30 seconds (VI periods of time. Still gradually payment irregularly
30), but the interval some tendency to (depending on when
varies from trial to increase response rate the customer pays for
trial. So, the interval as time elapses since the product or the
on any one occasion is the last reinforcement service)
unpredictable
Fixed ratio (FR) A reinforcement There’s a pronounced As in FI 1. Piece work (the
is given for a fixed pause after each more work done, the
number of responses, reinforcement, and more money earned)
however long this then a very high 2. Commission (extra
may take, e.g. one rate of responding money for so many
reinforcement every leading up to the next goods made or sales
ten responses (FR 10) reinforcement completed)
Variable ratio A reinforcement is Very high response Very high – the most Gambling
(VR) given on average every rate – and very steady resistant of all the
ten responses (VR schedules
10), but the number
varies from trial to
trial. So, the number
of responses required
on any one occasion is
unpredictable
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Presentation Box 11.3 Avoidance learning through
of reinforcement
VR negative reinforcement
● Most laboratory studies use a shuttle box, a
box divided into two compartments, sometimes
FR with a barrier or door between them. Electric
VI shocks can be delivered through the floor of
Number either compartment independently of the other.
of Neither side is permanently safe, but only one is
responses
electrified at a time.
● The animal’s task is to find which is the safe side
FI on any one occasion. A warning signal (a light or
CRF
buzzer) is given whenever the electrified side is to
be changed, so the animal can always avoid being
shocked if it switches sides when it hears (or sees)
the signal.
According to the two factor theory (Mowrer, 1960)
Time
or the two process theory (Gray, 1975):
Figure 11.9 Typical cumulative records for a response ● The animal first learns to be afraid (the
(such as lever pressing) reinforced using five schedules of warning signal elicits an anticipatory emotional
reinforcement response of fear/anxiety through classical
conditioning).
● It then learns a response to reduce the
Shaping: the reinforcement of successive fear (jumping the barrier is negatively
approximations reinforced through avoiding the shock before
Reinforcement can be used to build up relatively it’s switched on).
complex behaviour (not part of the animal’s
natural repertoire) by reinforcing closer and closer
approximations to the desired behaviour (shaping).
First, the behaviour must be broken down into a Punishment
number of small steps, each of which is reinforced in Skinner maintained that, with both humans and
sequence. Gradually, what the animal can do is much non-humans, positive (and, to a lesser extent,
more like what the experimenter is trying to teach negative) reinforcement is a much more potent
it. This is what animal trainers have been doing for influence on behaviour than punishment. This is
hundreds of years, and is the method of reinforcement largely because punishment can only make certain
Skinner used to teach pigeons to play ping-pong or responses less likely: you cannot teach anything new
turn a full (anticlockwise) circle. Most human skills are by punishment alone.
learned in this step-by-step manner. However, Campbell and Church (1969) argue that
Shaping also provides an important foundation for punishments are, if anything, a stronger influence on
behaviour modification. This is used to teach children and behaviour than the incentive effects of reinforcements
adults with learning difficulties to use the toilet, feed (at least as far as laboratory animals are concerned). But
and dress themselves, and other social skills. It’s also punishment produces unpleasant side-effects, such as
been used to develop speech in autistic children and stress, anxiety, withdrawal and aggression.
adults with schizophrenia (see Chapter 45). Estes (1970) concluded that punishment merely
suppresses lever pressing in the short term, but doesn’t
Negative reinforcement: escape and avoidance weaken it. Other experiments have shown that the
learning strength and duration of the suppression effect depend
Escape and avoidance learning are the two major on the intensity of the punishment and the degree of
ways in which negative reinforcement has been deprivation. However, the response is still suppressed
studied in the laboratory. Escape learning is relatively rather than unlearned.
simple. For example, rats can learn to press a lever When alternative ways of obtaining reinforcers are
to turn off electric shock. Avoidance learning is more available, punishment has a more powerful suppressive
complex and more relevant to certain aspects of effect on the punished behaviour (Howe, 1980).
human behaviour. (See Box 11.3.) For example, Azrin and Holz (1966) combined
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punishment and reinforcement, so that response A lever pressing only when a light is on, the light soon
was punished while response B (incompatible with A) becomes a discriminative stimulus (the rat presses only
was positively reinforced. Skinner advocates this with when the light is on).
human beings.
The antecedents of behaviour: stimulus Ask Yourself
control ● What are the major similarities and differences
In operant conditioning, the stimulus indicates the between classical and operant conditioning?
likely consequence of emitting a particular response:
the operant behaviour is more likely to occur in
the presence of some stimuli than others. If a rat Does conditioning work in the same way
has been reinforced for pressing the lever, it’s more for all species?
likely to go on emitting that response as the lever The fact that many experiments involving a
becomes associated both with reinforcement and variety of species can all be described as classical
the action of pressing (probably through classical conditioning doesn’t in itself mean that there’s only
conditioning). Technically, lever pressing has now come one mechanism involved, or only one explanation
under the stimulus control of the lever. But there’s still that applies, equally, to all species and all cases
no inevitability about pressing it, only an increased (Walker, 1984). Although conditionability seems to
probability. (This is why the term ‘S–R Psychology’ is be an almost universal property of nervous systems
sometimes used only to refer to classical conditioning.) (including those of sea snails, flatworms and fruit
Similarly, drivers’ behaviour is brought under the flies), many Psychologists have argued that there can
stimulus control of traffic signals, road signs, other be no general laws of learning (Seligman, 1970).
vehicles, pedestrians, and so on. Much of our everyday If such laws do exist, one of them is likely to be
behaviour can be seen in this way. Sitting on chairs, the law of contiguity: events (or stimuli) that occur
answering the telephone, turning on the television, close together in time and space are likely to become
and so on, are all operants that are more likely to occur associated with each other. Most of the examples of
in the presence of those stimuli because of the past conditioning we’ve considered so far would appear
consequences of doing so. to ‘obey’ the law of contiguity. The taste aversion
A special case of stimulus control is a discriminative experiments described in Key Study 11.3 represent
stimulus. If a rat in the Skinner box is reinforced for important exceptions.
Box 11.4 Major similarities and differences between classical and operant
conditioning
Similarities responses that result in pleasurable outcomes are
likely to be repeated, while those that result in
● They’re both types of associative learning.
aversive outcomes aren’t.
● Generalisation, discrimination, extinction and
● In classical, completely new S–R connections are
spontaneous recovery occur in both.
formed, while operant involves the strengthening
Differences or weakening of response tendencies already
● In classical, the UCR or CR is elicited (triggered present in the animal’s behavioural repertoire.
automatically) by the UCS or CS (it’s essentially a ● In classical, the reinforcer (UCS) is presented
reflex, involuntary response). In operant, behaviour regardless of what the animal does, and is
is emitted by the organism and is essentially presented before the response. In operant, the
voluntary. reinforcer is only presented if the animal emits
● In classical, the stimulus is guaranteed to produce some specified, pre-selected behaviour, and is
the response, while the likelihood of a particular presented after the behaviour.
operant response being emitted is a function of the ● In classical, the strength of conditioning is typically
past consequences of such behaviour (it’s more or measured in terms of response magnitude (e.g.
less probable, but never certain). how many drops of saliva) and/or latency (how
● In classical, the UCS works in basically the same quickly a response is produced by a stimulus). In
way regardless of whether it’s pleasurable (such as operant, strength is measured mainly as response
food) or aversive (such as electric shock). In operant, rate (see Table 11.2).
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difficulty, if at all. Seligman believes that most of the

Key study 11.3 behaviour studied in the laboratory falls somewhere in
Learning to feel as sick as a rat (Garcia and between these two extremes.
As far as human behaviour is concerned, much of the
Koelling, 1966; Garcia et al., 1966) relevant data relates to how easily certain conditioned
● Rats were given a novel-tasting solution, such as fear responses can be induced in the laboratory or
saccharine-flavoured water (the CS), prior to a how common certain naturally occurring phobias
drug, apomorphine (the UCS), which has a delayed are compared with others. For example, Ohman et
action, inducing severe intestinal illness (the UCR). al. (1975a, 1975b) paired slides of snakes and spiders
● In two separate experiments, the precise time with a strong electric shock, and quickly established
lapse between tasting the solution and onset of conditioned emotional responses to these slides – but
the drug-induced nausea was either (a) 5, 6, 7, not to slides of flowers, houses or berries.
8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21 and 22 Seligman (1972) observed that human phobias tend
minutes, or (b) 30, 45, 75, 120 and 180 minutes. to fall into certain narrow categories, mostly animals
● In (a), the rats received just four treatments or dangerous places. Most common of all were the fear
(one every third day). In all cases, there was a of snakes, spiders, the dark, high places and closed-in
conditioned aversive response to the solution: places, and often there’s no previous evidence for the
intestinal illness became a CR (a response to the fear actually having been conditioned (see Chapters
solution alone). In some replications, just a single 43 and 45). Also, classically conditioned responses
treatment has been required. extinguish faster in humans than animals. This is
because the CRs are modulated by more complex
human memories (Weiskrantz, 1982).
While rats can also be conditioned to novel smells,
auditory, visual and tactile stimuli aren’t so readily
associated with internal illness. As for pigeons, it’s COGNITIVE APPROACHES
impossible to deter them from water and, for other
species, taste aversions are very difficult to establish, The role of cognition in conditioning
even if the animal is made very ill. In almost all species, According to Mackintosh (1978), conditioning cannot
aversions are learned more easily to new flavours be reduced to the strengthening of S–R associations by
than to familiar ones (saccharine solution is a novel the automatic action of a process called reinforcement.
taste for the rat). It’s more appropriate to think of it as a matter of
detecting and learning about relations between events.
Biological constraints on conditioning Animals typically discover what signals or causes
It seems, then, that there are definite biological events that are important to them, such as food,
limitations on the ability of animals to develop a water, danger or safety. Salivation or lever pressing are
conditioned aversion. Similarly, rats typically learn very simply a convenient index of what the subject has
quickly to avoid shock in a shuttle box and to press a learned, namely that certain relationships exist in its
lever for food. However, they don’t learn very readily environment.
to press a lever to avoid shock. Pigeons can be trained
quickly to fly from one perch to another in order to Classical conditioning
avoid shock, but it’s almost impossible to train them to Pavlov himself described the CS as a ‘signal’ for the
peck a disc to avoid shock. UCS, the relationship between CS and the UCS
Findings like these have led Bolles (1980) and as one of ‘stimulus substitution’, and the CR as an
others to conclude that we cannot regard the basic ‘anticipatory’ response (or ‘psychic secretions’),
principles of learning as applying equally to all suggesting that his dogs were expecting the food to
species in all situations. We must take into account follow the bell. Consistent with this interpretation,
the evolutionary history of the species, as well as the Rescorla (1968) presented two groups of animals
individual organism’s learning history. According to the with the same number of CS–UCS pairings, but the
concept of preparedness (Seligman, 1970), animals are second group also received additional presentations
biologically prepared to learn actions that are closely of the UCS on its own without the CS. The first
related to the survival of their species (such as learned group showed much stronger conditioning than the
water or food aversions), and these prepared behaviours second, indicating that the most important factor
are learned with very little training. Equally, (at least in classical conditioning) is how predictably
contraprepared behaviours are contrary to an animal’s the UCS follows the CS, not how often the CS and
natural tendencies, and so are learned with great UCS are paired.
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Blocking also supports a more cognitive Reinforcement provides the learner with information
interpretation (Kamin, 1969). For example, if an about the likely consequences of certain behaviour
animal is shown a light, quickly followed by an under certain conditions – that is, it improves our
electric shock, the light soon comes to elicit fear as a prediction of whether a given action will lead to
CR. If a noise is then added (noise + light + shock), pleasant (reinforcement) or unpleasant (punishment)
then the noise should also soon become a CS, outcomes in the future. It also motivates us, by
because it, too, is being paired with shock. However, causing us to anticipate future outcomes. Our present
this isn’t what happens. If the noise is later presented behaviours are largely governed by the outcomes we
alone, it fails to produce a CR. It seems that the expect them to have, and we’re more likely to learn
noise has somehow been ‘blocked’ from becoming behaviour if we value its consequences.
a CS because of the previous conditioning to the This cognitive reinterpretation of reinforcement
light. In cognitive terms, since the light already forms part of Bandura’s social learning theory (SLT),
predicts shock, the noise is irrelevant. It provides no which is discussed in more detail in relation
additional information – the animal already ‘knows’ to aggression (Chapter 29), moral and gender
that shock will follow the light. development (Chapters 35 and 36), and personality
(Chapter 42). While not denying the role of both
Operant conditioning classical and operant conditioning, SLT focuses
on observational learning (or modelling), in which
Key Study 11.4 cognitive factors are crucial. This is reflected in
Bandura’s renaming (1986, 1989) of SLT as social
Learned helplessness (Seligman, 1974, 1975) cognitive theory.
● Dogs were strapped into a harness and given

a series of shocks from which they couldn’t Tolman’s cognitive behaviourism
escape. They were later required to jump a Although he was working within the Behaviourist
barrier in a shuttle box within 10 seconds of a tradition in the 1920s, 1930s and 1940s,Tolman would
warning signal, or suffer 50 seconds of painful today be regarded as a Cognitive Psychologist. He
shock. explained the learning of rats in terms of inferred
● Control dogs (which hadn’t been subjected to cognitive processes, in particular cognitive or mental maps.
the inescapable shocks) learned the avoidance
response very quickly.
● But about two-thirds of the experimental Ask Yourself
dogs seemed unable to do so. They seemed
passively resigned to suffering the shock, and ● How might you explain Tolman and Honzik’s
even if they did successfully avoid the shock findings?
on one trial, they were unlikely to do so the ● Could the distinction between learning and
next. Some dogs had to be pushed over the performance help?
barrier 200 times or more before this learned
helplessness wore off.
Clearly, group 3 rats had been learning their way
through the maze during the first 10 days, but
According to Seligman, the dogs learned that no that learning was latent (hidden or ‘behaviourally
behaviour on their part had any effect on the silent’). In other words, it didn’t show up in their
occurrence (or non-occurrence) of a particular event actual behaviour until they received the incentive of
(the shock). This has been demonstrated using human the reinforcement on day 11. Tolman and Honzik
participants by Miller and Norman (1979), and Maier concluded that reinforcement may be important in
and Seligman (1976) have tried to explain depression relation to performance of learned behaviour, but that it
in humans in terms of learned helplessness (see isn’t necessary for the learning itself.
Chapters 12 and 44). Tolman’s (1948) place learning (or sign learning) theory
Skinner’s claim that reinforcements and punishments maintains that rats learn expectations as to which part
automatically strengthen and weaken behaviour has of the maze will be followed by which other part of
been challenged by Bandura (1977a). For Bandura: the maze. Tolman called these expectations cognitive
maps, a primitive kind of perceptual map of the maze,
Reinforcements serve principally as an informative an understanding of its spatial relationships (much like
and motivational operation rather than as a the mental map you have of familiar streets leading to
mechanical response strengthener. home or college).
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Insight learning can be defined as a perceptual

Key Study 11.5 restructuring of the elements that constitute a problem
Latent learning – who needs situation: a previously missing ‘ingredient’ is supplied,
and all the parts are seen in relation to each other,
reinforcement? (Tolman and Honzik, 1930) forming a meaningful whole. Some of the most
● Group 1 rats were reinforced every time they famous studies of insight learning were conducted by
found their way through a maze to the food box. Köhler, one of the founders of Gestalt Psychology,
● Group 2 rats were never reinforced. with chimps. These, and other Gestalt studies of
● Group 3 rats received no reinforcement for the first problem-solving, are discussed in Chapter 20.
10 days of the experiment, but did so from day 11.
● Not surprisingly, group 1 learned the maze quickly Learning sets
and made fewer and fewer mistakes, while group According to Harlow (1949), S–R learning and insight
2 never reduced the time it took to find the food, learning are essentially two different phases of the
and moved around aimlessly much of the time. same, continuous process. S–R learning predominates
● Group 3 made no apparent progress during the first in the early stages, and insight develops out of prior
10 days. But they then showed a sudden decrease S–R connections. Harlow suggests that the concept
in the time it took to reach the goal box on day 11, of a learning set (or ‘learning to learn’) represents an
when they received their first reinforcement. They intervening process between S–R and insight learning.
caught up almost immediately with Group 1. The greater the number of sets, the better equipped
the learner is to adapt to a changing environment; a
30 very large number of different sets ‘may supply the raw
28 material for human thinking’.
26 Never reinforced A learning set involves learning a general skill
24
22 applicable to a whole new class of problems, a simple
20 rule or code, based on a conceptual (not a perceptual)
18
relationship. In experiments with monkeys, Harlow
Time
16
14 demonstrated that insightful learning is itself (at least
Reinforced starting
12
on the eleventh day partially) learned and grows out of more random, trial-
10
8 and-error learning.
6
4 Always reinforced CONCLUSIONS: TRANSFER OF LEARNING
2
A learning set represents a special case of a more
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
Days
general phenomenon known as transfer of learning (or
training). Essentially, transfer refers to the influence
Figure 11.10 The results of Tolman and Honzik’s of earlier learning on later learning, which is an
study of latent learning in rats inherent feature of the learning process in general
(Howe, 1980). Some kinds of transfer take the form
of simple stimulus generalisation, while in more
Although a cognitive map can only be inferred from complex learning situations transfer may depend on
actual behaviour, it’s difficult to know how else to explain the acquisition of rules or principles that apply to a
the findings that rats will take short-cuts to the food variety of different circumstances. Learning sets can be
box if the old path is blocked. Similarly, if the maze were viewed as intermediate between simple generalisation,
rotated, they could find the usual food location from and the more complex transfer phenomena involved in
several different starting points (Tolman et al., 1946). hierarchically organised skills (Howe, 1980).
Restle (1957) flooded a maze immediately after a group Koestler (1970) believes that the debate between the
of rats had learnt to run it, and they were able to swim S–R and cognitive theorists derives to a large extent
to the goal box with no more errors than when they’d from a refusal to take seriously the notion of ripeness.
walked.This clearly supports Tolman’s interpretation. By this, he means a person’s or animal’s readiness to
make a discovery or solve a problem, based on relevant
Insight learning knowledge, skills and past experience. Rats and cats
Insight learning represents a view of learning as ‘purely have generally been presented with tasks for which
cognitive’. It stems from the Gestalt school of Psychology, they are biologically ill-fitted, and so the resulting
which is diametrically opposed to the S–R approach.The learning was bound to appear gradual, piecemeal and
Gestalt Psychologists are best known for their work on at first quite random. But Köhler set chimps problems
perception (see Chapter 15), and their view of learning is for which they were (almost) ripe, which gave the
directly linked to their view of perception. impression that all learning is based on insight.
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Chapter Summary
● Learning has played a major part in the ● Primary reinforcers are naturally reinforcing,
development of Psychology as a scientific discipline while secondary/conditioned reinforcers come to
and is central to the Behaviourist approach. be reinforcing through association with primary
● Psychologists are interested in learning as a process. reinforcers.
Theories of learning differ as to the nature of the ● Different schedules of reinforcement can be
process involved, especially the role played by analysed in terms of pattern/rate of response and
cognitive factors. resistance to extinction. Variable schedules involve
● It’s generally agreed that learning involves a high, steady rates of response and high resistance
relatively permanent change in behaviour due to to extinction, compared with fixed and continuous
past experience. The distinction between learning schedules.
and performance refers to potential and actual ● Shaping involves the reinforcement of successive
behaviour, respectively. approximations to the desired behaviour.
● The distinction between respondent and operant ● Escape and avoidance learning are two forms of
behaviour corresponds to classical (respondent or negative reinforcement.
Pavlovian) and operant (instrumental or Skinnerian) ● According to the two-factor theory, both classical
conditioning, respectively. and operant conditioning are involved in avoidance
● In classical conditioning, the pairing of a learning, which can account for the persistence of
conditioned and an unconditioned stimulus results human phobias.
in the former eliciting a response that formerly was ● Punishment seems to involve a suppression of
produced only by the latter. behaviour, and is most effective when combined
● Delayed/forward, backward, simultaneous with the reinforcement of an incompatible
and trace conditioning differ according to the response.
relationships between the conditioned and the ● Taste aversion experiments represent an important
unconditioned stimuli. challenge to the law of contiguity.
● Generalisation, discrimination, extinction and ● Preparedness helps explain experimental findings
spontaneous recovery represent conditioning which show that different species acquire certain
phenomena, which make it more complex and conditioned responses more or less easily, and
versatile. Spontaneous recovery demonstrates that why certain human phobias are more common
extinction involves a learning to inhibit/suppress than others.
the conditioned response. ● Classical conditioning involves learning about
● Watson applied classical conditioning to human relations between environmental events,
behaviour for the first time by inducing fear of a rather than a simple strengthening of S–R
rat in Little Albert. Jones removed animal phobias associations. Seligman’s concept of learned
from Little Peter using an early form of systematic helplessness illustrates the complexity of operant
desensitisation. conditioning and has been used to explain human
● Compared with classical, operant conditioning sees depression.
learning as a much more active process. Skinner ● Tolman’s studies of latent learning show that
was interested in how animals operate on their learning can take place in the absence of
environment, and how their activity is instrumental reinforcement. Rats learn a cognitive map of a
in producing certain consequences. maze, not the individual movements of walking or
● Skinner’s work was based on Thorndike’s law of running that take them to the food box.
effect. He designed a form of puzzle-box (a Skinner ● Gestalt Psychologists saw insight learning as
box), and called the consequences of behaviour involving the perceptual restructuring of the
positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement and elements that constitute a problem situation.
punishment. ● Harlow’s concept of a learning set shows that
● Reinforcement (both positive and negative) insight and trial and error aren’t necessarily opposed
strengthens behaviour, while punishment forms of learning. A learning set represents a special
weakens it. case of the more general transfer of learning.
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Links with Other Topics/Chapters
Chapter 2 Learning, in the form of Chapter 45 Shaping provides the basis of

conditioning, lies at the heart of behaviour modification, used with a
behaviourism, one of the major range of patients, including autistic
theoretical approaches within children and adult schizophrenics
Psychology
Chapter 44 Seligman and others have drawn on
Chapter 1 The distinction between the concept of learned helplessness
philosophical and methodological to explain human depression
behaviourism is important both in
the history of Psychology Social learning theory has been
applied to the study of:
Chapter 3 and the debate over the scientific Chapter 29 aggression
status of Psychology
Chapter 35 moral development
Chapter 17 Learning and memory are closely
interrelated processes Chapter 36 gender development
Chapter 44 The Little Albert experiment is taken Gestalt Psychology is best known for:
by many behaviour therapists (such Chapter 15 its principles of perceptual
as Eysenck) as demonstrating how all organisation
phobias are acquired in everyday life
Chapter 20 research into problem-solving
Chapter 45 The ‘direct unconditioning’ used
in the Little Peter experiment is
an early example of systematic
desensitisation, a major form of
behaviour therapy, used in the
treatment of phobias
Recommended Reading Useful Websites

Anderson, J.R. (1995) Learning and Memory: An www.brembs.net/classical/classical.html (Basic
Integrated Approach. New York: John Wiley & Sons. Concepts in Classical Conditioning)
Equally relevant to Chapter 17. www.wagntrain.com/OC/ (An Animal Trainer’s
Catania, A.C. (1992) Learning (3rd edn). Englewood Introduction to Operant and Classical Conditioning)
Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Also useful for Chapters 17, www.tinyurl.com/py3ptx5 (YouTube explanatory
19, 35 and 36. video)
Gross, R. (2008) Key Studies in Psychology (5th edn). www.tinyurl.com/088hv2u (Account of Pavlov’s work
London: Hodder Education. Chapter 23. in British Medical Journal)
Leslie, J.C. (2002) Essential Behaviour Analysis. London: www.tinyurl.com/y8d2py4 (Pavlov’s own account of
Arnold. Also relevant to Chapters 19, 44 and 45. classical conditioning at PsychClassics site)
O’Donohue, W. & Ferguson, K.E. (2001) The www.tinyurl.com/nehqx9v (Simple conditioning of a
Psychology of B.F. Skinner. London: Methuen. simulated dog)
Walker, S. (1984) Learning Theory and Behaviour
Modification. London: Methuen. Also relevant to
Chapter 45.
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Module IOP1501
Author Bergh Z & Geldenhuys D
Year of Publication 2014
Title Psychology in the work context
Chapter Part nine - Attitudes and values
Page numbers 188-209
Th is material has been reproduced in thee-

Reserves on behalf of the UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH
AFRICA (UNISA)
The material may be subject to copyright under

the Copyright Act no. 98 of 1978. Any further
reproduction or distribution of th is material by you
may be a violation of the Copyright Act.
A single copy (printed or electron ic) of the

material may be kept for academ ic use only.
CHAPTER9
Attitudes and values
jerome Kiley
9-1 Introduction 189

9-2 The nature of values and attitudes 189
9-3 The functions of values and attitudes 191
9-4 Different approaches to understanding individual values 192
9·5 Work-related attitudes 196
9·6 Culture and values 198
9-7 Attitude and value change 203
9·8 Summary and conclusion 206
9·9 Assessment activities 207
CHAPTER 9: ATTITUDES AND VALUES
Learning outcomes 9.2 THE NATURE OF VALUES AND

ATTITUDES
After studying this chapter you should be able to:
• comprehend the relationship between values, The term "attitude" was originally used in the visual arts
attitudes and norms and the theatre: the posture of a figure in a painting,
• explain the differences between values and a sculpture or an actor was viewed as expressing an
attitudes inner emotional state, or an attitude. Thus a figure has
• recognise the three components of attitudes an attitude, and this could explain what is meant in
• illustrate how values are implicit in the meaning of popular terms when people speak of someone as "having
work an attitude", (Jones and Elcock, 2002). In psychology,
• explain the functions of attitudes however, an attitude is generally defined as a belief
• discuss the process of changing attitudes or opinion in terms of three components: cognitive,
• recognise the role of important work-related emotional and behavioural, as distinguished by Secord
attitudes and Backman (1964) and Bochman (1964) (in Bohner,
• explain the importance of culture in general and 2001; Kowalski and Westen, 2011; Marini, 2012).
organisational values. Though one would expect that these three components
would be rather coherent or consistent, each component
may influence behaviour and decisions differently. The
behavioural component refers to the way in which an
9.1 INTRODUCTION attitude is expressed. The nature of the attitude may vary
People have many ideas that are important to them or according to the extent to which it is more cognitive or
which they prefer that influence the way people behave more emotional or affective, which is reflected in the
towards others and objects that they encounter in their behavioural component through which the attitude
day-to-day life. This is a reflection of peoples' values, becomes perceptible. For example, an employee might
which are convictions or beliefs about what are right and have a negative attitude towards the boss, incorporating a
wrong. When people talk about work, they show different strong emotional component, yet as the employee gains a
attitudes to work and attach different meanings to it. better understanding of the boss, the attitude can become
Why do their attitudes vary and how are these attitudes more cognitive and manifest in evaluative rather than
related to values? How can their attitudes be changed to emotional behaviour. As with emotions, motives and
foster a greater understanding of differences? cognitions, it is also important to distinguish between
Values can be viewed as more central and core belief explicit (conscious and expressed attitudes) and implicit
systems in people's lives which may direct behaviour and attitudes, the latter referring to private, repressed or
attitudes. An attitude can be defined as (Plotnik, 1996, hidden beliefs which may well influence behaviour more
p.540): in certain situations. A non-drinker, with implicit attitudes
on substance abuse, may over-indulge at parties because of
"Any belief or opinion that includes a positive
longstanding associations between pleasure and substance
or negative evaluation of some target (object,
use (Kowalski and Westen, 2011).
person, or event) and that predisposes us to act
Pattison (2004, pp.5-6) argues that values are difficult
in a certain way toward the target."
to define and that "these terms have a slippery, chameleon-
These terms, as well as other terms associated with like nature", He offers a number of definitions from
val ues (sue h as "'d
1 eo 1ogy , , "co de " , "stan dard" , "cu1tur al research literature namely:
orientation", "life philosophy" and "reality conception") • A value is "something we hold dear" (Keep and
can all be accommodated by the term "orientation" McClenahan, in Pattison, p.6).
(Joubert, 1986). Such terms indicate selective orientations A value is an affective disposition towards a person,
(Williams, 1979). Values and attitudes can thus be seen object or idea.
as selective orientations that direct the individual's • A value is something we recognise as good and
preferences and modes of behaviour; they are intentional worthwhile.
states or tendencies, which also apply to motivation and A value is a personal belief or attribute about the
emotion (Liebrucks, 2001; Chryssochoou, 2004). truth, beauty or worth of any thought, object or
The aim of this chapter is to explain attitudes, values behaviour. Values appear as attributes of things and
and norms as relatively fixed, unobvious characteristics events themselves rather than as an activity of the
that must be understood, because they are motivating self or as the result of such activity (Tschudin, in
forces in people's perception of, and reactions to, other Pattison, p.6).
people and events.
~~~- PSYCHOLOGY IN THE WORK CONTEXT
The difference between attitudes and values is that: Campbell (Rokeach, 1979, p.72) also argues that
behaviour is a manifestation of values and attitudes in
"An attitude refers to an organization of several
that they determine "the probability of the occurrence
beliefs around a specific object or situation ... "
of a specified behavior in a specified situation". Our
whilst "A value " ... refers to a single belief of a
behaviours are thus often not aligned with the cognitive
very specific kind. It concerns a desirable mode of
and accompanying affective components of attitudes. For
behaviour or an end-state that has transcendental
example, an employee may dislike her manager (affective
quality to it, guiding actions, attitudes, judge-
component) because she believes that he treats her unfairly
ments, and comparisons across specific objects
(cognitive component); however, she will still act in a
and situations and beyond immediate goals to
friendly manager (behavioural component) as she is afraid
more ultimate goals" (Rokeach, 1973, p.18).
of the repercussions if she should voice her true attitudes
Rokeach (1973, p.18) further argued that "values occupy towards him.
a more central position than attitudes within one's The relative permanence or changeability of attitudes
personality makeup and cognitive system, and they are depends on their origin and on the intensity and duration
there for determinants of attitudes as well as behaviour." of the factors that gave rise to them. Attitudes develop
Most approaches to attitudes also hold that they through:
comprise three components, namely: • interaction between parent and child
an evaluative component, that is, whether we like or • critical periods of development
dislike an object, person, or event and how positive • ways of learning
or ambivalent an attitude is • social, cultural and educational influences
• a target towards which the attitudes are directed • information transferred through mass media and
• a preference to act towards the target in a particular computers
manner (Ostrom, Skowronski and Nowak, 1994). • personal experiences that may have a profound
influence on an individual's attitudes
The strength or durability of an attitude will be determined • socialisation in the work situation.
by how important or relevant an attitude is in a person's
life, as well as how easily attitudes are aroused during Attitudes form part of prejudice, stereotypes and dis-
events (Kowalski and Westen, 2011). crimination, as the ethical reader box on this page
Marini (2012) emphasises the importance of the explains.
cognitive, affective and behavioural components in
attitudes.
Ethical reader: Attitudes form part of prejudice, stereotypes and discrimination

Prejudice involves derogatory attitudes or cognitive beliefs, the expression of negative feelings, or the exhibition
of discriminatory behaviour towards members of a group because of their membership of that group (Brown, 1995, in
Chryssochoou, 2004). As it is focused on people in certain membership categories, prejudice can be seen as any normal form
of categorisation (such as the categorisation of animals, sports, or types of work). Some prejudices are superficial, with little
social consequence, whilst others are deeply embedded in people's minds and likely to find social support (Schneider, 2004).
Stereotypes are generalisations embedded in cultures. In the past they were mainly seen as sick and inaccurate, and
produced by prejudice and ignorant minds. Schneider (2004) points out that, although this can be correct, stereotypes are
not always negative and can be akin to normal kinds of generalisation, such as generalising about computers or different
forms of music.
Stereotypes have the same advantages and disadvantages as all forms of generalising. Yet they can have profound
consequences for social behaviour. Stereotypes of groups of people may be threatening, causing anxiety in members of
devalued groups, thereby interfering with their performance, leading to self-fulfilling negative prophecies about their ability
and value (Chryssochoou, 2004).
Discrimination involves the unjustified use of category labels to make judgements against ether people (Schneider,
2004), or the different and unfair treatment of people because of their membership of a particular group (Chryssochoou,
2004).
Both prejudice and stereotypes function at different levels of consciousness. What people think they believe is not
always all that they believe. Although the individual can control his I her prejudice and stereotypes, these may be suppressed
to the point that they are hard to control, especially when people deny that they have them (Schneider, 2004).
9·3 THE FUNCTIONS OF VALUES AND Beliefs

ATTITUDES
Phenomenological
Values generally influence attitudes and behaviour. The
Causal Values
main way that culture controls our actions is by creating Normative
systems of knowledge and cognitive beliefs, as well as
Terminal
systems of values and norms (Parsons in Rokeach, 1979):
• Personal
"A value system is an organized set of preferential • Social
standards that are used in making selections of objects and Instrumental
actions, resolving conflicts, invoking social sanctions, and • Moral
coping with needs or claims for social and psychological • Competence
defences of choices made or proposed" (Rokeach, 1979,
p.20).
"The values which come to constitute the structure of
~
Attitudes
a societal system are, then, the conception of the desirable
type of society held by the members of the society of ~
reference applied to the particular society of which they Behaviour
are members. The same applies to other types of social
Figure 9.1 Milton Rokeach's structure of beliefs and values.
systems. A value pattern then defines a direction of choice,
(Source: Chelladurai, 2006, p.86) Reprinted, with
and consequent commitment to action" (Parsons, 1968
permission, from P. Chelladurai, 2006, Human
in Rokeach, 1979, p.21).
resource management in sport and recreation,
Values are largely derived from three sources, namely
2nd ed. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 86.
through upbringing from our family and early socialisation,
assimilated from our cultural upbringing such as cultural
norms related to education, work and play, whilst others
are derived from professional and legal codes (Wall, 2004). attitudes and behaviours. One method is to measure the
There are various methods to collect information about attitudes that are a product of the values that underlie
human values, although in many instances individuals these. An example of a simple attitude survey is provided
are not aware of the true values which underlie their in Table 9.1.
Table 9.1 A sample attitude survey
Attitude survey of employee attitudes towards their employer:
Please answer each of the following statements about your company using the following rating scale:
5 = Strongly agree
4 =Agree
3 =Undecided
2 =Disagree
1 = Strongly disagree
Statement Rating
1. Can get ahead in this company if I make the effort.
2. This company's wage rates are competitive.
3· Employee promotion decisions are handled fairly.
4· I understand the fringe bepefits the company offers.
5· My job makes the best u,~e of my abilities.
6. My workload is challenging but not burdensome.
7· I have trust and confide{'ce in my boss.
8. I feel free to tell my bosS'what I think.
9· I know what my boss expects of me.
~~ PSYCHOLOGY IN THE WORK CONTEXT
9·1f DIFFERENT APPROACHES TO the same time, values differ between generation , regions
UNDERSTANDING INDIVIDUAL VALUES and nations.
Rokeach (1973) classifies values into two broad cate-
With values forming the core of personality, different gories, namely terminal and instrumental value . Terminal
approaches have been formulated in an attempt to values relate to the end goals people sought. Instrumental
understand values. Three of these approaches include: values refer to the personal views of the individual as
• Milton Rokeach's conceptualisation of values as to what methods should be employed to obtain these
central and peripheral end goals. An example of a terminal value would be
Eduard Spranger's value orientations achievement in a particular field, such as obtaining a
• Shalom Schwartz's universal values. degree, whilst the instrumental values would determine
how the individual is prepared to achieve this. One student
9·1f·1 Milton Rokeach's terminal and would only be prepared to obtain this through hard work
instrumental values and dedication as he I she holds the instrumental values
According to Milton Rokeach, an individual's values are of honesty, whilst another may be prepared to cheat who
ranked in a hierarchy known as a value system which has holds the instrumental value of success at all co ts .
the implication that different values are expressed uniquely Values influence our decisions, and consequently our
in terms of their intensity according to the importance of behaviour in a number of ways, namely (Rokeach, 1973):
the value to the individual (Rokeach, 1973, p.6): • They direct the positions that we take on social issues.
• They induce us to select a particular religion over
"When we think about, talk about, or try to teach
another.
one of our values to others, we typically do so
• They guide the self-image that we show to others.
without remembering the other values, thus
• They guide the judgements that we make about
regardng them as absolutes. But when value is
others.
actually activated along with the others In a given
• Values help us to decide what is moral and
situation, the behavioral outcome will a result
competent.
of the relative importance of all the competing
• Values influence the issues we choose to attempt to
values that situation has activated."
influence and change in others.
Overall values are fairly stable and enduring, thus we • Values guide how we rationalise and explain our
are more able to predict an individual's behaviour in a behaviours that would otherwise be regarded a
particular situation if we are aware of his I her values. At socially unacceptable.
Table 9.2 Rokeach's terminal and instrumental values
Terminal values Instrumental values
• A comfortable life (prosperous life) • Ambitious (hardworking, aspiring)

• An exciting life (stimulating and active life) • Broad-minded (open-minded)
• A sense of accomplishment (lasting contribution) • Capable (competent, effective)
• A world at peace (world free of war and conflict) • Cheerful (lightheartedly, joyful)
• Equality (brotherhood and sisterhood, equal • Clean (neat, tidy)
opportunity for all) • Courageous (standing up for one's beliefs)
• Family security (taking care of loved one's) • Forgiving (willing to pardon others)
• Freedom (independence, free choice) • Helpful (working for the welfare of others)
• Happiness (contentedness) • Honest (sincere, truthful)
• Inner harmony (freedom from inner conflict) • Imaginative (daring, creative)
• Mature love (sexual and spiritual intimacy) • Independent (self-reliant, self-sufficiency)
• National security (protection from attack) • Intellectual (intelligent, reflective)
• Pleasure (enjoyable, leisurely life) • Logical (consistent, rational)
• Salvation (saved, eternal life) • Loving (affectionate, tender)
• Self-respect (self-esteem) • Obedient (dutiful, respectful)
• Social recognition (respect, admiration) • Polite (courteous, well mannered)
• True friendship (close companionship) • Responsible (dependable, reliable)
• Wisdom (a mature understanding of life) • Self-controlled(restrained, self-disciplined)
Source: Rokeach,1979
9·1f·2 Values as part of personality: looking for similarities and differences in things with
Spranger's value orientations little concern for the beauty or utility of objects. His/
Eduard Spranger (1928), defined values as "the constellation her main concern is with reason, logic and observation.
of likes, dislikes, viewpoints, shoulds, inner inclinations, This person's interests are empirical, critical, and rational
rational and irrational judgments, prejudices, and association (Bruno and Lay, 2006).
patterns that determine a person's view of the world". He
identified six value-orientations that form part of every
individual's personality:
• theoretical value-orientations
• economic value-orientations
• social value-orientations
• power value-orientations
• religious value-orientations
• aesthetic value-orientations .
These value orientations are present in the personality of
an individual and function in interrelation to each other.
However, one value-orientation tends to be dominant in
an individual's personality.
Spranger argued that these orientations have been
present in human beings from antiquity, but the way Figure 9 ·3 The theoretical person.
they are expressed changes as human beings' cultural
history changes. A modern value-orientation that has
been added to Spranger's five earlier types is the tech- The politicalperson is directed toward power, not necessarily
nical orientation which has emerged over time and in politics, but in whatever area he/ she finds him-/herself
is essentially a combination of the theoretical and an This is a value orientation found in most leaders as they
economic orientation (Theron, 2009). have a high power orientation. These people are highly
The economic person is mainly directed toward what is competitive throughout their lives which manifest itself
useful in life. He I she is interested in the practical aspects in the drive for personal power, influence, and recognition
of the business world, in the manufacture, marketing, in a continuous basis (Bruno and Lay, 2006).
distribution and consumption of goods, in the use of
economic resources; and in the accumulation of tangible
wealth. This type of person is practical and fits well the
stereotype of the business person (Bruno and Lay, 2006).
Figure 9·4 The political person.

Figure 9.2 The economic person.
The aesthetic penon is mainly interested in the artistic

The theoretical person is mainly interested in the discovery aspects of life. However, this does not necessarily mean
of truth and the systematic ordering of knowledge. This that he/ she is a creative artist. This person values form
type of person generally takes a cognitive approach, and harmony and views experience in terms of grace,
~- PSYCHOLOGY IN THE WORK CONTEXT
symmetry, or harmony. He/ she lives in the here and now of which a belief in God is the central concept. Belief
with enthusiasm (Bruno and Lay, 2006). is seen as the highest form of knowledge. The religious
person sees all activities as service to God and acquisition
of earthly things as gifts from God (Theron, 2009).
Figure 9-7 The religious person.
Figure 9·5 The aesthetic person.
Applying Spranger•s six value-

The socialperson is primarily concerned with the well-being orientations in psychological tests and
of other people. This person's essential value is love of research
people that is expressed through altruistic and philanthropic Spranger's conception of these six value-orientations
actions. The social person values people and tends to be found application in a psychological test, namely the
kind, sympathetic, and unselfish (Bruno and Lay, 2006). Allport·Vernon-Lindzey Study of Values (Allport, Vernon
and Lindzey, 1960}, which is used in research on values.
Spranger's conception of values as part of personality
has been extended by research on the relationship
between values and personality traits measured by
personality tests. The aesthetic value-orientation, for
example, has been shown to be related to sensitivity,
radicalism, a tendency towards unconventionality and
self-actualisation, and aversion to economic and political
values (Theron, 1994).
The relation between personality and attitudes, and
work values in particular, has become an important field
of contemporary research in 1-0 Psychology. Findings
have shown which personality traits affect individuals'
judgements of what makes them happy at work. The
traits of extraversion, openness to experience, and
agreeableness (friendliness), for example, show a strong
Figure 9.6 The social person. relation to work values comprising work relationships,
influence and advancement, and financial and working
conditions, whilst openness as such is related to
The religious person sees all aspects of his I her life as having autonomy and the use of skills (Furnham, Petrides,
a having a spiritual foundation. He I she sees nothing as Tsaousis, Pappas and Garrod, zoos).
existing in itself, because everything is part of the spiritual,
9·4·3 Universal values: Schwartz's theory Stimulation encompasses the drive for excitement,
Spranger identified six values that are universal in that novelty, and challenge in life. Individuals who value
they are present to a greater or lesser degree in all people. stimulation are daring, live a varied life and aspire
Schwartz (1992, 1994, 2005) extended the list to ten to an exciting life.
Values that seem to cover the full range of human values. • Self-direction encompasses valu ing independent
Shalom Schwartz (1994, p.21) defines values as "desirable thought and actions, being able to choose, create
transsituational goals, varying in importance that serves and explore. Self-directed individuals are creative,
as guiding principles in the life of a person or other social value their freedom and independence, and are
entity". curious.
Schwartz (n.d.) conceptualised his ideas about values • Universalism values an understanding, appreciation,
as follows below: tolerance and protection for the welfare of all
• Values are beliifs that are tied inextricably to people and nature. Individuals whose values are
emotion, not objective, cold ideas. universalistic are broadminded and value wisdom,
• Values are a motivational construct. They refer to the social justice, equality, a world at peace, a world
desirable goals people strive to attain. of beauty, unity with nature and protecting the
• Values transcend specific actions and situations.They environment.
are abstract goals. The abstract nature of values • Benevolence encompasses preserving and enhancing
distinguishes them from concepts like norms and the welfare of those with whom one is in frequent
attitudes, which usually refer to specific actions, personal contact. Benevolent individuals are helpful,
objects, or situations. honest, forgiving, loyal and responsible.
• Values guide the selection or evaluation ofactions, • Tradition values respect, commitment, and
policies, people, and events. That is, values serve as acceptance of the customs and ideas that traditional
standards or criteria. culture or religion provide the sel£ Tradition
• Values are ordered by importance relative to one orientated individuals are humble, moderate,
another. People's values form an ordered system devout, respect tradition, and accepting of their
of value priorities that characterise them as position in life.
individuals. This hierarchical feature of values also • Conformity comprises the restraint of actions and
distinguishes them from norms and attitudes. impulses that are likely to upset or harm others
and violate social expectations or norms. People
Shwartz's (1996) theory aims to provide a comprehensive who value conformity are polite, obedient, self-
set of different motivational types of values that can be disciplined, and honour their parents and elders.
recognised across cultures. His theory identified ten • Security values safety, harmony, and stability of
motivationally distinct value orientations recognised society, of relationships, and of sel£ Individuals
by people from all cultures. His theory focuses on the who value security value the family security,
conscious motivational goals that represent the" .. . three national security, social order, cleanliness and the
requirements of human existence: biological needs, reciprocation of favours.
requisites of coordinated social interaction, and demands
of group survival and functioning" (Schwaryz, 1996, p.2) . Each value is identified by a goal that indicates its
The ten values identified by Schwartz (1996) are: motivational function towards influencing behaviour.
• Power which is characterised by the drive for social The ten values are interrelated on a continuum, which is
status and prestige, control or dominance over presented in a circular structure (see Figure 9.8).
people and resources. Individuals who value power Adjacent values in the circle share similar motivational
aspire to social status, control of others, authority goals, for example, power and achievement. The values of
and wealth. c~nformity and tradition are in the same wedge of the
• Achievement values are lived out through personal ~lfcle be~~use they share the same individual goal. Values
success by demonstrating competence according to m oppos1t1_o~al wed?es on the circle represent conflicting
social standards. Individuals who value achievement or competltlve motivational goals, such as self-direction
aim to be successful, capable, ambitious and and security.
influential. ~e oppositions between conflicting values are
• Hedonism concerns pleasure and sensuous orgamsed along two bipolar dimensions. One dimension
gratification for onesel£ Hedonistically orientated contrasts openness to change and conservation.This dimen-
individuals are focussed on pleasure and enjoying sion indicates the conflict or competition there is
life. between stimulation and self-direction versus security,
conformity and tradition.The other dimension contrasts
~~ PSYCHOLOGY IN THE WORK CONTEXT
self-enhancement and self-transcendence. This shows the 9·5 WORK-RELATED ATTITUDES

conflict or competition between valuing power and
achievement versus universalism and benevolence. Both managers and employees possess values and attitudes
H edonism includes aspects of both self-enhancement that the organisation may wish to alter or reinforce
and openness to change. (Furnham, 2005). Job satisfaction, work satisfaction and
organisational commitment are attitudes that have been
investigated specifically in the work context.
Self-direction 9.5.1 Values and the meaning of work

Universalism The meaning of work embraces the values that individuals
attach to work or to working. A significant factor in the
Stimulation
meaning of work is the value that working has for the
individual at any given time. This involves the centrality
Benevolence of work relative to other life roles. A study of over 15 000
individuals in eight industrialised countries found that
Hedonism seeing work as a central life interest in life decreases as
\ --~;;;:,:~.:,
Con formity the importance of leisure time increases. The majority
of individuals, however, valued working, and would have
continued working even if they had had the means to
live comfortably without working for the rest of their
lives (MOW, 1987).
Power Research conducted in 11 countries, ranging from
moderately developed to industrially most advanced
(Sverko and Super, 1995), showed that the particular
values attached to work are all inner-oriented values. In
all the countries the majority of respondents indicated
Figure 9.8 Relations amongst values.
that personal development, the utilisation of ability, and
Source: Schwartz (2005, p.J2)
achievement (which are all related to self-fulfilment) were
the most important values. The desire for authority and
prestige and a willingness to take risks were the two least
important.
Applying Schwartz's theory in research
As part of this study, Langley (1995), found that
Schwartz's theory has been developed by research
amongst South Mrican high-school pupils of all popu-
utilising the Schwartz Value Survey (SVS). A South
lation groups, the most important values were using ability
African study of business science students (Uphill,
(which had the highest value in all the population groups),
2007) supports the notion that values can be grouped
personal development, achievement, economic security
into motivational types. It also shows that achievement
and advancement. By comparison, the least important
is the strongest value in that group, whereas stimulation
values were social relations, variety, desire for authority,
and security are not clearly indicated as values.
physical prowess and taking risks.
Research findings by Ungerer (2009) in general
The importance of specific values can change as
correspond with Schwartz's model. Consumers from
society and the workplace change. Change then becomes
particular population groups in South Africa show
a meaning attached to work. In postmodern societies value
characteristic value patterns. Consumers in genera l
is placed on heterogeneity, openness and inclusiveness, and
appear to pursue power, hedonism, stimulation and
acceptance of difference and otherness (Jencks, 1989). In
achievement values quite strongly, whilst they att ach
practice, however, these values are reflected in different
little importance to benevolence and security values.
ways, which is seen in different types of cultural diversity.
Their values also differ as their feelings of subjective
Assimilation and multiculturalism constitute two
well-being differ. Consumers with lower subjective
different types of cultural diversity (Moghaddam, 1998,
well-being attach importance to self-transcendence,
in Chryssochoou, 2004). In assimilation, minorities
whilst consumers with higher subjective well-being are
abandon their heritage cultures in an attempt to melt
characterised by self-enhancement.
into mainstream society. They can adopt the majority way
of life, or majority and minority groups can contribute
to forming a new common culture. In multiculturalism,
heritage cultures are retained and developed in a way 9·5·2 Job satisfaction
to form a multifaceted culture. Multiculturalism can be: job satiifaction is a predominantly positive attitude towards
• active, where a policy supports the cultural heritage the work situation. An individual may be dissatisfied with
of people some aspects of his I her work and satisfied with others,
• Jaissez-faire, where cultural diversity is neither but if he/ she feels or thinks positively about relatively
protected nor suppressed more aspects, there is a general factor that can be labelled
• collective, where heritage cultures are treated as "job satisfaction."
equal and respected The components of attitudes in general (the cognitive,
• individual, where each individual is treated as a emotional and behavioural components) are also involved
carrier of a particular culture. in job satisfaction. 1he behavioural component is not
necessarily very strong, as an individual might have
feelings or views about an issue without revealing it in
his/her behaviour. An employee might, for example, feel
Ethical reader: Managing cultural that the head of the department does not show enough
diversity in the workplace concern for employees' feelings and have good ideas as to
The Websters dictionary online defines diversity as
how that superior's attitudes could have a positive effect
"the condition of having or being composed of differing
on the job satisfaction of all employees, but might refrain
elements: variety; especially: the inclusion of different
from voicing his I her ideas.
types of people (as people of different races or cultures)
Job satisfaction is subject to change as job contexts
in a group or organization". However, Mor Barak (2011)
and organisations change in the postmodern context of
points out that diversity is not simply limited to cultures,
work. The individual's experience in a particular work
language and race, but encompasses a wide range of
situation influences his I her attitudes, and changes in the
differences including race, religion, physical disability,
work situation may lead to changes in his/her attitudes
gender and sexual orientation.
and work behaviour. This suggests that when there are
The University of California, San Francisco offers
a number of guidelines for managing diversity in the
workplace, including:
• testing one's assumptions before acting on these Factors conducive to job satisfaction
• developing the belief that there are multiple ways Extensive review of the research on job satisfaction
of achieving goals that may differ between cultures indicates that the following factors are conducive to job
• developing honest relationships with staff members satisfaction:
and discovering what motivates them, what their • Mentally challenging work, involving a fair amount
goals are, and how they want to be recognised of variety, freedom, the use of one's skills and
• developing techniques to give feedback abilities, and receiving feedback on one's work.
appropriately to persons from different cultures Generally work should be moderately challenging;
• having selection committees that are diverse if it is too challenging it can cause frustration and
• making employees aware of both the written and feelings of failure, whilst it can cause boredom if it
unwritten rules in the organisation is not challenging enough.
• examining existing policies and procedures for the • Equitable rewards, such as pay and promotion
sources of discrimination policies and practices that workers perceive as fair,
• listening to the constructive suggestions of based on the demands of a job, the individual's
employees and implementing these suggestions skills, and industry pay standards. Fairness, not
• taking immediate action against managers ar.d the amount of payment, is vitally important. Some
employees who discriminate against others people are prepared to work for less money if their
• making real efforts to meet employment equity and work has other rewards.
other diversity goals • Working conditions that are conducive to doing
• having a good understanding of institutionalisms
one's job well, including safety and comfort, a
such as racism and sexism and how these manifest
clean environment, relatively modern facilities and
themselves in the workplace
adequate equipment, and working with co-workers
• ensuring that assignments and opportunities for
and bosses who are friendly and supportive.
advancement are accessible to everyone.
According to Robbins (2001), to facilitate job
Source: http:/ /ucsfhr.ucsf.edu/index.php/pubs/ satisfaction, a supervisor needs to show an interest
hrguidearticle/chapter-12-managing-diversity-in-the- in workers, offer praise for good performance and
workplace listen to workers' opinions.
- PSYCHOLOGY IN THE WORK CONTEXT
changes in the work situation, organisational aspects (such 9·5·4 Job involvement and engagement
as company policy concerning the employer's ability to job involvement can be influenced by organisational
influence employees' attitudes) carry more weight than commitment, but refers specifically to an employee's job
personal characteristics of the individual (Gerhart, 2005). commitment and job satisfaction in a job. Engagement
Staw and Cohen-Charash (2005) suggest that job entails a passionate absorption, vigor and dedication on
satisfaction should be studied as a process comprising and in a job or tasks (Coetzee and Schreuder, 2010).
three steps:
• the individual's experience of events and conditions
in a workplace
9.6 CULTUREANDVALUES
• how he/ she evaluates this experience Values are thus "shared ideas about what is true right
• how this experience is remembered over time. and beautiful" that influence norms which "are the ideas
members of a culture share about the way things ought
These three steps are all influenced by the individual's to be done" (Nanda and Warns, 2011).
affective disposition, including sensitivity to rewards and
punishments, sensitivity to comparisons with others in 9.6.1 Norms and behaviour
higher positions, and sensitivity to inequity, as well as Norms prescribe behaviour in social situations and thus
his/her positive or negative emotional tendencies and play a role in regulating social behaviour (Hechter and
emotional intelligence. Opp, 2001). Rokeach (1973) distinguishes between
values and norms in that values relate both to an end
9·5·3 Organisational commitment state as well as the means to these, whilst a norms only
Organisational commitment refers to the degree to relate to behaviour, that is, the end state. A value is not
which the individual identifies with his I her employing limited to a specific situation, whilst a norm is a code of
organisation and its goals. An employee might not conduct that guides behaviour within a specific situation,
experience job satisfaction or job involvement, yet be and a value is something that is held internally by the
relatively satisfied with the organisation and therefore individual, whilst a norm is held externally by the group.
wish to continue working for it. At the same time it is important to note that research
Organisational commitment concerns not only indi- has shown that even in small societies, norms are not
viduals' identification with the organisation, but also the followed by everyone and neither are values universal in
commitment of the organisation to employees. A South that everyone does not ascribe to these values (Nanda
African study in the mining industry (Van Aardt, 1995) and Warns, 2011).
showed that the attitudes of employees are determined There are three kinds of norms, namely folkways, laws
by their beliefs as to whether and how management is and mores. The customs and manners of a society are
committed to occupational safety, as well as the belief that known as folkways. Examples are how we greet someone,
future accidents can be prevented. The findings showed such as shaking hands or bowing and how we eat, such
that white employees generally had positive attitudes, as with a knife and fork, our hands or chopsticks. Laws
whilst black employees believed that what management are norms that have been formalised and are backed by
said and did were not the same. political authority. Examples include labour laws that
The commitment of managers to their organisation govern how employees should be treated, and criminal laws
is influenced by their emotional states, in particular the that prescribe which behaviours committed by members
experience of pleasure at work. This implies that organi- of society are regarded as crimes by that society. Mores
sations should foster positive emotions by, for example, are directly linked to morals in a society with violations
support, training, coaching and team building (Mignonac of these producing "shock, horror and moral indignation"
and Herrbach, 2004). (Mooney, Knox, Schacht and Holmes, 2012).
Values can transcend a specific situation, thus making All norms are associated with social consequences,
them different from attitudes, which usually apply to known as sanctions, for either violating or conforming to
specific situations (Weiten, 2007). For example, honesty a norm. When members conform to society's norms, they
as an attitude could be adhered to in friendship and are rewarded with a positive sanction (such as acceptance
family relations, but not necessarily be adhered to in the and praise), whilst non-conformance is associated with
individual's associations with bosses and co-workers. negative sanctions (such as being excluded or ostracised
Honesty as a value is likely to be honoured in all the by society). An extreme case of a negative sanction is in
individual's life contexts. the case of laws where persons who violate these are fined
Values also differ from attitudes in that they form an or even sent to prison.
ordered system in which they are relatively important Culture is then a shared system of norms and values
to each other. that guide how the members of a particular society think
and behave. It refers to "the meanings and ways of life Visual cultural differences
that characterize a society" (Mooney, et al., 2012, p.7). language
Housing
9.6.2 The role of values and attitudes in Food
Clothes
culture
According to Kluckhorn:
"Culture consists in patterned ways of thinking, Norms and values
feeling and reacting, acquired and transmitted Greetings
mainly by symbols, constituting the distinctive bow, shake hands
achievements of human groups, including their Key beliefs
embodiments in artefacts; the essential core of Not so visi ble, but has an effect on
determining behaviour at a more superficial level
culture consists of traditional (i.e. historically
derived and selected) ideas and especially their Figure 9·9 The onion metaphor of culture.
attached values" (Hofstede, 2001, p.9). (Source: http:/ /www.arlt-lectures.com/
Similarly Schein (2004, p.14) defines culture as: 8oo7·03.htm accessed 20 March 2012)
"a pattern of shared basic assumptions that the

group learned as it solved its problems of external
prescribe what is acceptable or not, whilst values prescribe
adaption and internal integration, that has worked
what is right and wrong. The group enforces the norms
well enough to be considered valid, and, therefore,
by means of social control, whilst values tend to be more
to be taught to new members as the correct way
internal in nature than norms.
to perceive, think and feel in relation to those
The deepest layer is the inner layer which is the level of
problems."
shared basic assumptions. These assumptions are at the core
Shein's (2004) definition has a number of important of the culture, and have become so basic that they are no
implications, namely that: longer thought of, that is, they are instinctual. These are
• culture is a group phenomenon which implies that an very difficult for an outsider to recognise without conscious
individual cannot have a culture, but that it exists and prolonged observation of a particular cultural group.
through communication between the members of a A distinction can be made between national and
group organisational culture. The theory ofGeert Hofstede (1980)
• culture is a set of basic assumptions meaning that it is and cultural dimensions ofFrons Trompenaars and Charles
enduring and difficult to change Hampden-Turner (1997) are dealt with in the context of
• culture is a developing process as a group struggles national culture, whilst Hofstede and Waisfisz's model
to adapt to various problems and challenges in the of organisational culture is covered as an example of an
environment understanding of culture within an organisational context.
• culture forms a socialising process in that the new
members are taught the assumptions and values 9.6.3 National culture
that make up the culture. Geert Hofstede (1980, p.25) defined culture as "the
collective programming of the mind which distinguishes
Schein (2004) made an important contribution to the members of one human group from another". Each culture
study of culture in that he identified three layers of emphasises different values and combinations thereof that
culture that refer to the degree to which the different are important to it.
cultural phenomena are visible to the observer. This is
most effectively illustrated through the metaphor of an 9.6.3.1 Geert Hofstede's national cultural
onion illustrated below. dimensions
The outer layer comprises the artefacts, that is, the Between 196 7 and 1973 he conducted one of the most
visible and tangible aspects of culture, o.r_,what people comprehensive studies of how values in the workplace
primarily associate with a particular culture. These are are influenced by culture by analysing the value scores of
the visual aspects of culture, such as the behaviour of the 117 000 IBM employees from more than 70 countries.
members, clothes worn, types of food eaten, language Hofstede's research illustrated that cultural differences
spoken, and the characteristics of buildings such as style, between nations are found on the level of values which
fittings and furnishings. is the deepest levels of values. The initial analysis of this
The second layer comprises the espoused norms and data identified systematic differences in national cultures
values of a group. The norms control behaviour and in four clusters which he referred to as dimensions, namely
- - PSYCHOLOGY IN THE WORK CONTEXT
power distance (PDI), individualism (IDV), uncertainty 1he uncertainty avoidance (UAI): Dimension expresses
avoidance (UAI) and masculinity (MAS). the degree to which the members of a society can deal
Power distance (PDf): Expresses the degree to which with uncertainty and ambiguity. The core issue here is how
the less powerful members of a society accept and expect a society deals with the fact that the future is uncertain
that power is distributed unequally. The central concern and the degree to which a society should try to control the
here is how a society deals with inequalities amongst future or just let it happen (http://geert-hofstede.com).
people. In societies which exhibit a large degree of A fifth dimension, long-term orientation (LTO), was added
power distance, a hierarchical order is accepted wherein by Geert Hofstede in 1991 which was based on research
everybody has a place, that is, you are a member of a by Michael Bond (Bond et al., 1987) who conducted
particular class or social group and that is just the way it an additional international study amongst students with
is. Conversely in societies with low power distance, people a survey instrument that was developed together with
try to create an equal distribution of power and strongly Chinese employees and managers. That dimension, based
question inequalities of power. on Confucian dynamism, is (Franke, Hofstede and Bond
Individualism versus collectivism (IDV): In indivi- in Lin and Ho, 2009, p.2402):
dualistic societies the individual's identity is defined in "'The acceptance of the legitimacy of hierarchy and
terms of"I."There is a preference for a social framework the valuing of perseverance and thrift, all without undue
that is loosely tied together where individuals are only emphasis on tradition and social obligations which could
expected to take care of themselves and their immediate impede business initiative."
families only. Collectivism, the opposite pole, represents This dimension concerns society's search for virtue.
a closely interlinked society in which individuals can Hofstede added a sixth dimension, Indulgence versus
expect their relatives or community to look after them. Restraint (IVR), in the 2010 edition of his book Cultures
The community expects unquestioning loyalty in exchange and organizations: Software of the mind which was based
for this. An individual's self-image and identity is defined on the research done by Michael Minkov's (2007) analysis
as "we" within this type of society. of the World Values Survey data for 93 countries. This
Masculinity versusftmininity (MAS): Masculine societies dimension concerns the gratification of basic and natural
are highly competitive and admire values such as achieve- human drives related to enjoying life and having fun.
ment, heroism, assertiveness and material reward for success. Geert Hofstede's six cultural dimensions, together
On the other hand, feminine societies are more consensuses with the characteristics of societies that are characterised
orientated and admire values focussing on cooperation, as low and high in the different dimensions, are listed in
modesty, caring for the weak and quality of life. Table 9.3 below.
Table 9·3 The six cultural dimensions of Geert Hofstede
Value description High score Low score
Power The degree to • Inequalities of power and wealth • In these societies equality and
distance which equality, or are accepted within the society opportunity for everyone is stressed
(POl) inequality, between • Centralised companies • Flatter organisations
people is accepted • Strong hierarchies • Supervisors and employees are
in the country's • Large gaps in compensation, considered almost as equals
society authority, and respect
Individualism Degree to which a • Individuality and individual rights • Societies of a more collectivist nature
(IDV) society reinforces are dominant within the society with close ties between individuals
individual • Individuals tend to form a larger • Extended families and collectives
or collective number of looser relationships where everyone takes responsibility
achievement and • High valuation on people's time for fellow members of their group are
interpersonal and their need for freedom reinforced
relationships • An enjoyment of challenges, and • Show respect for age and wisdom
an expectation of rewards for hard • Suppress feelings and emotions to
work work in harmony
• Respect for privacy • Respect traditions and introduce
change slowly
-~-
Masculinity Degree to which a • There is a well-defined distinction • Women are treated equally to men in
(MAS) society reinforces between men's work and women's all aspects of the society
the traditional roles • A woman can do anything a man can
masculine work • Males dominate a significant do
role model of male portion of the society and power • Powerful and successful women are
achievement, structure admired and respected
control, and power • Men are masculine and women
are feminine
Uncertainty The level of • The country has a low tolerance

I • The country has less concern about
avoidance tolerance for for uncertainty and ambiguity ambiguity and uncertainty and
(UAI) uncertainty and • Creates a rule-oriented society that has more tolerance for a variety of
ambiguity within institutes laws, rules, regulations, opinions
the society, that and controls in order to reduce the • Society is less rule-oriented, more
Is, unstructured amount of uncertainty readily accepts change, and takes
situations • Very formal business conduct with more and greater risks
lots of rules and policies • Informal business attitude
• Need and expect structure • More concern with long term strategy
• Sense of nervousness spurns high than what is happening on a daily
levels of emotion and expression basis
4
• Differences are avoided • Accepting of change and risk
--+-
Long-term Degree to which a • The country prescribes to the • The country does not reinforce the
orientation society embraces, or values of long-term commitments concept of long-term, traditional
(LTO) does not embrace, and respect for tradition orientation
long-term devotion • A strong work ethic is supported • In this culture, change can occur
to traditional, long-term rewards are expected more rapidly as long-term traditions
forward thinking as a result of to day's hard work and commitments do not become
values • Family is the basis of society impediments to change
• Parents and men have more • Promotion of equality
authority than young people and • High creativity, individualism
women • Treat others as you would like to be
• Strong work ethic treated
• High value placed on education • Self-actualisation is sought
and training
Indulgence Describes hedonistic • Societies with a high rate of • Restraint defines societies with strict
versus behaviours: How indulgence allow hedonistic social norms
restraint freely can people behaviours • Gratification of drives is suppressed
satisfy their basic • People can freely satisfy their and regulated
needs and desires, basic needs and desires
l
• Expects (material) reward for job
how strict social
norms are followed
• Cannot easily be motivated with
material reward
II • done well
Feels treated unfairly easily
and gratification • Enjoys the moment • Status objects important, for
suppressed and I • Objects need to fulfill purpose not example, phone, laptop, watch, and
regulated status company
Source: Adapted from http:/ /www.geert-hofstede.com and http:/ /www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newLDR_66.htm
9.6.3.2 The cultural framework ofTrompenaars problems and reconciles dilemmas" (Trompenaars and
and Hampden-Turner Hampden-Turner, 1998, p.6). They were thus concerned
The definition that underlies the cultural framework of with the cultural dimensions that influences approaches
Fons Trompenaars and Charles Hampden-Turner is that to behaviour and logical reasoning in different countries.
"Culture is the way in which a group of people solves They identified seven cultural dimensions based on their
What about South Africa?

Data was also collected on South Africa during Hofstede's study at IBM from 1967 to 1973, hence the fact that information
was only collected on the first four dimensions.
South Africa scored 49 on the power distance (PDf) dimension which means that people to a larger extent accept a
hierarchical order in which everybody has a place and which needs no further justification. Hierarchy in an organisation is
seen as reflecting inherent inequalities, centralisation is popular, subordinates expect to be told what to do, and the ideal
boss is a benevolent autocrat
South Africa, with a score of 65 for individualism (IDV) is an individualistic society. This means there is a high preference
for a loosely-knit social framework in which individuals are expected to take care of themselves and their immediate families
only. In individualistic societies offence causes guilt and a loss of self-esteem, the employer I employee relationship is a
contract based on mutual advantage, hiring and promotion decisions are supposed to be based on merit only, management
is the management of individuals.
South Africa scored 63 on the masculinity /femininity (MAS) dimension and is thus a masculine society. In masculine
countries people "live in order to work", managers are expected to be decisive and assertive, the emphasis is on equity,
competition and performance and conflicts are resolved by fighting them out.
South Africa scored 49 on the uncertainty avoidance (UI) dimension and thus has a preference for avoiding uncertainty.
Countries exhibiting high uncertainty avoidance maintain rigid codes of belief and behaviour and are intolerant of unorthodox
behaviour and ideas. In these cultures there is an emotional need for rules (even if the rules never seem to work), time is
money, people have an inner urge to be busy and work
hard, precision and punctuality are the norm, innovation
may be resisted, security is an important element in D Score, D Score,
individual motivation. - ~V, -MAS, 63
Considering that this study was done during a very
different era of South African history, do you think that
D Score, D Sco re, Ul, 49
r-- PDT, ,---
the findings are still valid in South African society today? 49
What do you think South Africa would score on the two - - ·-
later dimensions added by Hofstede?
Source: Adapted from: www.geerthofstede.eu Geert

Hofstede, Gert Jan Hofstede, Michael Minkov, "Cultures
and organizations, software of the mind", Third
Revised Edition, McGrawHill, 2010, ISBN o-07·166418-1
r- -- - -
© Geert Hofstede B.V. Quoted with permission.
research over a period of 15 years that involved in excess of responsibility is assigned or is diffusely accepted by
50 000 participants from more than 50 countries. The first the members of a culture.
five dimensions relate to the social interaction between • Affictivity versus neutrality dimension focuses on
members of a cultural group, the sixth to their relationship the extent that cultures regard it as acceptable
with the environment and the seventh describes a cultures to display emotions, that is, the degree to which
relationship to time: a culture regards it acceptable for individuals to
• Universalism versus pluralism dimension focuses on display their emotions versus being taught not to
whether rules or relationships are more important display their feelings overtly.
within a culture, that is, whether the implications • Achieved versus ascribed status dimension focuses on
of the law or personal relationships are emphasised whether a culture requires its members to prove
more. themselves to attain status, or in other words, is
• Individualism versus communitarianism dimension status based on what the members of the society
focuses on whether a culture emphasises have achieved versus status being ascribed based on
functioning as a community or as individuals. factors such as birth, age, gender or wealth.
• Specific versus dijfose dimension focuses on the Inner directed versus outer directed dimension focuses
extent to members of a culture get involved with on the extent to which members of a culture
other members, that is, the degree to which attempt to control their environment or work with
CHAPTER 9: ATTITUDES AND V ALUES
it, that is, the degree to which individuals believe organisational and managerial factors. This often implies
the environment can be controlled versus believing not only changing the values of employees, but the under-
that the environment controls them . lying values that form part of an organisations culture.
• Sequential versus synchronic time dimension focuses When managers attempt to change the culture of an
on whether the members of a culture do things one organisation, they are "attempting to change the people's
at a time or several things at once. The two factors basic assumptions about what it is and is not appropriate
that time orientation focus on are the relative behavior in the organization" (Griffin and Moorhead,
importance cultures assign to the past, present and 2012, p.518). Examples of such changes may comprise
future, and their way in which they structure time. attempts to change values about performance as well
Here a distinction is made between past-oriented changes from traditional to team based organisations.
cultures that view the future as a repetition of
the past and focus on issues such as respect for 9·7·1 The individual as active agent
ancestors and collective historical events, present- Factors involved in the individual changing his/her
oriented cultures that focus on the daily demands attitudes include cognitive dissonance, persuasion and
of everyday life, and future-oriented cultures self-perception.
that focus on future prospects (Trompenaars and
Hampden-Turner, 1998). 9·7·1.1 Cognitive dissonance
Cognitive dissonance refers to an imbalance in two or
9.6.4 Organisational culture more of the individual's cognitions, that is, thoughts or
Whilst the cultural differences between nations predomi- beliefs, or cognitions and actions, which should logically
nantly exist on the level of values, cultural differences be consistent with each other. Cognitive dissonance
amongst organisations exist on the level of practices which can occur when, for example, an individual who values
are more tangible. Practices are more superficial and thus pacifism is involved in military strategy in his I her
more easily learned and unlearned than values which work situation, or an individual who acknowledges that
form the core of national cultures. Organisational culture smoking is detrimental to his/ her health w9rks for a
is defined as the "the collective mental programming of tobacco company. This imbalance causes tension, which
otherwise similar persons from different organizations" the individual tries to reduce by employing mechanisms
(Hofstede, 2001, p.71). that can provide consonance.
The theory of cognitive dissonance was originally
9.6.4.1 Hofstede's and Waisfisz's Organisational developed by Leon Festinger in 1957, and has generated
Culture Model much research. It brought attention to the significance of
Organisational cultures differentiate different organisa- beliefs as components of attitudes (Hogg and Vaughan,
tions within the same country from one another. 1995). The underlying assumption is that individuals
Organisational cultures mainly differ from one another seek harmony and consistency between their beliefs and
at the level of practices, that is, symbols, heroes and rituals, their behaviour, as well as between other people's beliefs
as well as being more superficial, as they are learnt and and behaviour. Festinger indicated four mechanisms
unlearnt more easily as compared to the values that are that individuals possibly employ to handfe dissonance,
at the core of national cultures (Hofstede and Hofstede, as discussed in the box on page 205.
n.d.). Geert Hofstede in collaboration with Bob Waisfisz The degree of dissonance an individual experiences
(http:/I geert-h ofstede .com/organisational-culture.h tml) varies from situation to situation (McKenna, 1994;
developed the Organisational Cultural Model which Robbins, 2001). 1he need to reduce it depends on the
consists of six independent and two dependent dimensions significance of the factors causing dissonance, the degree
set out in Table 9.4 on the next page. of influence the individual has over these factors, and the
rewards involved in changing or living with the dissonance.
If the rewards in the dissonant situation are important
9·1 ATTITU DE AND VALUE CHANGE to the individual, he/ she might tolerate the dissonance.
Attitude change can be the result of changes in individuals' The renowned experiment by Festinger and Carlsmith in
cognitions or behaviour: individuals themselves are then 1959 showed that the significance of payment influenced
the active agents in attitude change. Change can also changing of dissonance. Some individuals were requested
be induced by external factors: individuals are then the to lie to other participants and were offered 20 dollars in
recipients of communications that influence their attitudes return. They had to say that tasks that they actually found
(Stephan and Stephan, 1990; Hogg and Vaughan, 1995). dull were interesting.1he offer of 20 dollars justified lying
In work context attitude and value change relate and dissonance was reduced. Individuals who were paid
to climate and culture change with regard to various only one dollar to lie, found the reward insufficient to
Table 9·4 Hofstede and Waisfisz's organisational cultural dimensions
(i) Means oriented Goal oriented
The key feature is the way in which work has to be carried Employees are primarily out to achieve specific internal
out; people identify with the "how". goals or results, people identify with the "what".
People perceive themselves as avoiding risks and making Employees are primarily out to achieve specific internal
only a limited effort in their jobs, whilst each workday is goals or results, even if these involve substantial risks .
pretty much the same.
(ii) Internally driven Externally driven
Employees perceive their task towards the outside world The only emphasis is on meeting the customer's
as totally given, based on the idea that business ethics and requirements; results are most important and a pragmatic
honesty matters most and that they know best what is good rather than an ethical attitude prevails.
for the customer and the world at large.
(iii) Easy going work discipline Strict work discipline
A loose internal structure, a lack of predictability, and little People are very cost conscious, punctual and serious.
control and discipline. There is a lot of improvisation and
surprises.
(iv) Local Professional
Employees identify with the boss and I or the unit in which The identity of an employee is determined by his profession
one works. and I or the content of the job.
Employees are very short-term directed, they are internally Employees are long-term directed, they are externally
focused and there is strong social control to be like focused.
everybody else.
(v) Open system Closed system
Newcomers are made immediately welcome. Newcomers not made to feel welcome.
The organisation is open both to insiders and outsiders. The organisation Is not open to outsiders.
It is believed that almost anyone would fit in the It is believed that only insiders would fit in the organisation .
organisation.
(vi) Employee oriented Work oriented
Members of staff feel that personal problems are taken into There is heavy pressure to perform the task even if this is at
account and that the organisation takes responsibility for the expense of employees.
the welfare of its employees, even if this is at the expense
of the work.
(vii) Degree of acceptance of leadership style
This dimension tells us to which degree the leadership style of respondents' direct boss is being in line with respondents'
preferences. The fact that people, depending on the project they are working for, may have different bosses, doesn't play a
role at the level of culture. Culture measures central tendencies.
(viii) Degree of identification with your organisation
This dimension shows to which degree respondents identify with the organisation in its totality. People are able to
simultaneously identify with different aspects of a company. Thus, it is possible that employees identify at the same time
strongly with the internal goals of the tompany, with the client, with one's own group and I or with one's direct boss and
with the whole organisation. It is also possible that employees don't feel strongly connected to any of these aspects.
Source: Adapted from http:/ /geert-hofstede.com/organisational-culture.html- Accessed 20 March 2012

CHAPTER 9: ATTITUDES AND VALUES ••m,ga•••
justifY lying and experienced more cognitive dissonance
because of lying. They handled the dissonance by starting to Handling dissonance: Festinger's four
think that the tasks had actually been interesting, thereby methods
changing their attitudes to justify their actions (lying). Festinger proposed that individuals seek harmony and
Handling dissonance involves making choices consistency between their beliefs and their behaviour,
(McKenna, 1994). If the choice the individual makes and between the beliefs and behaviour of other people.
again causes dissonance, the individual will, rather than He observed four mechanisms that individuals could use
regretting the choice, change his/her attitude to accom- to handle dissonance (McKenna, 1994; Robbins, 2001).
modate the choice. For example, a single mother who
sees a woman's success firstly as being at home for her Method 1: Seeking new information to support one's
children, but has to work to support her family, might beliefs and avoiding information that will increase
initially feel dissonance, which is repeated if she chooses dissonance
a job because of financial rewards, but which is lacking in An individual who believes in supportive and
satisfaction. She might then change her attitude towards cooperative communications in the workplace might find,
success, seeing it as bringing money home rather than on entering a new workplace, that there is a climate of
staying at home. indifference and aloofness. Rather than elaborating on
this impression, he I she could look for factors beyond
9.].1.2 Self-perception what is apparent and decide that communications are not
According to the Self-Perception Theory, introduced by sound, because the department consists of individuals
Daryl Bern in 1972, individuals' attitudes can change of different races and backgrounds, and all are under
through perception of their own behaviour. Individuals the pressure of work schedules. By thinking this way,
might, for example, decide that, although they have the individual could change a cognitive component of
grievances about their jobs, they still have a positive his I her attitude.
attitude towards their jobs because of the many years
they have been doing the work. Individuals therefore Method 2: Misinterpreting information that might
change negative attitudes or infer their real attitude from increase dissonance
their behaviour. The individual might misinterpret aloofness in
Self-perception is applicable to attitude change if the department by assuming that some members
individuals have limited internal cues to account for see colleagues of different races and backgrounds as
unjustified behaviour, for example, if they do not have threatening to their future success. By thinking this way,
feelings that justify why their behaviour is not consistent the individual could also change a cognitive component
with their opinions (Stephan and Stephan, 1990). Self- of his I her attitude.
perception thus helps individuals to understand why they
do something (Robbins, 2001). Method 3: Finding social support for the attitudes one
wishes to maintain by seeking out individuals with
9.7.2 The individual as recipient similar attitudes
The persuasive appeal of the speaker who is trying to The individual might befriend colleagues who share
change the values and attitudes of the receiver rests on his I her beliefs and join them in leisure activities outside
the characteristics of the speaker, the type of message, and work. Here the individual would be trying to reduce
channel of communication, context that the message is dissonance by changing his I her behaviour.
delivered in, as well as the characteristics of the receiver.
The success of persuasive communication depends on Method 4: Playing down the importance of factors that
the ability thereof to make the receiver listen to this and contribute to dissonance
reflect on how the ideas in the message impact upon their The individual could rationalise that racial and
current attitudes and values. cultural differences are not significant, since acceptance
of differences is a contemporary value in society. He 1she
9.].2.1 The credibility of the communicator could work towards facilitating a climate of cooperation
An attitude is changed more readily if the source of in which grievances, aims and work schedules are openly
information is regarded as credible. The credibility of discussed in, for example, group discussions. This would
an individual is determined by his I her credibility in the involve handling cognitive dissonance by changing
past, trustworthiness, expertise, authority, prestige, power factors in the environment.
to control the rewards involved in changing recipients'
attitudes, and physical attractiveness, likeability and
similarity to the recipients.
PSYCHOLOGY IN THE WORK CONTEXT
The mass media can influence attitude change through, researcher induces feelings of guilt in subjects, they
for example, advertising and political commentary. will comply with future requests, such as requests
If communicators are not perceived as highly credible, that they participate in future research projects.
the messages they convey can still influence attitudes after Individuals who are not induced to feel guilt hardly
some time. This is called the sleeper effect, in that the ever comply (Hogg and Vaughan, 1995).
message rather than the source of the communication • Discourse is also related to changing attitudes.
is remembered (Arnold, Cooper and Robertson, 1995). In discussion, debate and open expression of
In organisations, credibility is an aspect of management differences, the individual feels part of decision-
practice. Managerial credibility comes from a willingness making and can thereby become committed
to listen, consideration of proposals, allowing others the to changing attitudes. Research shows that
freedom to express feelings, toleration of mistakes, and when communications are aimed at changing
ensuring that employees enjoy prestige and credibility in central attitudes, the quality of well-thought-
the organisation. Martins (2000) found that credibility out arguments is important, whilst persuasive
is related to a trust relationship between employees and cues for quick information processing should be
management. present if peripheral attitudes are approached.
The effectiveness of discourse shows the power of
9.7.2.2 Characteristics of the communication language to convey attitudes to certain issues, such
Three characteristics of communication are the organi- as racism, sexism or equality (Chryssochoou, 2004) .
sation, emotional content, and discourse of communi-
cations: 9.7.2.3 The situation
• The organisation ofthe communication is related to The situation includes the effects of approaching either
changing attitudes. Attitude change is influenced an individual or a group in order to change their attitudes
by messages that present only positive information (Arnold, Cooper and Robertson, 1995).
(one-sided messages), and messages that present If a group is largely divided with regard to the
either positive and negative information (two- members' attitudes, change is more likely to occur through
sided messages) about issues, a type of job or an approaching individuals, rather than the group as a whole.
organisation. One-sided messages are generally If the majority of a group is in agreement with the com-
more effective if the recipient is neutral or already municator, addressing the group will be effective in
agrees with the message. Two-sided messages are swaying the small minority of members towards changing
generally more effective if recipients' attitudes differ their attitudes.
from those of the communicator, as well as when Groups tend to form attitudes or opinions that are
propaganda or counter-information is involved. stronger than those that the individuals in the group
• The emotional content of the communication is originally held.
also related to changing attitudes. Fear-arousing This effect is called group polarisation. It co~d be due to
messages can have a persuasive effect if they are not repeated exposure to an attitude voiced by group members.
too intense and are relatively impersonal. Messages It could also be due to the escalation of strong views a
that evoke excessive fear tend to be ineffectual one individual desires to be more influential than another
in that they have an immunisation effect, so that and therefore posits a more extreme view. Group effects
similar messages in the future will not elicit a are also noticeable in the higher commitment to attitudes
reaction and might cause the communicators' or opinions that are voiced publicly rather than privately.
motives to be viewed with suspicion (Maier and Attitudes are not necessarily easily accessible, but are
Verser, 1982). Messages evoking extreme fear deduced from surveys. Attitude surveys in the workplace
can also lead to anxiety, which interferes with the can reveal which factors in the work situation require
perception of the factual content of the message. In change. Maier and Verser (1982) cite a survey showing
contrast, messages evoking fear at a very low level that the sounding of a bell to announce rest periods was a
might not capture attention and interest (Hogg source of irritation to workers, because they associated it
and Vaughan, 1995). Eliciting fear can be effective with the strict regimentation of a school. The substitution
if the message also indicates how the consequences of the bell with musical sounds changed their attitudes.
of a fearsome situation can be avoided, such as
advertisements that not only show the drastic
9.8 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
consequences of road accidents, but also indicate
the role of safety belts. Communications that This chapter illustrated how attitudes, values, norms and
arouse guilt tend to result in compliance with an culture act as motivating forces in people's perception of,
individual's request. Research has shown that if a and reactions to, other people. Attitudes are defined in
terms of three components, namely cognitive, emotional An alternate model of national culture is the cultural
and behavioural aspects. Values on the other hand are framework ofTrompenaars and Hampden-Turner who
again that which we hold dear, an affective disposition identified seven dimensions. Whilst the cultural differences
towards a person, object or idea, something we recognise between nations predominantly exist on the level of values,
as good and worthwhile, and a personal belief or attribute cultural differences amongst organisations exist on the
about the truth, beauty or worth of any thought, object level of practices which are more tangible. Hofstede and
or behaviour. It is important to note that values appear Waisfisz's developed a model of organisational culture that
as attributes of things and events themselves rather than utilises eight different dimensions to distinguish between
as an activity of the self or as the result of such activity. different organisational cultures.
Values generally influence attitudes and behaviour. It is possible to change attitudes and values through
They are largely derived from three sources, namely changes in individuals' cognitions or behaviour. Individuals
through upbringing from our family and early socialisation, can act as active agents in attitude change, whilst change
assimilated from our cultural upbringing such as cultural can also be induced by external factors, where individuals
norms related to education, work and play, whilst others are then the recipients of communications that influence
are derived from professional and legal codes. An their attitudes. Key issues are Festinger's concept of cog-
individual's values are ranked in a hierarchy known as nitive dissonance. This is when there is an imbalance in
a value system which has the implication that different someone's cognitions, which creates tension within the
values are expressed uniquely in terms of their intensity person. This in turn causes an indt\qdual to change one of
according to the importance of the value to the individual. these cognitions. In the case of external communications
Milton Rokeach further distinguishes between terminal aimed at attitude change, the key issues relate to the
and instrumental values. Terminal values relate to the goals credibility of the communicator, characteristics of the
sought, whilst instrumental values refer to the methods message and the situation under which the communication
that are acceptable to obtain the end goals. takes place.
Rokeach made a distinction between terminal values,
which are the things individuals' value in their lives, and
9·9 ASSESSMENT ACTIVITIES
instrumental values, that relates to how they could achieve
these. Spranger identified six value-orientations that form
part of every individual's personality, namely theoretical, Multiple-choice questions
economic, social, power, religious and aesthetic value- 1. According to Spranger's different value orientations, the
orientations. Schwartz extended the list to ten values that ______ man is primarily orientated towards that
seem to cover the full range of human values. Values are which is useful.
the shared ideas about what is true, right and beautiful, a) aesthetic
and they influence norms, which are the ideas members b) economic
of a culture share about the way things ought to be done. c) social
Important work-related attitudes are job satisfaction, d) theoretical
which is a predominantly positive attitude towards the e) political.
work situation, and organisational commitment, which 2. Societies that are highly competitive and admire
refers to the degree to which the individual identifies with values such as achievement, heroism, assertiveness
his I her employing organisation and its goals. and material reward for success are an example of
Culture is a shared system of norms and values that Hofstede's cultural dimension.
guide how the members of a particular society think and a) masculine
behave, and which refers to the meanings and ways of b) power distance
life that characterise a society. Schein made an important c) individuality
contribution to the study of culture identifYing three d) uncertainty avoidance
layers that reflect the degree to which the different e) long-term orientation.
cultural phenomena are visible to the observer, namely 3. According to Hofstede and Waisfisz's organisational
artefacts, espoused norms and values, and the shared basic culture model, an organisation that emphasises meeting
assumptions at the core of a culture. the customer's requirements and focuses on results
A distinction is made between national and organi- is_ _ _ _ ,
sational culture. Geert Hofstede (1980, p.25) defined a) an open system
national culture as "the collective programming of the b) has a professional culture
mind which distinguishes members of one human group c) is means-orientated
from another", and identified six dimensions that can be d) is externally driven
used to distinguish different cultures from one-another. e) is work orientated.
4- refers to the mutual expectations people Issues for discussion and practice
have of one another in a work relationship. 1. The HIV I Aids unit on campus wants to change the
a) organisational commitment attitudes of students relating to risky sexual practices
b) ego investment as these contribute to the spread of the disease. They
c) psychological contract plan to invite a speaker who is HIV positive. Explain
d) self-transcendence the main factors that the speaker will need to consider
e) job satisfaction. in order to ensure that his I her message is effective in
5· John smokes and recently saw an advertisement about changing the attitudes of students. Focus on the both
the cancer causing properties of cigarettes. However, he the characteristics of the message and of the speaker.
ignores this, as he states that this only happens to some 2. Talk to a student from another country and use
smokers. According to Festinger's cognitive dissonance Hofstede's dimensions to compare his I her culture to
theory, he is_ _ _ _, your own.
a) seeking new information to support his beliefs and 3· Explain how specific values can impact on the success of
avoiding information that will increase dissonance an organisation.
b) misinterpreting information that might increase 4· Explain the main differences and similarities between
dissonance the theories of Geert Hofstede and that of Trompenaars
c) finding social support for the attitudes one wishes and Hampden Turner.
to maintain by seeking out individuals with similar s. Discuss how norms and values relate to one another.
attitudes 6. john smokes 20 cigarettes a day. However, the other
d) playing down the importance of factors that day he watched a programme on television that dealt
contribute to dissonance with how smoking causes lung cancer. How can John
e) band d. deal with the dissonance caused by this conflicting
information?
Answers to multiple-choice questions
1 = b; 2 = a; 3 = d; 4 = c; 5 = e
CASE STUDY: APPLE'S CULTURE OF SECRECY
With the recent passing of Steve Jobs, there has been an intense spotlight focused on both the man and the company he
built. And whilst much of the attention has rightfully been focused on Jobs' passion and creativity as well as the remarkable
period of innovation he presided over, there is another factor that has flown somewhat under the radar. That factor is the
critical role that company culture played in Apple's success.
Apple is famous for its mafia-like code of silence, but a new book by Fortune's Adam Lashinsky, How Apple works: Inside
the world's biggest startup, lifts the lid on just how far the company is willing to go to keep its projects secret. Meetings
are often cloak and dagger affairs, whilst new staff often don't know their real job until day one. He writes that, "To discuss
a topic at a meeting, one must be sure everyone in the room is 'disclosed' on the topic, meaning they have been made privy
to certain secrets. 'You can't talk about any secret until you're sure everyone is disclosed on it,' said an ex-employee. As a
result, Apple employees and their projects are pieces of a puzzle. The snapshot of the completed puzzle is known only at
the highest reaches of the organization."
The book also reveals that unlike Google, Apple doesn't give out free lunches to its employees unless it's on your first
day. Little wonder the company has $8o+ billion of stockpiled cash coming out of its ears, the giant skinflints!
The first thoughts that come to mind when discussing Apple products are words such as simple, elegant, and innovative.
This is no accident as these values were critically important to Steve Jobs, and he instilled them into the Apple company
culture.
These core values are the reason that Apple products have been so consistently excellent, and they are the reason that
you can walk into any Apple store across the world and have essentially the same experience.
10 Ways to think differently -Inside Apple's cult-like culture:

• Empower employees to make a difference. Steve Jobs says employees can make a difference, and in a cult-like way,
they believe it. "Make a dent in the universe" is somehow an entirely realistic goal.
• Value what's important, not the small details. The organisation is a fun place to work with loose rules. Employees
mostly come and go as they please as long as they accomplish no% of their goals.
• Love and cherish the innovators. Apple's most valuable assets are creative and productive employees.
CHAPTER 9: ATTIT U DES AND VAL U ES -
• Do everything important internally. Everything important is under one roof: industrial design, operating system,
hardware design, even the sales channel.
• Get marketing. Apple spends a great deal of effort divining the next big thing- figuring out what people want- even
when they don't know it themselves. They don't use focus groups or research. They're their own focus group.
• Control the message. Few companies truly understand communications and PR the way Apple does. A big part of its
formula for creating a buzz like no other company is its famous secretiveness.
• Little things make a big difference. During the iPhone 4launch, they brought their employees good food. During
another launch they had a masseuse and another store had a kiddie pool full of goldfish as a "Zen thing".
• Don't make people do things, make them better at doing things. Apple are either operating at the top of their game,
or think they are.
• When you find something that works, keep doing it. The way Apple operates today, is not some grand design by Jobs
or his management team. They found their way one step at a time. The difference is that, the way Apple's organised,
it can rapidly adapt to a new idea or process that works.
• Think differently. Apple doesn't do anything according to anyone else's timetable. Its product launches and company
events happen when it suits Apple.
Source: Based on Mintz, 2011; Moreland, 2011; Smith, 2012; Tobak, 2011
1. What are the main factors that Apple would need to consider if they wanted to change an aspect of their culture?
2. Which work-related attitudes would be important to Apple and why?
3· Which of Spranger's value orientations would likely have determined Steve Jobs' view of the world?
4. Based on the culture that Steve Jobs engendered in Apple, which of Schwartz's values were likely important to him?
5· Provide examples of two norms that form part of Apple's culture.
6. Use Schein's model to indicate the three levels of Apple's culture with practical examples of each.
7· Use Hofstede's and Waisfisz's Organisational Culture Model to plot the culture of Apple. As far as possible, motivate
where you have plotted Apple on the different dimensions.
CHAPteR 11
LeARnInG AnD ConDItIonInG
What is learning?
Cognitive approaches
Behaviourist approaches
IntRoDUCtIon and oVeRVIeW a fairly permanent change in a person’s behavioural

We’ve seen in earlier chapters how American performance. However, permanent changes in
Psychology in particular was dominated by behaviour can also result from things that have
behaviourism for much of the first half of the twentieth nothing to do with learning, such as the effects of
century. Given the central role of learning in brain damage on behaviour, or the changes associated
philosophical behaviourism, it’s not surprising that with puberty and other maturational processes. So, if a
the topic of learning itself should be central within change in behaviour is to be counted as learning, the
Psychology as a whole. change must be linked to some kind of past experience
The concept of learning is a good example of the (regardless of whether there was any attempt to bring
discrepancy between the everyday, common-sense about that change).
use of a term and its technical, scientific use (see For these reasons, Psychologists usually define
Chapter 1). In everyday conversation, the emphasis learning as ‘a relatively permanent change in
is usually on what is learned (the end product), such behaviour due to past experience’ (Coon, 1983)
as learning to drive a car, use the internet or speak or ‘the process by which relatively permanent
French. But when Psychologists use the term, changes occur in behavioural potential as a result of
their focus is on how the learning takes place (the experience’ (Anderson, 1995a).
learning process).
When the focus is on the end product, we
Learning versus performance
generally infer that the learning is deliberate. For Anderson’s definition has one major advantage over
example, we pay for driving lessons that will help Coon’s, namely that it implies a distinction between
us, eventually, to acquire a driving licence. But, learning (behavioural potential) and performance
for Psychologists, learning can take place without (actual behaviour).
a ‘teacher’. We can learn, for example, by merely
observing others, who may not even know they’re Ask Yourself
being observed. Learning can also happen without
other people being involved at all, as when we ● What things have you learned to do/learned
observe recurring environmental events (‘thunder about that you’re not actually doing/thinking
always follows lightning’). about right now?
Partly because the concept of learning as used by
Psychologists is very broad, they disagree as to exactly
what’s involved in the learning process. Watson, the If you can swim, you’re almost certainly not doing so
founder of behaviourism, was the first Psychologist to as you read this chapter – but you could readily do so
apply Pavlov’s concept of the conditioned reflex/response if faced with a pool full of water! So what you could
to human behaviour. A more active view of learning do (potential behaviour based on learning) and what
was taken by Thorndike, whose work formed the basis you’re actually doing (current performance) are two
of Skinner’s operant conditioning. Skinner’s contribution, different things. Ultimately, of course, the only proof
above all others, made behaviourism such a force of learning is a particular kind of performance (such
within Psychology as a whole (see Chapter 2). as exams). Performance can fluctuate due to fatigue,
drugs and emotional factors, and so is much more
WHAt Is LeARnInG? variable than learning, which is more permanent.
Learning is a hypothetical construct: it cannot (Exams come to mind again – many students have left
be directly observed, but only inferred from an exam knowing what they could not demonstrate
observable behaviour. Learning normally implies during the exam itself.)
9781471829734.indb 175 04/05/15 9:41 AM

Learning and other abilities Classical conditioning: why do dogs drool
Howe (1980) defines learning as ‘a biological device over bells?
that functions to protect the human individual and Ivan Pavlov was a physiologist interested in the
to extend his capacities’. In this context, learning process of digestion in dogs. He was awarded the
is neither independent of, nor entirely separate Nobel Prize in 1904 (the year Skinner was born).
from, several other abilities, in particular memory He developed a surgical technique for collecting a
and perception. Indeed, learning and memory dog’s salivary secretions: a tube was attached to the
may be regarded as two sides of the same coin (see outside of its cheek, so the drops of saliva could easily
Chapter 17). be measured.
According to Howe, learning is also cumulative: what Pavlov (1927) noticed that the dogs would often
we learn at any time is influenced by our previous start salivating before they were given any food:
learning. Also, most instances of learning take the form when they looked at the food or saw the feeding
of adaptive changes, as reflected in Anderson’s (1995a) bucket, or even when they heard the footsteps
definition as ‘the mechanism by which organisms can of the laboratory assistant coming to feed them.
adapt to a changing and nonpredictable environment’. These observations led to the study of what’s
now called classical (or Pavlovian) conditioning: a
Some basic questions about learning stimulus (such as a bell), which wouldn’t normally
While it’s generally agreed by Psychologists that produce a particular response (such as salivation),
learning is relatively permanent and due to past eventually comes to do so by being paired with
experience, there’s much less agreement about exactly another stimulus (such as food) which does normally
what changes when learning takes place, and what produce the response.
kinds of past experience are involved. Put another
way, how do the changes occur and what mechanisms
are involved? One important issue that divides
Psychologists is the extent to which they focus on
the overt, behavioural changes as opposed to the covert,
cognitive changes.
BEHAVIOURIST APPROACHES
Skinner (1938) made the crucial distinction between
respondents (or respondent behaviour), which are triggered
automatically by particular environmental stimuli,
and operants (or operant behaviour), which are essentially
voluntary. A related distinction is that between classical
or respondent (Pavlovian) conditioning and operant or Figure 11.2 The apparatus used by Pavlov in his
instrumental (Skinnerian) conditioning. experiments on conditioned reflexes
B.F. Skinner
(1904–1990)
Respondent Operant
behaviour behaviour
C.L. Hull
(1884–1952)
Classical I. Pavlov E.L. Thorndike Operant
conditioning (1849–1936) (1874–1949) (or instrumental)
conditioning
E. Tolman
(1886–1959)
J.B. Watson
(1878–1958) B.F. Skinner
Figure 11.1 Major figures in the behaviourist (learning theory) tradition
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Before conditioning, the taste of food will naturally Table 11.1 Four types of classical conditioning based on

●
and automatically make the dog salivate, but the different CS–UCS relationships
sound of a bell won’t. So, the food is referred to as
an unconditioned stimulus (UCS), and the salivation 1. Delayed or The CS is presented before the UCS,
is an unconditioned response (UCR): an automatic, forward and remains ‘on’ while the UCS is
reflex, biologically built-in response. The dog presented and until the UCR appears.
doesn’t have to learn to salivate in response to food, Conditioning has occurred when
because it does so naturally. the CR appears before the UCS is
● During conditioning, the bell is paired with the
presented. A half-second interval
food. Because the bell doesn’t naturally produce produces the strongest learning.
salivation, it’s called a conditioned stimulus (CS): it As the interval increases, learning
only produces salivation on the condition that it’s becomes poorer. This type of
paired with the UCS. It’s also neutral with regard to conditioning is typically used in the
salivation prior to conditioning. laboratory, especially with non-
● If the bell and food are paired often enough, the
humans.
dog starts to salivate as soon as it hears the bell 2. Backward The CS is presented after the UCS.
and before the food is presented. When this occurs, Generally this produces very little, if
conditioning has taken place. The salivation is any, learning in laboratory animals.
now referred to as a conditioned response (CR), However, much advertising uses
because it’s produced by a conditioned stimulus backward conditioning (e.g. the
(CS) – the bell. idyllic tropical scene is set, and then
This basic procedure can be used with a variety of the coconut bar is introduced).
conditioned stimuli, such as buzzers, metronomes,
lights, geometric figures, and so on. The exact 3. Simultaneous The CS and UCS are presented together.
relationship between the CS and the UCS can also be Conditioning has occurred when the
varied to give different kinds of conditioning. What CS on its own produces the CR. This
I’ve described above is delayed/forward conditioning (see type of conditioning often occurs in
Table 11.1). real-life situations (e.g. the sound of the
dentist’s drill accompanies the contact
of the drill with your tooth).
Ask Yourself
4. Trace The CS is presented and removed
● In the basic procedure described above, before the UCS is presented, so that
the CS is presented about a half-second before only a ‘memory trace’ of the CS
the UCS. remains to be conditioned. The CR
● What do you think might happen if the CS is is usually weaker than in delayed or
presented after the UCS? simultaneous conditioning.
Stage 1
Food Salivation
(before learning)
(unconditioned stimulus) (unconditioned response)
(UCS) A bell does NOT produce salivation (UCR)
Stage 2 Bell Food Salivation

(during learning) (conditioned (unconditioned (unconditioned
stimulus) stimulus) response)
CS UCS UCR
Stage 3
Bell Salivation
(after learning)
(conditioned stimulus) (conditioned response)
CS CR
Figure 11.3 The basic procedure involved in classical conditioning
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Higher-order conditioning Box 11.1 Experimental neurosis: how to
Pavlov demonstrated that a strong CS could be used
instead of food, to produce salivation in response to a drive a dog mad
new stimulus that had never been paired with food. ● Pavlov (1927) trained dogs to salivate to a
For example, a buzzer (previously paired with food) circle but not to an ellipse, and then gradually
is paired with a black square. After ten pairings (using changed the shape of the ellipse until it
delayed conditioning), the dog will salivate a small became almost circular.
but significant amount at the sight of the black square ● As this happened, the dogs started behaving in
before the buzzer is sounded. Remember, the black ‘neurotic’ ways – whining, trembling, urinating
square has never been associated with food directly, but and defecating, refusing to eat, and so on.
only indirectly, through association with the buzzer. ● It was as if they didn’t know how to respond:
The CS is functioning as a UCS. was the stimulus a circle (in which case, through
The buzzer and food combination is referred to as generalisation, they ‘ought’ to salivate) or was it
first-order conditioning, and the black square and buzzer an ellipse (in which case, through discrimination,
pairing as second-order conditioning. Pavlov found with they ‘ought not to’ salivate)?
dogs that learning couldn’t go beyond third- or
fourth-order conditioning. Even so, conditioning is
beginning to look a rather more complex process. Extinction and spontaneous recovery
Generalisation and discrimination If dogs have been conditioned to salivate to a bell,
In generalisation, the CR transfers spontaneously to and the bell is repeatedly presented without food,
stimuli similar to, but different from, the original the CR of salivation gradually becomes weaker and
CS. For example, if a dog is trained using a bell eventually stops altogether (extinction). However, if a
of a particular pitch and is then presented with dog that’s undergone extinction is removed from the
a bell a little higher or lower in pitch, it will still experimental situation, and then put back a couple
salivate, although only one bell (the original CS) of hours or so later, it will start salivating again.
was actually paired with food. However, if the dog Although no further pairing of the bell and food has
is presented with bells that are increasingly different occurred, the CR of salivation reappears in response
from the original, the CR will gradually weaken to the bell (spontaneous recovery). This shows that
and eventually stop altogether – the dog is showing extinction doesn’t involve an ‘erasing’ of the original
discrimination. learning, but rather a learning to inhibit or suppress
the CR when the CS is continually presented
without a UCS.
CS1 (The bell used in the original conditioning procedure) CR (salivation)
Classical conditioning and human behaviour
Bells CS2, CS3 and CS4
are of increasingly Salivation is gradually There have been many laboratory demonstrations
lower pitch but still CS2 CR becoming weaker as
CS3 CR the pitch becomes lower
involving human participants. It’s relatively easy to
produce salivation
through CS4 CR compared with CS1 classically condition and extinguish CRs, such as the
GENERALISATION eye-blink and galvanic skin response (GSR). But what
Bells CS5, CS6 and CS7 relevance does this have for understanding human
fail to produce learning and memory, let alone thinking, reasoning or
salivation because
they’re sufficiently
CS5 CR problem-solving (see Chapter 20)?
CS6 CR No salivation occurs
different from CS1 CS7 CR
In normal adults, the conditioning process can
The dog is showing apparently be overridden by instructions: simply
DISCRIMINATION
telling participants that the UCS won’t occur causes
Figure 11.4 An example of discrimination occurring instant loss of the CR, which would otherwise
spontaneously as a result of generalisation stopping extinguish only slowly (Davey, 1983). Most participants
in a conditioning experiment are aware of the
Pavlov also trained dogs to discriminate in the original experimenter’s contingencies (the relationship between
conditioning procedure. For example, if a high-pitched stimuli and responses), and in the absence of such
bell is paired with food but a low-pitched bell isn’t, awareness often fail to show evidence of conditioning
the dog will start salivating in response to the former, (Brewer, 1974).
but not the latter (discrimination training). An interesting There are also important differences between
phenomenon related to discrimination is what Pavlov very young children, or those with severe learning
called experimental neurosis (see Box 11.1). difficulties, and older children and adults, regarding
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their behaviour in a variety of operant conditioning They might have attempted to remove it through

and discrimination learning experiments. These seem the method of direct unconditioning, as used by
largely attributable to language development (Dugdale Jones (1924). See Key Study 11.2. This is an early
and Lowe, 1990; see Chapter 19). example of what Wolpe (1958) called systematic
All this suggests that people have rather more desensitisation (see Chapter 45).
efficient, language- or rule-based forms of learning
at their disposal than the laborious formation of
associations between a CS and UCS. Even behaviour Key Study 11.2
therapy, one of the apparently more successful
applications of conditioning principles to human The case of Little Peter (Jones, 1924)
behaviour, has given way to cognitive-behavioural therapy ● Peter was a 2-year-old living in a charitable
(Mackintosh, 1995; see Chapter 45). institution. Jones was mainly interested in
those children who cried and trembled when
Classical conditioning and phobias shown an animal (such as a frog, rat or rabbit).
Watson was the first Psychologist to apply the Peter showed an extreme fear of rats, rabbits,
principles of classical conditioning to human feathers, cotton wool, fur coats, frogs and fish,
behaviour. He did this in what’s considered to be one although in other respects he was regarded
of the most ethically dubious Psychology experiments as well-adjusted. It wasn’t known how these
ever conducted. See Key Study 11.1. phobias had arisen.
● Jones, supervised by Watson, put a rabbit in
Ask Yourself a wire cage in front of Peter while he ate his
lunch. After 40 such sessions, Peter ate his lunch
● Why do you think Watson and Rayner’s experiment with one hand and stroked the rabbit (now on
is considered to be so ethically unsound? his lap) with the other.
● In a series of 17 steps, the rabbit (still in the
cage) had been brought a little closer each day,
It’s unclear whether Watson and Rayner intended then let free in the room, eventually sitting on
to remove Albert’s phobia; what’s certain is that his Peter’s lunch tray.
mother removed him before this could happen.
Key Study 11.1

The case of Little Albert (Watson and ● The CR transferred spontaneously to the rabbit,
Rayner, 1920) the dog, a sealskin fur coat, cotton wool, Watson’s
hair and a Santa Claus mask. But it didn’t generalise
● Albert was described as ‘healthy from birth’ and
to Albert’s building blocks, or to the hair of two
‘on the whole stolid and unemotional’. When he
was about 9 months old, his reactions to various observers (so Albert was showing discrimination).
stimuli were tested – a white rat, a rabbit, a dog, a ● Five days after conditioning, the CR produced by
monkey, masks with and without hair, cotton wool, the rat persisted. After ten days it was ‘much less
burning newspapers and a hammer striking a four- marked’, but was still evident a month later.
foot steel bar just behind his head. Only the last of
these frightened him, so this was designated the UCS
(and fear the UCR). The other stimuli were neutral,
because they didn’t produce fear.
● When Albert was just over 11 months old, the rat
and the UCS were presented together: as Albert
reached out to stroke the animal, Watson crept up
behind the baby and brought the hammer crashing
down on the steel bar.
● This occurred seven times in total over the next
seven weeks. By this time, the rat (the CS) on its
own frightened Albert, and the fear was now a CR. Figure 11.5 A very rare photograph of
Watson and Rayner had succeeded in deliberately John Watson and Rosalie Rayner during
producing in a baby a phobia of rats. the conditioning of Little Albert
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Behaviour therapists, such as Eysenck, regard the Little before the experiments began, and so were highly
Albert experiment as demonstrating how all phobias motivated. After eating the fish, the cats were put
are acquired in everyday life. straight back in, and the whole process was repeated.
Ask Yourself
● How could the basic classical conditioning procedure
help to explain someone’s fear of the dentist?
A fear of the dentist could be learnt in the

following way:
● drill hitting a nerve (UCS) → pain/fear (UCR)
● sound of drill (CS) + drill hitting nerve (UCS) →
pain/fear (UCR)
● sound of the drill (CS) → fear (CR).
If you’re looking at the dentist who’s peering into your
mouth, you may become afraid of upside-down faces;
if s/he’s wearing a mask, you may acquire a fear of
masks too. Also, through generalisation, you can come
to fear all drill-like noises or white coats worn by
Figure 11.6 Thorndike’s puzzle-box

medical personnel or lab technicians.
Human phobias may be perpetuated through At first the cats struggled to get out, behaving in a
avoiding the object of our fears. In other words, we purely random way, and it was only by chance that
don’t give the fear a chance to undergo extinction the first escape was made. But each time they were
(see Chapters 44 and 45). This occurs in conjunction returned to the puzzle-box, it took them less time to
with operant conditioning, whereby the avoidance operate the latch and escape. For instance, with one
behaviour becomes strengthened through negative of the boxes, the average time for the first escape was
reinforcement. 5 minutes, but after 10–20 trials this was reduced to
about 5 seconds.
Operant conditioning: why do rats press Thorndike accounted for this by claiming that
levers? the learning was essentially random or trial and error.
When Skinner drew the distinction between There was no sudden flash of insight into how the
respondent and operant behaviour, he wasn’t rejecting releasing mechanism worked, but rather a gradual
the discoveries of Pavlov and Watson. Rather, he reduction in the number of errors made and hence
was arguing that most animal and human behaviour escape time (see Chapter 20). What was being
isn’t triggered or elicited by specific stimuli. He was learned was a connection between the stimulus
interested in how animals operate on their environment, (the manipulative components of the box) and the
and how this operant behaviour is instrumental in response (the behaviour that allowed the cat to
bringing about certain consequences, which then escape). Further, the stimulus–response connection
determine the probability of that behaviour being is ‘stamped in when pleasure results from the act,
repeated. Skinner saw the learner as much more active and stamped out when it doesn’t’ (law of effect). This
than did Pavlov or Watson. is crucially important as a way of distinguishing
Just as Watson’s ideas were based on the earlier work classical and operant conditioning, which Skinner
of Pavlov, so Skinner’s study of operant conditioning did 40 years later.
grew out of the earlier work of another American,
Edward Thorndike. Skinner’s ‘analysis of behaviour’
Skinner used a form of puzzle-box known as a Skinner
Thorndike’s law of effect box. This was designed for a rat or pigeon to do things
Thorndike (1898) built puzzle-boxes for use with in, rather than escape from. The box has a lever (in
cats, whose task was to operate a latch that would the case of rats) or illuminated discs (in the case of
automatically cause the door to spring open, freeing pigeons), under which is a food tray. The experimenter
them. Each time they managed to escape from decides exactly what the relationship shall be between
the puzzle-box, there was a piece of fish, visible pressing the lever and the delivery of a food pellet,
from inside the puzzle-box, waiting for them. The providing total control of the animal’s environment. But
cats were deprived of food for a considerable time it’s the animal that has to do the work.
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According to Skinner’s version of the law of

effect, ‘behaviour is shaped and maintained by its
consequences’. The consequences of operants can be
positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement or punishment.
While both positive and negative reinforcement
strengthen behaviour (making it more probable), each
works in a different way. Positive reinforcement involves
presenting something pleasurable (such as food), while
negative reinforcement involves the removal or avoidance
of some ‘aversive’ (literally ‘painful’) state of affairs
(such as electric shock). Punishment weakens behaviour
(making it less probable), through the presentation of
an aversive stimulus.
Primary and secondary reinforcers
Primary reinforcers (such as food, water, sex) are natural
reinforcers (reinforcing in themselves). Secondary
reinforcers acquire their reinforcing properties through
association with primary reinforcers – that is, we
have to learn (through classical conditioning) to find
Figure 11.7 Rat in a Skinner box (or ‘operant chamber’)
them reinforcing. Examples of human secondary (or
conditioned) reinforcers are money, cheques and tokens
Skinner used the term strengthen in place of (see Chapter 45).
Thorndike’s ‘stamping in’, and weaken in place of In a Skinner box, if a click accompanies the
‘stamping out’. He regarded Thorndike’s terms as presentation of each pellet of food, the rat will
too mentalistic, and his own as more objective and eventually come to find the click on its own
descriptive. reinforcing. The click can then be used as a reinforcer
for getting the rat to learn some new response. (Clickers
are used in dog training, at first in conjunction with a
Box 11.2 Skinner’s analysis of behaviour primary reinforcer, such as a food ‘treat’, then on their
(or the ABC of operant conditioning) own.) Secondary reinforcers are important, because they
‘bridge the gap’ between the response and the primary
The analysis of behaviour requires an accurate reinforcer, which may not be presented immediately.
but neutral representation of the relationship (or
contingencies) between:
Schedules of reinforcement
● Antecedents (the stimulus conditions, such as the Another important aspect of Skinner’s work is
lever, the click of the food dispenser, a light that concerned with the effects on behaviour of how
may go on when the lever is pressed) frequently and how regularly (or predictably)
● Behaviours (or operants, such as pressing the lever) reinforcements are presented. Ferster and Skinner
● Consequences (what happens as a result of the (1957) identified five major schedules, each of
operant behaviour – reinforcement or punishment). which is associated with a characteristic pattern of
This is the ABC of operant conditioning. responding. This part of Skinner’s research is largely
counterintuitive (Walker, 1984).
Strengthen
Positive behaviours which
reinforcers result in their
presentation
Weaken
behaviours which
Punishers result in their
Strengthen presentation
behaviours which
Negative result in their
reinforcers removal or
avoidance
Figure 11.8 The consequences of behaviour and their effects
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Rats and pigeons (and probably most mammals along the horizontal axis. Skinner called this a
and birds) typically ‘work harder’ (press the lever/ ‘cumulative record’ (see Figure 11.9).
peck the disc at a faster rate) for scant reward: when A continuous schedule is normally used only when some
reinforcements are relatively infrequent and irregular new response is being learned. Once it’s being emitted
or unpredictable, they’ll go on working long after the regularly and reliably, it can be maintained by using
reinforcement has actually been withdrawn. So, each one of the four partial or intermittent schedules. But this
schedule can be analysed in terms of (a) pattern and rate change must be gradual. If the animal is switched from
of response; and (b) resistance to extinction (see Table 11.2). a continuous schedule to, say, a VR 50, it will soon stop
The rate of response can be represented by responding. Skinner (1938) originally used an interval
plotting responses cumulatively as steps along a schedule because a reinforcer is guaranteed, sooner or
vertical axis, against the time when they’re made later, so long as one response is made during the interval.
Table 11.2 Common reinforcement schedules, and associated patterns of response and resistance to extinction
Reinforcement Example Pattern and rate of Resistance to Example of human

schedule response extinction behaviour
Continuous Every single response Response rate is low Very low – the 1. Receiving a high
reinforcement is reinforced but steady quickest way to bring grade for every
(CRF) about extinction assignment
2. Receiving a tip for

every customer served
Fixed interval A reinforcement is Response rate speeds Fairly low – extinction 1. Being paid regularly
(FI) given every 30 seconds up as the next occurs quite quickly (every week or month)
(FI 30), provided the reinforcement becomes 2. Giving yourself a
response occurs at available; a pause after 15-minute break for
least once during that each reinforcement. every hour’s studying
time Overall response rate done
fairly low
Variable interval A reinforcement is Response rate is very Very high – extinction Many self-employed
(VI) given on average stable over long occurs very slowly and people receive
every 30 seconds (VI periods of time. Still gradually payment irregularly
30), but the interval some tendency to (depending on when
varies from trial to increase response rate the customer pays for
trial. So, the interval as time elapses since the product or the
on any one occasion is the last reinforcement service)
unpredictable
Fixed ratio (FR) A reinforcement There’s a pronounced As in FI 1. Piece work (the
is given for a fixed pause after each more work done, the
number of responses, reinforcement, and more money earned)
however long this then a very high 2. Commission (extra
may take, e.g. one rate of responding money for so many
reinforcement every leading up to the next goods made or sales
ten responses (FR 10) reinforcement completed)
Variable ratio A reinforcement is Very high response Very high – the most Gambling
(VR) given on average every rate – and very steady resistant of all the
ten responses (VR schedules
10), but the number
varies from trial to
trial. So, the number
of responses required
on any one occasion is
unpredictable
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Presentation Box 11.3 Avoidance learning through
of reinforcement
VR negative reinforcement
● Most laboratory studies use a shuttle box, a
box divided into two compartments, sometimes
FR with a barrier or door between them. Electric
VI shocks can be delivered through the floor of
Number either compartment independently of the other.
of Neither side is permanently safe, but only one is
responses
electrified at a time.
● The animal’s task is to find which is the safe side
FI on any one occasion. A warning signal (a light or
CRF
buzzer) is given whenever the electrified side is to
be changed, so the animal can always avoid being
shocked if it switches sides when it hears (or sees)
the signal.
According to the two factor theory (Mowrer, 1960)
Time
or the two process theory (Gray, 1975):
Figure 11.9 Typical cumulative records for a response ● The animal first learns to be afraid (the
(such as lever pressing) reinforced using five schedules of warning signal elicits an anticipatory emotional
reinforcement response of fear/anxiety through classical
conditioning).
● It then learns a response to reduce the
Shaping: the reinforcement of successive fear (jumping the barrier is negatively
approximations reinforced through avoiding the shock before
Reinforcement can be used to build up relatively it’s switched on).
complex behaviour (not part of the animal’s
natural repertoire) by reinforcing closer and closer
approximations to the desired behaviour (shaping).
First, the behaviour must be broken down into a Punishment
number of small steps, each of which is reinforced in Skinner maintained that, with both humans and
sequence. Gradually, what the animal can do is much non-humans, positive (and, to a lesser extent,
more like what the experimenter is trying to teach negative) reinforcement is a much more potent
it. This is what animal trainers have been doing for influence on behaviour than punishment. This is
hundreds of years, and is the method of reinforcement largely because punishment can only make certain
Skinner used to teach pigeons to play ping-pong or responses less likely: you cannot teach anything new
turn a full (anticlockwise) circle. Most human skills are by punishment alone.
learned in this step-by-step manner. However, Campbell and Church (1969) argue that
Shaping also provides an important foundation for punishments are, if anything, a stronger influence on
behaviour modification. This is used to teach children and behaviour than the incentive effects of reinforcements
adults with learning difficulties to use the toilet, feed (at least as far as laboratory animals are concerned). But
and dress themselves, and other social skills. It’s also punishment produces unpleasant side-effects, such as
been used to develop speech in autistic children and stress, anxiety, withdrawal and aggression.
adults with schizophrenia (see Chapter 45). Estes (1970) concluded that punishment merely
suppresses lever pressing in the short term, but doesn’t
Negative reinforcement: escape and avoidance weaken it. Other experiments have shown that the
learning strength and duration of the suppression effect depend
Escape and avoidance learning are the two major on the intensity of the punishment and the degree of
ways in which negative reinforcement has been deprivation. However, the response is still suppressed
studied in the laboratory. Escape learning is relatively rather than unlearned.
simple. For example, rats can learn to press a lever When alternative ways of obtaining reinforcers are
to turn off electric shock. Avoidance learning is more available, punishment has a more powerful suppressive
complex and more relevant to certain aspects of effect on the punished behaviour (Howe, 1980).
human behaviour. (See Box 11.3.) For example, Azrin and Holz (1966) combined
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punishment and reinforcement, so that response A lever pressing only when a light is on, the light soon
was punished while response B (incompatible with A) becomes a discriminative stimulus (the rat presses only
was positively reinforced. Skinner advocates this with when the light is on).
human beings.
The antecedents of behaviour: stimulus Ask Yourself
control ● What are the major similarities and differences
In operant conditioning, the stimulus indicates the between classical and operant conditioning?
likely consequence of emitting a particular response:
the operant behaviour is more likely to occur in
the presence of some stimuli than others. If a rat Does conditioning work in the same way
has been reinforced for pressing the lever, it’s more for all species?
likely to go on emitting that response as the lever The fact that many experiments involving a
becomes associated both with reinforcement and variety of species can all be described as classical
the action of pressing (probably through classical conditioning doesn’t in itself mean that there’s only
conditioning). Technically, lever pressing has now come one mechanism involved, or only one explanation
under the stimulus control of the lever. But there’s still that applies, equally, to all species and all cases
no inevitability about pressing it, only an increased (Walker, 1984). Although conditionability seems to
probability. (This is why the term ‘S–R Psychology’ is be an almost universal property of nervous systems
sometimes used only to refer to classical conditioning.) (including those of sea snails, flatworms and fruit
Similarly, drivers’ behaviour is brought under the flies), many Psychologists have argued that there can
stimulus control of traffic signals, road signs, other be no general laws of learning (Seligman, 1970).
vehicles, pedestrians, and so on. Much of our everyday If such laws do exist, one of them is likely to be
behaviour can be seen in this way. Sitting on chairs, the law of contiguity: events (or stimuli) that occur
answering the telephone, turning on the television, close together in time and space are likely to become
and so on, are all operants that are more likely to occur associated with each other. Most of the examples of
in the presence of those stimuli because of the past conditioning we’ve considered so far would appear
consequences of doing so. to ‘obey’ the law of contiguity. The taste aversion
A special case of stimulus control is a discriminative experiments described in Key Study 11.3 represent
stimulus. If a rat in the Skinner box is reinforced for important exceptions.
Box 11.4 Major similarities and differences between classical and operant
conditioning
Similarities responses that result in pleasurable outcomes are
likely to be repeated, while those that result in
● They’re both types of associative learning.
aversive outcomes aren’t.
● Generalisation, discrimination, extinction and
● In classical, completely new S–R connections are
spontaneous recovery occur in both.
formed, while operant involves the strengthening
Differences or weakening of response tendencies already
● In classical, the UCR or CR is elicited (triggered present in the animal’s behavioural repertoire.
automatically) by the UCS or CS (it’s essentially a ● In classical, the reinforcer (UCS) is presented
reflex, involuntary response). In operant, behaviour regardless of what the animal does, and is
is emitted by the organism and is essentially presented before the response. In operant, the
voluntary. reinforcer is only presented if the animal emits
● In classical, the stimulus is guaranteed to produce some specified, pre-selected behaviour, and is
the response, while the likelihood of a particular presented after the behaviour.
operant response being emitted is a function of the ● In classical, the strength of conditioning is typically
past consequences of such behaviour (it’s more or measured in terms of response magnitude (e.g.
less probable, but never certain). how many drops of saliva) and/or latency (how
● In classical, the UCS works in basically the same quickly a response is produced by a stimulus). In
way regardless of whether it’s pleasurable (such as operant, strength is measured mainly as response
food) or aversive (such as electric shock). In operant, rate (see Table 11.2).
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difficulty, if at all. Seligman believes that most of the

Key study 11.3 behaviour studied in the laboratory falls somewhere in
Learning to feel as sick as a rat (Garcia and between these two extremes.
As far as human behaviour is concerned, much of the
Koelling, 1966; Garcia et al., 1966) relevant data relates to how easily certain conditioned
● Rats were given a novel-tasting solution, such as fear responses can be induced in the laboratory or
saccharine-flavoured water (the CS), prior to a how common certain naturally occurring phobias
drug, apomorphine (the UCS), which has a delayed are compared with others. For example, Ohman et
action, inducing severe intestinal illness (the UCR). al. (1975a, 1975b) paired slides of snakes and spiders
● In two separate experiments, the precise time with a strong electric shock, and quickly established
lapse between tasting the solution and onset of conditioned emotional responses to these slides – but
the drug-induced nausea was either (a) 5, 6, 7, not to slides of flowers, houses or berries.
8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21 and 22 Seligman (1972) observed that human phobias tend
minutes, or (b) 30, 45, 75, 120 and 180 minutes. to fall into certain narrow categories, mostly animals
● In (a), the rats received just four treatments or dangerous places. Most common of all were the fear
(one every third day). In all cases, there was a of snakes, spiders, the dark, high places and closed-in
conditioned aversive response to the solution: places, and often there’s no previous evidence for the
intestinal illness became a CR (a response to the fear actually having been conditioned (see Chapters
solution alone). In some replications, just a single 43 and 45). Also, classically conditioned responses
treatment has been required. extinguish faster in humans than animals. This is
because the CRs are modulated by more complex
human memories (Weiskrantz, 1982).
While rats can also be conditioned to novel smells,
auditory, visual and tactile stimuli aren’t so readily
associated with internal illness. As for pigeons, it’s COGNITIVE APPROACHES
impossible to deter them from water and, for other
species, taste aversions are very difficult to establish, The role of cognition in conditioning
even if the animal is made very ill. In almost all species, According to Mackintosh (1978), conditioning cannot
aversions are learned more easily to new flavours be reduced to the strengthening of S–R associations by
than to familiar ones (saccharine solution is a novel the automatic action of a process called reinforcement.
taste for the rat). It’s more appropriate to think of it as a matter of
detecting and learning about relations between events.
Biological constraints on conditioning Animals typically discover what signals or causes
It seems, then, that there are definite biological events that are important to them, such as food,
limitations on the ability of animals to develop a water, danger or safety. Salivation or lever pressing are
conditioned aversion. Similarly, rats typically learn very simply a convenient index of what the subject has
quickly to avoid shock in a shuttle box and to press a learned, namely that certain relationships exist in its
lever for food. However, they don’t learn very readily environment.
to press a lever to avoid shock. Pigeons can be trained
quickly to fly from one perch to another in order to Classical conditioning
avoid shock, but it’s almost impossible to train them to Pavlov himself described the CS as a ‘signal’ for the
peck a disc to avoid shock. UCS, the relationship between CS and the UCS
Findings like these have led Bolles (1980) and as one of ‘stimulus substitution’, and the CR as an
others to conclude that we cannot regard the basic ‘anticipatory’ response (or ‘psychic secretions’),
principles of learning as applying equally to all suggesting that his dogs were expecting the food to
species in all situations. We must take into account follow the bell. Consistent with this interpretation,
the evolutionary history of the species, as well as the Rescorla (1968) presented two groups of animals
individual organism’s learning history. According to the with the same number of CS–UCS pairings, but the
concept of preparedness (Seligman, 1970), animals are second group also received additional presentations
biologically prepared to learn actions that are closely of the UCS on its own without the CS. The first
related to the survival of their species (such as learned group showed much stronger conditioning than the
water or food aversions), and these prepared behaviours second, indicating that the most important factor
are learned with very little training. Equally, (at least in classical conditioning) is how predictably
contraprepared behaviours are contrary to an animal’s the UCS follows the CS, not how often the CS and
natural tendencies, and so are learned with great UCS are paired.
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Blocking also supports a more cognitive Reinforcement provides the learner with information
interpretation (Kamin, 1969). For example, if an about the likely consequences of certain behaviour
animal is shown a light, quickly followed by an under certain conditions – that is, it improves our
electric shock, the light soon comes to elicit fear as a prediction of whether a given action will lead to
CR. If a noise is then added (noise + light + shock), pleasant (reinforcement) or unpleasant (punishment)
then the noise should also soon become a CS, outcomes in the future. It also motivates us, by
because it, too, is being paired with shock. However, causing us to anticipate future outcomes. Our present
this isn’t what happens. If the noise is later presented behaviours are largely governed by the outcomes we
alone, it fails to produce a CR. It seems that the expect them to have, and we’re more likely to learn
noise has somehow been ‘blocked’ from becoming behaviour if we value its consequences.
a CS because of the previous conditioning to the This cognitive reinterpretation of reinforcement
light. In cognitive terms, since the light already forms part of Bandura’s social learning theory (SLT),
predicts shock, the noise is irrelevant. It provides no which is discussed in more detail in relation
additional information – the animal already ‘knows’ to aggression (Chapter 29), moral and gender
that shock will follow the light. development (Chapters 35 and 36), and personality
(Chapter 42). While not denying the role of both
Operant conditioning classical and operant conditioning, SLT focuses
on observational learning (or modelling), in which
Key Study 11.4 cognitive factors are crucial. This is reflected in
Bandura’s renaming (1986, 1989) of SLT as social
Learned helplessness (Seligman, 1974, 1975) cognitive theory.
● Dogs were strapped into a harness and given

a series of shocks from which they couldn’t Tolman’s cognitive behaviourism
escape. They were later required to jump a Although he was working within the Behaviourist
barrier in a shuttle box within 10 seconds of a tradition in the 1920s, 1930s and 1940s,Tolman would
warning signal, or suffer 50 seconds of painful today be regarded as a Cognitive Psychologist. He
shock. explained the learning of rats in terms of inferred
● Control dogs (which hadn’t been subjected to cognitive processes, in particular cognitive or mental maps.
the inescapable shocks) learned the avoidance
response very quickly.
● But about two-thirds of the experimental Ask Yourself
dogs seemed unable to do so. They seemed
passively resigned to suffering the shock, and ● How might you explain Tolman and Honzik’s
even if they did successfully avoid the shock findings?
on one trial, they were unlikely to do so the ● Could the distinction between learning and
next. Some dogs had to be pushed over the performance help?
barrier 200 times or more before this learned
helplessness wore off.
Clearly, group 3 rats had been learning their way
through the maze during the first 10 days, but
According to Seligman, the dogs learned that no that learning was latent (hidden or ‘behaviourally
behaviour on their part had any effect on the silent’). In other words, it didn’t show up in their
occurrence (or non-occurrence) of a particular event actual behaviour until they received the incentive of
(the shock). This has been demonstrated using human the reinforcement on day 11. Tolman and Honzik
participants by Miller and Norman (1979), and Maier concluded that reinforcement may be important in
and Seligman (1976) have tried to explain depression relation to performance of learned behaviour, but that it
in humans in terms of learned helplessness (see isn’t necessary for the learning itself.
Chapters 12 and 44). Tolman’s (1948) place learning (or sign learning) theory
Skinner’s claim that reinforcements and punishments maintains that rats learn expectations as to which part
automatically strengthen and weaken behaviour has of the maze will be followed by which other part of
been challenged by Bandura (1977a). For Bandura: the maze. Tolman called these expectations cognitive
maps, a primitive kind of perceptual map of the maze,
Reinforcements serve principally as an informative an understanding of its spatial relationships (much like
and motivational operation rather than as a the mental map you have of familiar streets leading to
mechanical response strengthener. home or college).
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Insight learning can be defined as a perceptual

Key Study 11.5 restructuring of the elements that constitute a problem
Latent learning – who needs situation: a previously missing ‘ingredient’ is supplied,
and all the parts are seen in relation to each other,
reinforcement? (Tolman and Honzik, 1930) forming a meaningful whole. Some of the most
● Group 1 rats were reinforced every time they famous studies of insight learning were conducted by
found their way through a maze to the food box. Köhler, one of the founders of Gestalt Psychology,
● Group 2 rats were never reinforced. with chimps. These, and other Gestalt studies of
● Group 3 rats received no reinforcement for the first problem-solving, are discussed in Chapter 20.
10 days of the experiment, but did so from day 11.
● Not surprisingly, group 1 learned the maze quickly Learning sets
and made fewer and fewer mistakes, while group According to Harlow (1949), S–R learning and insight
2 never reduced the time it took to find the food, learning are essentially two different phases of the
and moved around aimlessly much of the time. same, continuous process. S–R learning predominates
● Group 3 made no apparent progress during the first in the early stages, and insight develops out of prior
10 days. But they then showed a sudden decrease S–R connections. Harlow suggests that the concept
in the time it took to reach the goal box on day 11, of a learning set (or ‘learning to learn’) represents an
when they received their first reinforcement. They intervening process between S–R and insight learning.
caught up almost immediately with Group 1. The greater the number of sets, the better equipped
the learner is to adapt to a changing environment; a
30 very large number of different sets ‘may supply the raw
28 material for human thinking’.
26 Never reinforced A learning set involves learning a general skill
24
22 applicable to a whole new class of problems, a simple
20 rule or code, based on a conceptual (not a perceptual)
18
relationship. In experiments with monkeys, Harlow
Time
16
14 demonstrated that insightful learning is itself (at least
Reinforced starting
12
on the eleventh day partially) learned and grows out of more random, trial-
10
8 and-error learning.
6
4 Always reinforced CONCLUSIONS: TRANSFER OF LEARNING
2
A learning set represents a special case of a more
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
Days
general phenomenon known as transfer of learning (or
training). Essentially, transfer refers to the influence
Figure 11.10 The results of Tolman and Honzik’s of earlier learning on later learning, which is an
study of latent learning in rats inherent feature of the learning process in general
(Howe, 1980). Some kinds of transfer take the form
of simple stimulus generalisation, while in more
Although a cognitive map can only be inferred from complex learning situations transfer may depend on
actual behaviour, it’s difficult to know how else to explain the acquisition of rules or principles that apply to a
the findings that rats will take short-cuts to the food variety of different circumstances. Learning sets can be
box if the old path is blocked. Similarly, if the maze were viewed as intermediate between simple generalisation,
rotated, they could find the usual food location from and the more complex transfer phenomena involved in
several different starting points (Tolman et al., 1946). hierarchically organised skills (Howe, 1980).
Restle (1957) flooded a maze immediately after a group Koestler (1970) believes that the debate between the
of rats had learnt to run it, and they were able to swim S–R and cognitive theorists derives to a large extent
to the goal box with no more errors than when they’d from a refusal to take seriously the notion of ripeness.
walked.This clearly supports Tolman’s interpretation. By this, he means a person’s or animal’s readiness to
make a discovery or solve a problem, based on relevant
Insight learning knowledge, skills and past experience. Rats and cats
Insight learning represents a view of learning as ‘purely have generally been presented with tasks for which
cognitive’. It stems from the Gestalt school of Psychology, they are biologically ill-fitted, and so the resulting
which is diametrically opposed to the S–R approach.The learning was bound to appear gradual, piecemeal and
Gestalt Psychologists are best known for their work on at first quite random. But Köhler set chimps problems
perception (see Chapter 15), and their view of learning is for which they were (almost) ripe, which gave the
directly linked to their view of perception. impression that all learning is based on insight.
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Chapter Summary
● Learning has played a major part in the ● Primary reinforcers are naturally reinforcing,
development of Psychology as a scientific discipline while secondary/conditioned reinforcers come to
and is central to the Behaviourist approach. be reinforcing through association with primary
● Psychologists are interested in learning as a process. reinforcers.
Theories of learning differ as to the nature of the ● Different schedules of reinforcement can be
process involved, especially the role played by analysed in terms of pattern/rate of response and
cognitive factors. resistance to extinction. Variable schedules involve
● It’s generally agreed that learning involves a high, steady rates of response and high resistance
relatively permanent change in behaviour due to to extinction, compared with fixed and continuous
past experience. The distinction between learning schedules.
and performance refers to potential and actual ● Shaping involves the reinforcement of successive
behaviour, respectively. approximations to the desired behaviour.
● The distinction between respondent and operant ● Escape and avoidance learning are two forms of
behaviour corresponds to classical (respondent or negative reinforcement.
Pavlovian) and operant (instrumental or Skinnerian) ● According to the two-factor theory, both classical
conditioning, respectively. and operant conditioning are involved in avoidance
● In classical conditioning, the pairing of a learning, which can account for the persistence of
conditioned and an unconditioned stimulus results human phobias.
in the former eliciting a response that formerly was ● Punishment seems to involve a suppression of
produced only by the latter. behaviour, and is most effective when combined
● Delayed/forward, backward, simultaneous with the reinforcement of an incompatible
and trace conditioning differ according to the response.
relationships between the conditioned and the ● Taste aversion experiments represent an important
unconditioned stimuli. challenge to the law of contiguity.
● Generalisation, discrimination, extinction and ● Preparedness helps explain experimental findings
spontaneous recovery represent conditioning which show that different species acquire certain
phenomena, which make it more complex and conditioned responses more or less easily, and
versatile. Spontaneous recovery demonstrates that why certain human phobias are more common
extinction involves a learning to inhibit/suppress than others.
the conditioned response. ● Classical conditioning involves learning about
● Watson applied classical conditioning to human relations between environmental events,
behaviour for the first time by inducing fear of a rather than a simple strengthening of S–R
rat in Little Albert. Jones removed animal phobias associations. Seligman’s concept of learned
from Little Peter using an early form of systematic helplessness illustrates the complexity of operant
desensitisation. conditioning and has been used to explain human
● Compared with classical, operant conditioning sees depression.
learning as a much more active process. Skinner ● Tolman’s studies of latent learning show that
was interested in how animals operate on their learning can take place in the absence of
environment, and how their activity is instrumental reinforcement. Rats learn a cognitive map of a
in producing certain consequences. maze, not the individual movements of walking or
● Skinner’s work was based on Thorndike’s law of running that take them to the food box.
effect. He designed a form of puzzle-box (a Skinner ● Gestalt Psychologists saw insight learning as
box), and called the consequences of behaviour involving the perceptual restructuring of the
positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement and elements that constitute a problem situation.
punishment. ● Harlow’s concept of a learning set shows that
● Reinforcement (both positive and negative) insight and trial and error aren’t necessarily opposed
strengthens behaviour, while punishment forms of learning. A learning set represents a special
weakens it. case of the more general transfer of learning.
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Links with Other Topics/Chapters
Chapter 2 Learning, in the form of Chapter 45 Shaping provides the basis of

conditioning, lies at the heart of behaviour modification, used with a
behaviourism, one of the major range of patients, including autistic
theoretical approaches within children and adult schizophrenics
Psychology
Chapter 44 Seligman and others have drawn on
Chapter 1 The distinction between the concept of learned helplessness
philosophical and methodological to explain human depression
behaviourism is important both in
the history of Psychology Social learning theory has been
applied to the study of:
Chapter 3 and the debate over the scientific Chapter 29 aggression
status of Psychology
Chapter 35 moral development
Chapter 17 Learning and memory are closely
interrelated processes Chapter 36 gender development
Chapter 44 The Little Albert experiment is taken Gestalt Psychology is best known for:
by many behaviour therapists (such Chapter 15 its principles of perceptual
as Eysenck) as demonstrating how all organisation
phobias are acquired in everyday life
Chapter 20 research into problem-solving
Chapter 45 The ‘direct unconditioning’ used
in the Little Peter experiment is
an early example of systematic
desensitisation, a major form of
behaviour therapy, used in the
treatment of phobias
Recommended Reading Useful Websites

Anderson, J.R. (1995) Learning and Memory: An www.brembs.net/classical/classical.html (Basic
Integrated Approach. New York: John Wiley & Sons. Concepts in Classical Conditioning)
Equally relevant to Chapter 17. www.wagntrain.com/OC/ (An Animal Trainer’s
Catania, A.C. (1992) Learning (3rd edn). Englewood Introduction to Operant and Classical Conditioning)
Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Also useful for Chapters 17, www.tinyurl.com/py3ptx5 (YouTube explanatory
19, 35 and 36. video)
Gross, R. (2008) Key Studies in Psychology (5th edn). www.tinyurl.com/088hv2u (Account of Pavlov’s work
London: Hodder Education. Chapter 23. in British Medical Journal)
Leslie, J.C. (2002) Essential Behaviour Analysis. London: www.tinyurl.com/y8d2py4 (Pavlov’s own account of
Arnold. Also relevant to Chapters 19, 44 and 45. classical conditioning at PsychClassics site)
O’Donohue, W. & Ferguson, K.E. (2001) The www.tinyurl.com/nehqx9v (Simple conditioning of a
Psychology of B.F. Skinner. London: Methuen. simulated dog)
Walker, S. (1984) Learning Theory and Behaviour
Modification. London: Methuen. Also relevant to
Chapter 45.
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UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH AFRICA (UNISA)
The material may be subject to copyright under the Copyright Act no.
98 of 1978. Any further reproduction or distribution of this material
by you may be a violation of the Copyright Act.
A single copy (printed or electronic) of the material may be kept for

academic use only.
LEARNING
86
OBJEC TIVES
C h a p t e r
After studying this chapter, you will be able to . . .

1 Explain the difference between sensation
and perception. FPO
2 Define the following basic terms in sensation:
absolute and difference thresholds, signal
detection theory, and stimulus adaptation.
3 Identify the parts of the eye, describe what

happens when light enters the eye, and
explain the roles of rods and cones.
4 Describe the two major theories of color

vision.
5 Explain how the ear enables us to hear

sounds.
6 Explain the perception of pitch and identify

the main types and causes of deafness.
7 Explain how we sense odors and tastes.

8 Identify the various skin senses and explain
the gate-control theory of pain.
9 Describe the functions of the kinesthetic and

vestibular senses and explain how they work.
10 D
escribe the roles of attention, perceptual set,
and modes of visual processing in perception.
tulpahn/Shutterstock.com
11 Identify and describe the Gestalt principles

of grouping objects into meaningful patterns
or forms.
12 Define the concept of perceptual constancy

and apply the concept to examples.
PREVIEW
13 Identify and describe cues we use to judge
distance and perceive movement, and apply Module 3.1 Sensing Our World: Basic Concepts of Sensation
these cues to examples.
Module 3.2 Vision: Seeing the Light
14 Identify some common types of visual illu-
Module 3.3 Hearing: The Music of Sound
sions and explain why it is the brain, not the
eyes, that deceives us. Module 3.4 Our Other Senses: Chemical, Skin, and Body Senses
15 Evaluate evidence concerning the existence Module 3.5 Perceiving Our World: Principles of Perception
of subliminal perception and extrasensory
perception.
86
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Sensation
and Perception 3
My Daughter, the Giant
O
ne day, my infant daughter Daniella turned into a giant. Or so it Did you know that...
seemed. I was making a video recording of her fledgling attempts ■■ Roy G. Biv is one of the most famous
to crawl. All was going well until she noticed the camera. She then names psychology students learn, but
started crawling toward this funny man holding the camera—me. As she he is not a real person? (p. 92)
approached, her image in the viewfinder grew larger and larger, eventually ■■ Wearing the color red makes you look
so large that she blotted out all other objects in my view. The image of sexier? (p. 97)
my daughter that was cast upon my eyes was of a large and ever-growing
giant! But I didn’t panic. Despite the information my eyes were transmit-
■■ Hearing may be our fastest sense? (p. 99)
ting to my brain, I understood my daughter was not morphing into a giant. ■■ The bending of hair cells in the inner ear
Fortunately, we tend to perceive objects to be of their actual size despite makes hearing possible, but these cells
changes in the size of the image they project on our eyes as they grow are not real hairs? (p. 100)
nearer. Yet the sensation of seeing your infant grow to be a giant before ■■ Nearly one in five teens is already show-
your eyes can be an unsettling experience, especially when the “giant” then ing evidence of hearing loss due to years
attempts to mouth the camera. of living loudly? (p. 102)
We are continually bombarded with stimuli from the outside world that ■■ Exposure to bodily secretions of the
impinge on our sensory organs. The world is a medley of lights and sounds opposite sex may have subtle effects on
that strike our eyes and ears, and of chemical substances that waft past our our behavior, even if we are not con-
noses or land on our tongues as we consume food or drink liquids. In this sciously aware of it? (p. 107)
chapter, you will see how your sense organs respond to external stimuli ■■ The mechanism that makes motion
and transform these stimuli into sensory signals your brain uses to produce pictures possible lies in the viewer, not
sensations of vision, hearing, touch, smell, and taste. You will learn how the projector? (p. 124)
your brain assembles bits and pieces of sensory information into meaning-
ful impressions of the world that are called perceptions. You will also learn
how your brain senses changes in the position of your body, so you can
move about without stumbling or losing your balance. Our sensory systems
operate at blinding speeds, but the real marvel is how the brain processes
all the information it receives from the body’s sensory organs, making it
possible for us not only to sense the world around us but also to make
sense of it. As the example of my “giant” daughter demonstrates, sensation
and perception are different processes. What we perceive may not corre-
spond to what our eyes sense.
The study of sensation and perception is critical to psychology because
our investigation of behavior and mental processes begins with input from
the world around us and the way the senses and brain interpret that infor-
mation. Let us proceed, first, to explore how our sensory systems operate.
Then we will explore how the brain assembles the sensory information
it receives to form perceptions that help us make sense of the sensations
that fill our lives with the colors and sounds that form the rich tapestry
of sensory experience.
87
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88 C h a p t e r 3 S e n s at i o n a n d P e r c e p t i o n
MODULE 3.1 Sensing Our World:

Basic Concepts of Sensation
1 Explain the difference between sensation and perception.
2 Define the following basic terms in sensation: absolute and difference thresholds, signal
detection theory, and stimulus adaptation.
CONCEPT 3.1 Sensation is the process by which we receive, transform, and process stimuli that
Sensation is the process by which physical impinge on our sensory organs into neural impulses, or signals, that the brain uses
stimuli that impinge on our sensory organs to create experiences of vision, hearing, taste, smell, touch, and so on.
are converted into neural impulses the Each of our sense organs contains specialized cells, called sensory receptors,
brain uses to create our experiences of vi- that detect stimuli from the outside world, such as light, sound, and odors, and
sion, touch, hearing, taste, smell, and so on.
transform them into patterns of neural impulses the brain uses to create sensations
CONCEPT 3.2 of vision, hearing, and so on. We can think of the brain as a “coding machine” that
Sensory receptors convert sources of sen- processes these signals into the various sensations we experience (Max-Planck-
sory stimuli, such as light and sound, into Gesellschaft, 2011).
neural impulses the brain can use to create Sensory receptors are found throughout the body, in such organs as the eyes,
sensations. ears, nose, and mouth, and in less obvious locations, such as the joints and muscles
of the body and the entirety of the skin. In this module, we examine how sensory
CONCEPT 3.3 receptors respond to external stimuli and how they convert these stimuli into mes-
Through the study of psychophysics, we sages the brain uses to create the experience of sensation.
learn how the properties of external stimuli Our exploration of the process of sensation has its roots in psychophysics, the
relate to our sensations. study of how physical sources of stimulation—light, sound, odors, and so on—relate
to our experience of these stimuli in the form of sensations. Psychophysics began
CONCEPT 3.4
Our sensory systems vary in the amounts
with the work of the nineteenth-century German scientist Gustav Theodor Fechner.
of stimulation needed to detect the Though Wilhelm Wundt is credited with establishing the first psychological laboratory
presence of a stimulus and the differences in 1879, some historians believe that the publication of Fechner’s Elements of Psycho-
among stimuli. physics in 1860 signaled the beginning of the scientific approach to psychology.
We begin our study of sensation by examining the common characteristics that
relate to the functioning of our sensory systems: thresholds, signal detection, and
sensory adaptation.
Absolute and Difference Thresholds: Is Something

sensation The process by which we
receive, transform, and process stimuli There? Is Something Else There?
from the outside world to create sensory Our sensory receptors are remarkably sensitive to certain types of stimuli. On a
experiences.
clear, dark night, we can detect a flickering candle 30 miles away. We can also detect
sensory receptors Specialized cells that about one drop of perfume spread through a small house. The absolute threshold is
detect sensory stimuli and convert them the smallest amount of a stimulus that a person can reliably detect. Table 3.1 lists
into neural impulses. absolute thresholds for the senses of vision, hearing, taste, smell, and touch.
psychophysics The study of the People differ in their absolute thresholds. Some are more sensitive than others
relationship between features of physical to certain kinds of sensory stimulation—for example, sounds or odors. Fechner
stimuli, such as the intensity of light and sought to determine the absolute thresholds for various senses by presenting peo-
sound, and the sensations we experience ple with stimuli of different magnitudes, such as brighter and duller lights, and
in response to these stimuli. then asking them whether they could see them. According to this method, the ab-
absolute threshold The smallest amount solute threshold is defined as the minimal level of stimulus energy that people can
of a given stimulus a person can sense. detect 50 percent of the time. Stimuli detected less than 50 percent of the time are
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module 3.1 89
Table 3.1 Absolute Thresholds for Various Senses

Sense Stimulus Receptors Threshold
Vision Light energy Rods and cones in the eyes The flame from a single candle flickering about 30 miles
away on a dark, clear night
Hearing Sound waves Hair cells in the inner ear The ticking of a watch placed about 20 feet away from a
listener in a quiet room
Taste Chemical substances that Taste buds on the tongue About 1 teaspoon of sugar dissolved in
contact the tongue 2 gallons of water
Smell Chemical substances that Receptor cells in the upper About one drop of perfume dispersed
enter the nose nostrils in a small house
Touch Movement of, or pressure Nerve endings in the skin The wing of a bee falling on the cheek from
on, the skin about 1 centimeter away
Source: Adapted from Galanter, 1962.
considered below the absolute threshold. Stimuli that can be detected more often
are above the threshold.
The nineteenth-century German scientist Ernst Weber (1795–1878) (pronounced CONCEPT 3.5
Vayber) studied the smallest differences between stimuli that people were able to The ability to detect a stimulus depends
perceive. The minimal difference between two stimuli that people can reliably detect not only on the stimulus itself, but also on
is the difference threshold, or just-noticeable difference (jnd). Just-noticeable differ- the perceiver and the level of background
ences apply to each of our senses. stimulation.
How do difference thresholds apply to the range of stimuli we perceive with
our senses? Weber summarized his findings in what is now known as Weber’s law.
According to this law, the amount you must change a stimulus to detect a differ-
ence is given by a constant fraction or proportion (called a con-
stant) of the original stimulus. For example, Weber’s constant for
noticing a difference in weights is about 1/50 (or 2 percent). This
means that if you were lifting a 50-pound weight, you would prob-
ably not notice a difference unless the weight were increased or
© serhio/Shutterstock.com
reduced by about 2 percent (or 1 pound). But if you were lifting a

200-pound weight, the weight would have to be increased by about
4 pounds (2 percent) for you to notice the difference. Though the
absolute weight needed to detect a difference is about quadruple as
you increase the initial weight from 50 pounds to 200, the fraction
remains the same (1/50).
Weber found that the difference threshold differed for each of the senses. People
are noticeably more sensitive to changes in the pitch of a sound than to changes in
volume. They will perceive the difference if you raise or lower the pitch of your voice
by about one-third of 1 percent (1/333). Yet they will not perceive a difference in the difference threshold The minimal
loudness of a sound unless the sound is made louder or softer by about 10 percent. difference in the magnitude of energy
Table 3.2 lists Weber’s constants for various senses. needed for people to detect a difference
Weber’s constants have practical applications. If you’re going to sing, you had between two stimuli.
better be right on pitch (hit the note precisely) or people are going to groan. How- Weber’s law The principle that the
ever, if you raise the volume on your music system just a little, your next-door amount of change in a stimulus needed to
neighbor might not notice any difference. Then, too, if your neighbor is complain- detect a difference is given by a constant
ing about the loudness, lowering the volume of the music by a notch may not be ratio or fraction, called a constant, of the
noticeable. original stimulus.
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Table 3.2 Examples of Signal Detection: More Than a Matter of Energy

Weber’s Constants Scientists who study psychophysics describe sounds, flashes of light, and other stimuli
as signals. According to signal-detection theory, the threshold for detecting a signal
Weber’s Constant
depends not only on the properties of the stimulus itself, such as its intensity—the
Sensation (Approximate)
loudness of a sound, for example—but also on the level of background stimulation,
or noise, and, importantly, on the biological and psychological characteristics of the
Saltiness of food 1/5
perceiver. The sensitivity or degree of sharpness of an individual’s sensory systems
Pressure on skin 1/7 (for example, the acuity of your eyesight or hearing) partially determines whether a
signal is detected. The organism’s physical condition also plays a role. For instance,
Loudness of sounds 1/10
your sense of smell is duller when you have a cold and your nose is stuffed. Levels of
Odor 1/20 fatigue or alertness also contribute to signal detection.
Heaviness of weights 1/50 Psychological factors, including attention levels and states of motivation like
hunger, also play important roles in signal detection. As you are walking down a
Brightness of lights 1/60 darkened street by yourself late at night, you may be especially attentive to even the
Pitch of sounds 1/333 slightest sounds because they may signal danger. You may fail to notice the same
sounds as you walk along the same street in broad daylight. If you haven’t eaten for
a while, you may be more likely to notice aromas of food wafting from a nearby
kitchen than if you had just consumed a hearty meal.
CONCEPT 3.6 Sensory Adaptation: Turning the Volume Down

Through the process of sensory adaptation,
our sensory systems deal with repeated Through the process of sensory adaptation, sensory systems become less sensitive to
exposure to the same stimuli by becoming constant or unchanging stimuli. When you are wearing a new wristwatch or ring,
less sensitive to them. you may at first be aware of the sensation of pressure on your skin, but after a while
you no longer notice it. We may be thankful for sensory adaptation when, after a
few minutes of exposure, the water in a crisp mountain lake seems warmer or the
odors in a locker room become less noticeable. However, sensory adaptation may
not occur when we are repeatedly exposed to certain strong stimuli, such as the loud
wail of a car alarm. In such cases, our sensory systems show no change in sensitivity
to the stimulus. Concept Chart 3.1 reviews the basic concepts in sensation.
Concept Chart 3.1 Basic Concepts in Sensation

Sensation The process of transforming stimuli that impinge on our sense
organs into neural signals that the brain processes to create
sensations of vision, touch, sound, taste, smell, and so on
Absolute threshold The smallest amount of a stimulus that a person can

reliably detect
Difference threshold The minimal difference between two stimuli that people
can reliably detect; also called just-noticeable difference
Weber’s law The amount of change in a stimulus needed to detect a

signal-detection theory The belief difference, expressed as a constant ratio or fraction of the
that the detection of a stimulus depends original stimulus
on factors involving the intensity of
the stimulus, the level of background Signal-detection theory The belief that the ability to detect a signal varies with the
stimulation, and the biological and characteristics of the perceiver, the background, and the
psychological characteristics of the stimulus itself
perceiver.
Sensory adaptation The process by which sensory systems adapt to constant
sensory adaptation The process by which
stimuli by becoming less sensitive to them
sensory receptors adapt to constant stimuli
by becoming less sensitive to them.
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module 3.2 91
module Review 3.1 Sensing Our World: Basic Concepts of Sensation
Recite It
1. Explain the difference between sensation and perception. An (d) ____________ threshold is the smallest amount of
(a) ____________ is the process of taking information from a stimulus that a person can sense. A (e) ____________
the world, transforming it into neural impulses, and trans- threshold, or just-noticeable difference (jnd), is the
mitting these signals to the brain, where they are processed minimal difference in magnitude of energy needed for
to produce experiences of vision, hearing, smell, taste, people to detect a difference between two stimuli. Signal
touch, and so on. (b) ____________ is the process that (f) ____________ accounts for factors that enable us to
makes sense of this sensory data, transforming sensory recognize that a signal is present. Stimulus (g) ____________
stimuli into (c) ____________ impressions of the world. is the process by which our sensory systems become less
sensitive over time to constant or unchanging stimuli.
2. Define the following basic terms in sensation: absolute and
difference thresholds, signal detection theory, and stimulus
adaptation.
Recall It
1. Specialized cells in the sense organs, which are geared to 3. Jill notices a humming sound made by an air conditioner
detect stimuli in the external environment, are called when she first enters a room, but within a few minutes she
a. feature detectors. c. sensory receptors. is no longer aware of the sound. What sensory process does
b. threshold detectors. d. signal detectors. this illustrate?
2. The smallest amount of stimulation that a person can reliably

detect is called a(n)
a. minimal sensory field c. just-noticeable difference.
b. absolute threshold. d. vector of constants.
Think About It
■■ You’ve probably noticed that when you draw a bath, ■■ Let’s say you’re using a recipe that calls for 15 grams of
it seems hotter at first than it does a minute or two salt. According to Weber’s constant for saltiness, which
later. Based on your reading of the text, explain this is 1/5, how much more salt must you add to make the
phenomenon. recipe noticeably saltier?
Recite It answers placed at the end of chapter.
MO DULE 3.2 Vision: Seeing the Light

3 Identify the parts of the eye, describe what happens when light enters the eye, and explain
the roles of rods and cones.
4 Describe the two major theories of color vision.
Vision is the process by which light energy is converted into signals (neural im-
pulses) that the brain interprets to produce the experience of sight. Our sense of CONCEPT 3.7
vision allows us to receive visual information from a mere few inches away, as Vision is the process by which light energy
when we read from a book held close to our eyes, to many billions of miles away, is converted into neural impulses that the
as when we observe twinkling stars on a clear night. To understand vision, we first brain interprets to produce the experience
need to consider the source of physical energy that gives rise to vision: light. of sight.
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Ultraviolet
Infrared
Radio and television X-rays Cosmic rays
Microwave Gamma rays
1014 1013 1012 1011 1010 109 108 107 106 105 104 103 102 101 1 1021 1022 1023 1024 1025
Wavelength (in nanometers)

figure 3.1 The Electromagnetic Spectrum
Visible light (represented by color bands) occupies only a small portion of the range of
electromagnetic radiation that is called the electromagnetic spectrum.
White
light Light: The Energy of Vision
Light is physical energy in the form of electromagnetic radiation (electrically charged
Prism particles). X-rays, ultraviolet waves, and radio waves are other forms of electromag-
netic energy. Visible light is the portion of the spectrum of electromagnetic radiation
that gives rise to our sense of vision. As you can see in ■ Figure 3.1, the visible spec-
trum occupies only a small portion of the full spectrum of electromagnetic radiation.
It consists of the wavelengths from approximately 300 to 750 nanometers (a nano-
meter is one billionth of a meter).
Different wavelengths within the visible spectrum give rise to the experience of
figure 3.2 The Color Spectrum different colors (see ■ Figure 3.2). Violet has the shortest wavelength (about 400
A prism separates white light into the billionths of a meter long), and red has the longest (about 700 billionths of a meter
various hues that make up the part of long). Psychology students are often told that they can remember the order of the
the electromagnetic spectrum that is colors of the spectrum by thinking of the name Roy G. Biv (standing for red, orange,
visible to humans. yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet).
CONCEPT 3.8
Light, a form of physical energy, is the The Eye: The Visionary Sensory Organ
stimulus to which receptors in the eyes
respond, giving rise to our sense of vision.
The eye is the organ with receptor cells that respond to light. Light enters the eye
through the cornea, a transparent covering on the eye’s surface (see ■ Figure 3.3).
CONCEPT 3.9 A muscle called the iris contracts or expands to determine the amount of light that
When energy in the form of light comes enters. The iris is colored, most often brown or blue, and gives the eye its color. The
into contact with the photoreceptor cells pupil of the eye is the black opening inside the iris. The iris increases or decreases
in the retina, it is converted into neural the size of the pupil reflexively to adjust to the amount of light entering the eye. The
signals that are transmitted to the brain. brighter the light, the smaller the iris makes the pupil. Under darkened conditions,
the iris opens to allow more light to enter the pupil so that we can see more clearly.
CONCEPT 3.10 Because these are reflex actions, they happen automatically (you don’t have to think
Rods, which are more sensitive to light than about them). The pupil is also tied into processes of attention. Your pupils expand
are cones, are responsible for peripheral
when you focus attention on an object, which may help you to explore it more
vision and vision in dim light, whereas cones
allow us to detect colors and to discern fine
closely (Laeng, Sirois, & Gredeback, 2012).
details of objects under bright illumination. The light enters the eye through the cornea and then passes through the pupil and
lens. Through a process called accommodation, the lens changes its shape to adjust for
the distance of the object, which helps focus the visual image on the inner surface of
cornea A transparent covering on the the eye called the retina. Like film in a camera, the retina receives the image as light
eye’s surface through which light enters. strikes it. The retina contains light-sensitive receptor cells, called photoreceptors, that
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module 3.2 93
iris The pigmented, circular muscle in the

eye that regulates the size of the pupil to
3 adjust to changes in the level of illumination.
Retina
4 pupil The black opening inside the iris
2 Iris Lens
that allows light to enter the eye.
Fovea (point of central focus)
lens The structure in the eye that focuses
light rays on the retina.
Path of light accommodation In perception, the
process by which the lens changes its shape
to focus images more clearly on the retina.
Pupil retina The light-sensitive layer of the
Cornea inner surface of the eye that contains
Visual
photoreceptor cells.
1 cortex
Blind spot Optic nerve photoreceptors Light-sensitive cells (rods
(to visual and cones) in the eye upon which light
cortex of registers.
brain)
rods Photoreceptors that are sensitive only
figure 3.3 Parts of the Eye to the intensity of light (light and dark).
1 Light enters the eye through the cornea. 2 The iris adjusts reflexively to control the size
of the pupil. 3 The lens focuses the light on the retina, especially on the 4 fovea, the point cones Photoreceptors that are sensitive
of central focus that gives rise to clearest vision. to color.
bipolar cells A layer of interconnecting
cells in the eye that connect
photoreceptors to ganglion cells.
convert light energy into neural signals the brain uses to create visual
sensations (Sejnowski & Delbruck, 2012).
When light hits the retina, it comes into contact with these pho-
toreceptors that lie along the retina. There are two types of photo-
receptors, called rods and cones because of their respective shapes
(see ■ Figure 3.4). The eye has about 120 million rods and 6 million
cones.
Have you ever noticed that when lighting is dim, you tend to
Ralph C. Eagle Jr./Science Source
make out the shapes of objects but not their colors? That’s because
cones are responsible for color vision but are less sensitive to light
than rods are. Rods allow us to detect objects in low light. They are
sensitive only to the intensity or brightness of light. They are also
responsible for peripheral vision—the ability to detect objects, es-
pecially moving objects, at the edges (sides, as well as the top and
bottom) of our visual field. Cones allow us to detect colors, as well
figure 3.4 Rods and Cones
as to discern fine details of objects in bright light. Some animals,
This close-up image of a portion of
including certain birds, have only cones in their eyes (Gaulin & M cBurney, 2001). the retina shows cones (large reddish
They can see only during daylight hours when the cones are activated. Because cone-like objects on the left side of the
they become totally blind at night, they must return to their roosts as evening photograph) and rods (more numerous
approaches. rod-like shaped objects).
The neural signals produced by the rods and cones pass back through a layer of
interconnecting cells called bipolar cells and then through a layer of neurons called ganglion cells Nerve cells in the back of
ganglion cells (see ■ Figure 3.5). The axon projecting from each ganglion cell makes the eye that transmit neural impulses in
up one nerve fiber in the optic nerve. The optic nerve, which consists of a million or response to light stimulation, the axons of
which make up the optic nerve.
so ganglion axons, transmits visual information to the brain. In the brain, this infor-
mation is routed to the thalamus, a major relay station, and from there to the visual optic nerve The nerve that carries neural
cortex. The visual cortex lies in the occipital lobes, the part of the cerebral cortex impulses generated by light stimulation
that processes visual information and produces the experience of vision. from the eye to the brain.
The part of the retina where the optic nerve leaves the eye is the blind spot, blind spot The area in the retina where
a hole in the retina that contains no photoreceptors (rods or cones) (see ■ Fig- the optic nerve leaves the eye and that
ure 3.6). Thus, we cannot see images cast upon the blind spot (Miller et al., 2015). contains no photoreceptor cells.
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2. Neural impulse
1. Light enters eye, travels back through
triggering changes bipolar cells and
in photoreceptor cells then ganglion cells
(rods and cones)
Light Back of eye
Retina
Area of
Light
detail
Optic
Light nerve
3. Axon from each

ganglion cell Rod
becomes one fiber Cone
in optic nerve
Optic nerve
Ganglion 4. Neural impulse

cells travels to brain
Bipolar
cells
figure 3.5 Conversion of Light into Neural Impulses

Light is converted into neural impulses that the brain uses to produce the sensation
of vision.
By c ontrast, the fovea is the part of the retina that corresponds to the center of
our gaze and that gives rise to our sharpest vision (see Figure 3.3). It contains
only cones. Focusing our eyes on an object brings its image to bear directly on
the fovea.
figure 3.6 Blind Spot

Because there are no receptor cells in the blind spot—no rods or cones—images formed
on the blind spot cannot be seen. You can demonstrate this for yourself by closing your
left eye and, while focusing on the dot, slowly move the book farther away to about a
distance of a foot. You’ll notice there is a point at which the stack of money disappears.
fovea The area near the center of the We are not typically aware of our blind spots because our eyes are constantly moving and
retina that contains only cones and that is because they work together to compensate for any loss of vision when an image falls on
the center of focus for clearest vision. the blind spot.
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module 3.2 95
Farther away from the fovea, the proportion of cones decreases while the propor-
tion of rods increases. Rods show the opposite pattern. They are few and far between
close to the fovea and more densely packed farther away from the fovea. The far
ends of the retina contain only rods (see Try This Out). Try This Out
Visual acuity, or sharpness of vision, is the ability to discern visual details. Reading Sideways
Many of us have impaired visual acuity. People who need to be unusually close to Hold a book or magazine to the
objects to discern their details are nearsighted. People who need to be unusually side and try reading it. Did you
far away from objects to see them clearly are farsighted. Nearsightedness and far- notice that the words were blurry,
sightedness result from abnormalities in the shape of the eye. Nearsightedness can if you could make them out at all?
occur when the eyeball is too long or the cornea is too curved. In either case, dis- How does the distribution of rods
tant objects are focused in front of the retina. Farsightedness can occur when the and cones in the retina explain this
eyeball is too short so that light from nearby objects is focused behind the retina. phenomenon?
People with nearsightedness or farsightedness can correct their vision by wearing
eyeglasses or contact lenses.
Feature Detectors: Getting Down to Basics

In 1981, David Hubel and Torsten Wiesel received a Nobel Prize for unraveling a CONCEPT 3.11
small piece of the puzzle of how we transform sensory information into rich visual Objects are seen most clearly when their
experiences of the world around us. They discovered that the visual cortex contains images are focused on the fovea, a part of
nerve cells that respond only when an animal (in their studies, a cat) is shown a the retina that contains only cones.
line with a particular orientation—horizontal, vertical, or diagonal (Hubel, 1988;
Hubel & Wiesel, 1979). Some of these nerve cells respond only to lines that form CONCEPT 3.12
right angles; others, to dots of light that move from right to left across the visual The brain’s visual cortex contains cells so
specialized that they fire only when they
field; and yet others, to dots of light that move from left to right. Hubel and Wiesel
detect precise angles, lines, or points
made their discoveries by implanting a tiny electrode in individual cells in the cat’s
of light.
visual cortex. They then flashed different visual stimuli on a screen within the cat’s
field of vision and observed which cells fired in response to which types of stimuli.
Neurons that respond to specific features of the visual stimulus are called feature
detectors.
We do not see a world composed of scattered bits and pieces of sensory data, of
lines, angles, and moving points of light. Somehow the visual cortex compiles infor-
mation from various cells, combining them to form meaningful patterns. How do
we go from recognizing specific features of a stimulus—its individual angles, lines,
and edges—to discerning a meaningful pattern, such as letters, numbers, words, or
the human face? Scientists believe that complex assemblages of neurons in the brain
work together to analyze relationships among specific features of objects.
Hubel and Wiesel opened a door to understanding the beginning steps in this
process at the level of the individual feature detector. Yet we are still a long way from
understanding how the brain transforms sensory stimulation into the rich visual
world we experience. We do know that the visual cortex is fast, very fast, in process-
ing visual stimuli. It can recognize objects by sight, such as detecting that an object
is an animal, in a mere 10th of a second, well before other parts of the brain figure
out exactly what the object is (Perrinet & Bednar, 2015). This extraordinary speed of
visual processing may have helped ancestral humans survive in a harsh environment
by enabling them to nearly instantly detect the presence of an animal at a distance,
an animal that might be a lurking predator.
Color Vision: Sensing a Colorful World

feature detectors Specialized neurons
To be able to perceive different colors, color receptors in the retina of the eye must in the visual cortex that respond only to
transmit different messages to the brain when visible lights having different wave- particular features of visual stimuli, such as
lengths stimulate them. How are these messages transmitted? Two nineteenth-century horizontal or vertical lines.
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German scientists, Hermann von Helmholtz (1821–1894) and Ewald H ering

(1834–1918), proposed different answers to this question.
Helmholtz contributed to many fields of science, but is perhaps best known to
psychologists for his work on color vision. He was impressed by the earlier work
on color vision by the English scientist Thomas Young (1773–1829)
(Martindale, 2001). Young had reversed the process by which a
prism breaks light down into component colors. He shone over-
lapping lights of red, green, and blue-violet onto a screen and
found that he could create light of any color on the spec-
trum by varying the brightness of the lights (see ■ Figure 3.7).
Where all three lights overlapped, there was white light—the
color of sunlight.
Building on Young’s work, Helmholtz proposed what is now
known as the Young-Helmholtz theory, or trichromatic theory
figure 3.7 Primary Colors (from Greek roots meaning “three” and “color”). Helmholtz be-
The three primary colors of light—red, lieved that Young’s experimental results showed that the eyes have
green, and blue-violet—combine to form three types of color receptors—red, green, and blue-violet. We now
white. Thomas Young showed that you call these color receptors cones. These three types of cones have differing
could create any color of light by mixing sensitivities to different wavelengths of light. Blue-violet cones are most sensitive
these component colors and varying their to short wavelengths; green cones, to middle wavelengths; and red cones, to long
brightnesses. For example, a combination wavelengths. According to the trichromatic theory, the response pattern of these
of red and green light creates yellow. three types of cones allows us to see different colors. So when green cones are most
strongly activated, we see green. But when a combination of different types of cones
is activated, we see other colors, just as mixing paint of different colors produces yet
other colors. For example, when red and green receptors are stimulated at the same
time, we see yellow.
Hering developed a different theory of color vision based on his work with
afterimages. An afterimage is what you see if you gaze at a visual stimulus for a
while and then look at a neutral surface, such as a sheet of white paper.
Pause for a demonstration. The flag in ■ Figure 3.8 has all the shapes in the
American flag, but the colors are off. Instead of being red, white, and blue, this flag
is green, black, and yellow. Now, although you may not particularly wish to defend
figure 3.8 Afterimages
this oddly colored flag, gaze at it for a minute. (Time yourself; give yourself a full
The colors in the American flag shown here
can be set right by performing a simple minute.) Then shift your gaze to a white sheet of paper. You are likely to see a more
experiment. Stare at the dot in the center of familiar flag; this is because red is the afterimage of green, white is the afterimage of
the flag for about 60 seconds. Then quickly black, and blue is the afterimage of yellow.
shift your gaze to a white wall or white sheet Hering’s work with afterimages led him to develop the opponent-process theory
of paper. You will then see the more familiar of color vision. Opponent-process theory, like trichromatic theory, suggests that the
colors of the American flag as afterimages. eyes have three types of color receptors. According to this theory, however, each
type of receptor consists of a pair of opposing receptors. Rather than there being
trichromatic theory A theory of color
separate receptors for red, green, and blue-violet, some receptors are sensitive to red
vision that posits that the ability to see or green; others, to blue or yellow; and others, to black or white. The black-white
different colors depends on the relative receptors detect brightness or shades of gray; the red-green and blue-yellow pairs
activity of three types of color receptors in detect differences in colors.
the eye (red, green, and blue-violet). Hering believed that color vision arises from pairs of opposing processes. Ac-
afterimage The visual image of a stimulus
cording to his theory, red-green receptors do not simultaneously transmit messages
that remains after the stimulus is removed. for red and green. Rather, they transmit messages for either one or the other. When
the red cone is activated, the green one is blocked, or inhibited, and so we see red.
opponent-process theory A theory of Yet prolonged transmission of any one message, such as red or green, disturbs the
color vision that holds that the experience
balance of neural activity, making it more difficult to inhibit the opposing color
of color results from opposing processes
involving two sets of color receptors, red-
receptor. Thus, according to Hering’s theory, if you stare at the green, black, and
green receptors and blue-yellow receptors, yellow flag in Figure 3.8 for a minute or so, you will disturb the balance of neural
and that another set of opposing receptors, activity, producing an opponent process. The afterimage of red, white, and blue you
black-white, is responsible for detecting experience represents the eye’s attempt to reestablish a balance between the two
differences in brightness. opposing receptors.
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module 3.2 97
Which model of color vision has it right—the trichromatic model or the op-
ponent-process model? Contemporary research shows that both theories are right
to a certain extent (Hergenhahn, 2009; Jacobs & Nathans, 2009). The trichro-
matic theory is correct at the receptor level, because the photochemistry of cones
responds in the way described by trichromatic theory—some are sensitive to red
light; others, to green light; and still others, to blue-violet light. But Hering’s
opponent-process theory is correct in terms of the behavior of cells that lie be-
tween the cones and the occipital lobe of the cerebral cortex—including bipolar
Fotosearch Premium/Getty Images

and ganglion cells. These cells operate in an opponent-process fashion. Some are
turned on by red light but are prevented (inhibited) from firing by green light.
Others are turned on by green light but are inhibited by red light. Most author-
ities today believe that color vision includes elements of both trichromatic and
opponent-process theories.
Trichromats are people with normal color vision who can discern all the colors
of the visible spectrum—red, green, and blue-violet—as well as colors formed by Sexy? Or maybe it’s just the shirt he’s
various combinations of these hues. wearing.
Psychologists have begun to look at how colors affect judgments people make
about us (Elliot & Maier, 2014). Investigators find that women tend to rate men
as more attractive and sexually desirable when the men are shown wearing a red CONCEPT 3.13
shirt than a shirt of a different color (Elliot et al., 2010). Women in red also tend to The major theories of color, trichromatic
be judged by men as more sexually attractive and receptive (Pazda & Elliot, 2012; theory and opponent-process theory, may
Pazda, Elliot, & Greitemeyer, 2012). There may be an evolutionary basis to this each partially account for color vision.
“look hot in red” effect. In nonhuman primates, displays of reddened genitalia serve
as signals of sexual receptivity. CONCEPT 3.14
Related research shows that the color red may be used as a sexual signal. In a The most common form of color blindness
is red-green color blindness, in which peo-
study in which women were led to expect they would be talking to an attractive
ple cannot tell reds from greens.
man, they were more likely to choose to wear a red shirt for the occasion (Elliot,
Greitemeyer, & Pazda, 2012).
Total color blindness is very rare, affecting about one out of
every 40,000 people. These individuals are classified as mono-
chromats because they see only in black and white, with the
world appearing to them as though they were watching an old
black-and-white movie or TV show. Because of a genetic de-
fect, they have only one type of cone, so their brains cannot
discern differences in wavelengths of light that give rise to per-
Al Pereira/ New York Jets/Getty Images
ception of color. They detect only brightness, so objects appear

in shades of gray. Much more common are dichromats—people
who lack one of the three types of color receptors or cones,
making it difficult for them to distinguish between certain col-
ors. About 8 percent of men and about 1 percent of women
have some form of color blindness (Bennett, 2009). The most
common form is red-green color blindness, a genetic defect that
makes it difficult to tell red from green (Martin, 2015). Much In a televised football game in which play-
less common is blue-yellow color blindness, in which the person has difficulty ers on opposing teams wear red or green
distinguishing blues from yellows. ■ Figure 3.9 shows a plate from a test com- uniforms, color-blind viewers may not be
monly used to assess color blindness. able to tell which players are on which team
People with red-green color blindness might put on one green sock and one red as all the colors may appear the same.
sock, as long as they were similar in brightness. But they would not confuse green
with blue. Red-green color blindness appears to be a sex-linked genetic defect that trichromats People with normal color
vision who can discern all the colors of the
is carried on the X sex chromosome. As noted, more males than females are affected
visual spectrum.
by this condition. Because males have only one X chromosome whereas females have
two, a defect on one X chromosome is more likely to be expressed in males than monochromats People who have no color
in females (Jacobs & Nathans, 2009). Concept Chart 3.2 provides an overview of vision and can see only in black and white.
vision. dichromats People who can see some
colors but not others.
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Concept Chart 3.2 Vision

Source of Sensory
Information Visible Light
Receptor organs The eyes. Light enters through the cornea and pupil and is
focused on the retina.
Receptor cells The retina has two kinds of photoreceptors. Rods are
sensitive to the intensity of light, which is the basis of our
sense of light and dark. Cones are sensitive to differences in
the wavelengths of light, which is the basis of color vision.
Visual information is transmitted to the brain by means of
the optic nerve.
figure 3.9 Color Blindness
What do you see? People with normal Color vision Two major theories of color vision have been proposed, the
color vision will see the triangle in this trichromatic theory and the opponent-process theory. Each
array of dots. People with red-green theory appears to account for some aspects of color vision.
color blindness will not perceive it.
module Review 3.2 Vision: Seeing the Light
Recite It
3. Identify the parts of the eye, describe what happens when Rods allow us to see objects in black and white in dim
light enters the eye, and explain the roles of rods and cones. light; they are also responsible for (i) ________ vision.
Light enters the eye through the (a) ________ and passes
4. Describe the two major theories of color vision.
through the (b) ________ and then the (c) ________,
which focuses the image on the retina. Light then stimu- The (j) ________ theory, or Young-Helmholtz theory,
lates photoreceptor cells, called (d) ________ and cones, proposes that there are three kinds of color receptors
which convert light energy into neural impulses carried (red, green, and blue-violet) and that all the colors in the
first through (e) ________ cells and then ganglion cells spectrum can be generated by the simultaneous stimula-
that terminate in the (f) ________ nerve. tion of a combination of these color receptors.
When we focus on an object, we bring its image to bear The (k) ________-________ theory developed by Ewald
on the (g) ________, the cone-rich part of the retina in Hering proposes that there are three pairs of receptors (red-
which we have our sharpest vision. (h) ________ allow us green, blue-yellow, black-white) and that opposing processes
to see colors but are less sensitive to light than are rods. within each pair determine our experience of color.
Recall It
1. Which of the following statements is true? Rods
3. In which lobe do we find the visual cortex?
a. are most heavily concentrated around the fovea.
b. are primarily responsible for color vision. 4. Match the following parts of the eye with their respective func-
c. allow us to discern fine details of objects under high tions: (a) iris; (b) pupil; (c) lens; (d) retina; (e) fovea; (f) blind spot.
illumination. i. part of the eye that focuses the visual image on the retina
d. are more sensitive to light than cones. ii. inner surface of the eye in which the photoreceptors are
2. The photoreceptors in the retina that are responsible for found
peripheral vision and vision in dim light are called ________; iii. part of the retina from which the optic nerve leaves the eye
those responsible for color vision and for discerning fine iv. muscle controlling the size of the pupil
details in bright light are called ________. v. area on the retina responsible for clearest vision
vi. opening through which light enters the eye
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module 3.3 99
Think About It
■■ Explain the phenomenon of afterimages by drawing upon ■■ Are you color blind? Do you know anyone who is? How
Hering’s opponent-process theory of color vision. has it affected your (his or her) life, if at all?
MODULE 3.3 Hearing: The Music of Sound

5 Explain how the ear enables us to hear sounds.
6 Explain the perception of pitch and identify the main types and causes of deafness.
The chattering of birds, the voices of children, the stirring melodies of Tchaik-
ovsky—we sense all these sounds by means of hearing, or audition. We hear by
sensing sound waves, which result from changes in the pressure of air or water.
When sound waves impinge upon the ear, they cause parts of the ear to vibrate. CONCEPT 3.15
These vibrations are then converted into electrical signals that are sent to the brain. Sound vibrations are the stimuli trans-
We might think the human ear hears melodic tones or blaring car horns, but what formed by receptors in the ears into signals
it really senses are changes in pressure of molecules (Horowitz, 2012). It’s the brain the brain uses to let you experience the
that converts these signals into recognizable sounds. sounds of the world around you.
Sound: Sensing Waves of Vibration

Like visible light, sound is a form of energy that trav- One cycle
els in waves. Yet although light can travel through Amplitude
the empty reaches of outer space, sound exists only
in a medium, such as air, liquids, gases, or even solids
(which is why you may hear your neighbor’s stereo
through a solid wall). A vibrating object causes mole- Low Frequency (lower pitch)
cules of air (or other substances, such as water) to vi- Low Amplitude (softer)
brate. For example, your voice is produced when your
vocal cords vibrate. The resulting vibrations spread
outward from the source in the form of sound waves
that are characterized by such physical properties as High Amplitude (louder) High Frequency (higher pitch)
amplitude (the height of the wave, which is a measure
of the amount of energy in the sound wave) and fre-
quency (the number of complete waves, or cycles, per
second) (see ■ Figure 3.10).
The amplitude of sound waves determines their per-
figure 3.10 Sound Waves
ceived loudness and is measured in decibels (dB). For each
Sound waves vary in such physical
10-decibel increase, loudness of sound increases tenfold. Thus, a sound of 20 decibels is properties as amplitude, or height of
actually 10 times louder than a sound of 10 decibels, not two times louder. the wave, and frequency, or number of
Light travels at 186,000 miles per second. Sound is a slowpoke by comparison. complete cycles per second. Differences
Sound travels through air at only about 1,130 feet per second (or 770 miles per hour). in amplitude give rise to perceptions
Therefore, it may take about 5 seconds for the thunder from lightning a mile away of loudness, whereas differences in
to reach your ears. But most of the sounds that matter to us—the voice of a teacher frequency lead to perceptions of pitch.
or a lover, the screeches and whines of cars and buses, and the sounds of m usic—are
so close that they seem to reach us in no time at all. Within the human body, it is the
sense of hearing that wins the race. Hearing appears to be our fastest sense, taking audition The sense of hearing.
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only about 0.05 seconds for the brain to process an auditory signal, as compared to
upwards of 0.25 seconds for processing visual images (Horowitz, 2012).
Why the need for speed? One explanation, based on evolutionary theory, posits
that early humans were equipped to respond very quickly to certain sounds, such as
the snapping of a twig at night, that might have signaled the stealthy approach of a
lurking predator they couldn’t see with their eyes (Horowitz, 2012).
CONCEPT 3.16 Although sound travels more slowly than light, the vibrations that give rise to
Sound waves cause parts of the ear to sound still occur many times a second. Deep within the cochlea of the inner ear,
vibrate; this mechanical vibration in turn hair cells respond to sounds of different frequencies, providing signals the brain uses
affects sensory receptors in the inner ear, to produce the sensation of pitch, or how high or low a sound seems (Mann et al.,
called hair cells, triggering the transmission 2014; Thiede et al., 2014).
of auditory messages to the brain. The human ear senses sound waves that vary in frequency from about 20 to
perhaps 20,000 cycles per second. Sound waves that are higher in frequency are
perceived as being higher in pitch. Women’s voices are usually higher than men’s be-
cause their vocal cords tend to be shorter and thus vibrate more rapidly (at a greater
frequency). The shorter strings on a harp (or in a piano) produce higher notes than
the longer strings because they vibrate more rapidly.
The Ear: A Sound Machine

The ear is structured to capture sound waves, reverberate with them, and convert them
pitch The highness or lowness of a sound into messages or electrical signals the brain can interpret (see ■ Figure 3.11) (Ashmore,
that corresponds to the frequency of the 2004). Here’s how it works: The outer ear funnels sound waves to the eardrum, a
sound wave. tight membrane that vibrates in response to them. The vibrations are then transmitted
eardrum A sheet of connective tissue through three tiny bones in the middle ear called the ossicles (literally “little bones”).
separating the outer ear from the middle The first of these to vibrate, the “hammer” (malleus), is connected to the eardrum.
ear that vibrates in response to auditory It strikes the “anvil” (incus), which in turn strikes the “stirrup” (stapes), causing it
stimuli and transmits sound waves to the to vibrate. The vibration is transmitted from the stirrup to the oval window, a mem-
middle ear. brane to which the stirrup is attached. The oval window connects the middle ear to a
ossicles Three tiny bones in the middle snail-shaped bony tube in the inner ear, called the cochlea (cochlea is the Greek word
ear (the hammer, anvil, and stirrup) that for “snail”). Vibrations of the oval window cause waves of motion in fluid within
vibrate in response to vibrations of the the cochlea. The motion of this fluid causes a structure within the cochlea, called the
eardrum. basilar membrane, to vibrate. The basilar membrane is attached to a gelatinous struc-
oval window The membrane-covered ture called the organ of Corti, which is lined with 15,000 or so hair cells that act as
opening that separates the middle ear auditory receptors. These hair cells are not real hairs, but cells with 100 or so hairlike
from the inner ear. projections sticking out from their surfaces that bend in response to movements of the
basilar membrane (Kros, 2005). These movements in turn trigger transmission of audi-
cochlea The snail-shaped organ in the
inner ear that contains sensory receptors
tory messages to the auditory cortex in the brain by way of the auditory nerve (Gubbels
for hearing. et al., 2008). Located in the temporal lobes of the cerebral cortex, the auditory cortex
processes auditory stimuli, producing the experience of sound (Voisin et al., 2006).
basilar membrane The membrane in the Your brain determines where a sound is coming from by comparing the sounds
cochlea that is attached to the organ of
you receive from your two ears. Unless sounds originate from sources equally distant
Corti.
from both ears—for example, exactly in front of or above you—they reach one ear
organ of Corti A gelatinous structure in before the other. Although you might not be able to say exactly how much sooner
the cochlea containing the hair cells that you hear a sound in one ear than in the other, your brain can detect a difference as
serve as auditory receptors.
small as one ten-thousandth of a second. It uses such information to help locate the
hair cells The auditory receptors that source of a sound. More distant sounds tend to be softer (just as more distant objects
transform vibrations caused by sound look smaller), which provides yet another cue for locating sounds.
waves into neural impulses that are
then transmitted to the brain via the
auditory nerve.
auditory nerve The nerve that carries
Perception of Pitch: Perceiving the Highs and Lows
neural impulses from the ear to the brain, How do people distinguish whether one sound is higher or lower in pitch than an-
which gives rise to the experience of other? As with perception of color, more than one theory is needed to help us under-
hearing. stand how we perceive pitch. Two theories, place theory and frequency theory, help
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module 3.3 101
Outer Ear Middle Ear Inner Ear Auditory

cortex
Semicircular
Eardrum canals
Cochlea
Auditory nerve
(to auditory
Sound
cortex of brain)
waves
Ossicles
Malleus Incus Cochlea

(hammer) (anvil) (partially
Stapes unfolded)
(stirrup)
Hair
2 cells
1
Sound Sound waves

waves 4
Organ of
3 Basilar Corti
Eardrum Oval membrane
window
figure 3.11 Conversion of Sound Waves into Neural Impulses

1Sound waves are funneled by the outer ear to the eardrum, causing it to
vibrate. 2 These vibrations are transmitted through the ossicles, three tiny bones in
the middle ear, and then to the oval window, through which they are transmitted to the
cochlea within the inner ear. 3 Vibration of the oval window causes movement of fluid in
the cochlea, which in turn causes the basilar membrane to vibrate. 4 Hair-cell receptors
in the organ of Corti bend in response to these vibrations, triggering neural impulses that
travel through the auditory nerve to the brain.
explain how we detect high and low pitches, and a combination of the two, called CONCEPT 3.17
the volley principle, helps explain how we detect mid-range pitches. Perception of pitch may best be explained
Place theory, originally developed by Hermann von Helmholtz, suggests that peo- by a combination of place theory, fre-
ple perceive a sound to have a certain pitch according to the place along the basilar quency theory, and the volley principle.
membrane that vibrates the most when sound waves of particular frequencies strike
the ear. It is as though neurons line up along the basilar membrane like so many keys
on a piano, standing ready to respond by producing sounds of different pitch when
they are “struck” (Azar, 1996).
Georg von Békésy (1957) won a Nobel Prize for showing that high-frequency place theory The belief that pitch
sounds cause the greatest vibration of hair cells close to the oval window, whereas depends on the place along the basilar
those with lower frequencies cause the greatest vibration farther down the basilar membrane that vibrates the most in
membrane. Hair cells at the point of maximal vibration, like the crest of a wave, response to a particular auditory stimulus.
64150_ch03_rev02.indd 101 6/21/16 5:50 PM

e xcite particular neurons that inform the brain about their location. The brain uses
this information to code sounds for pitch. However, low-frequency sounds—those
below about 4,000 cycles per second—cannot be coded for location because they
do not cause the membrane to vibrate the most at any one spot. Yet we know that
people can detect sounds with frequencies as low as 20 cycles per second.
Enter frequency theory, which may account for how we perceive the pitch of
sounds of about 20 to 1,000 cycles per second. According to frequency theory, the
basilar membrane vibrates at the same frequency as the sound wave itself. In other
words, a sound wave with a frequency of 200 cycles per second would cause the
basilar membrane to vibrate at that rate and generate a corresponding number of
neural impulses to the brain. That is, there would be 200 neural impulses to the brain
per second. But frequency theory also has its limitations. Most importantly, neurons
cannot fire more frequently than about 1,000 times per second.
What, then, do we make of sounds with frequencies between 1,000 and 4,000
cycles per second? How do we bridge that gap? By means of the volley principle. In
one of nature’s many surprises, it seems that groups of neurons along the basilar
membrane fire in volleys, or alternating succession. (Think of Revolutionary War or
Civil War movies in which one group of soldiers stands and fires while an alternate
group kneels and reloads.) By firing in rotation, groups of neurons combine their
frequencies of firing to fill the gap.
In sum, frequency theory best explains pitch perception for low-frequency sounds,
whereas place theory best explains pitch of high-frequency sounds. A combination
of frequency and place theory, called the volley principle, suggests how we perceive
the pitch of mid-range sounds.
Hearing Loss: Are You Protecting Your Hearing?

Nearly 30 million Americans suffer from hearing loss, and as many as 2 million are
deaf. There are many causes of hearing loss and deafness, including birth defects,
disease, advanced age, and injury, as well as the kind of injury caused by exposure to
loud noise. Prolonged exposure to noise of 85 decibels can cause hearing loss, as can
brief exposure to sounds of 120 decibels or louder. ■ Figure 3.12 shows the decibel
levels of many familiar sounds.
The number of hearing-impaired individuals is expected to mushroom to
an astounding 78 million by 2030, largely as the result of years of living loudly,
a by-product of listening to earsplitting music piped through ear buds on personal
music devices (Noonan, 2006). Excessive noise is also a source of stress that can
CONCEPT 3.18
lead to problems such as disturbed sleep, impaired work or academic performance,
Loud noise can lead to hearing loss and
impair learning ability.
and even heart disease (Szalma & Hancock, 2011; University of Michigan, 2011).
The World Health Organization (WHO) reports that 1.1 billion young peo-
ple worldwide—about 50 percent of young adults—are at risk of suffering serious
frequency theory The belief that pitch hearing loss due to exposure to dangerously loud levels of sound from personal
depends on the frequency of vibration of audio devices and concert venues (James, 2015; WHO, 2015). Unfortunately, many
the basilar membrane and the volley of young people, as well as many of their parents, fail to heed warnings about the risks
neural impulses transmitted to the brain of hearing loss (see Table 3.3). A staggering proportion of teens—nearly one in five—
via the auditory nerve. are already showing signs of hearing loss, such as having difficulty discerning T’s or
volley principle The principle that relates K’s (the word “talk” may sound like “aw”) (Heffernan, 2011; Johnson, 2010). To
the experience of pitch to the alternating protect the hearing of young ears, experts recommend turning down the volume to
firing of groups of neurons along the less than 60 percent of maximum and limiting use to an hour per day (James, 2015).
basilar membrane. There are two main types of deafness: conduction deafness and nerve deafness.
conduction deafness A form of deafness, Conduction deafness is usually caused by damage to the middle ear. The eardrum
usually involving damage to the middle may be punctured, or the three bones that amplify sound waves and conduct them
ear, in which there is a loss of conduction to the inner ear may lose the ability to vibrate properly. People who experience con-
of sound vibrations through the ear. duction deafness may benefit from hearing aids that amplify sound waves.
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module 3.3 103
160
140 Jet airplane

140
120 Directly in front

of speakers at a
120 Immediate danger
rock concert
Discomfort
100
115 Jackhammer
Hearing damage
80 with prolonged
exposure
60
40
90 Lawn mower 64 Telephone
ringing
20
Threshold for
0 human hearing
50 Normal conversation
figure 3.12 Sounds and Decibels

Permanent hearing loss may occur from prolonged exposure to sound over 85 decibels
(dB). Exposure to 120 dB or higher creates an immediate danger to hearing. Most people
can detect faint sounds at a decibel level just above 0 dB. Chrisstockphoto/Alamy Stock Photo
Nerve deafness is usually caused by damage to the hair cells of the inner ear or
to the auditory nerve. Exposure to loud sounds, disease, and aging can cause nerve
deafness. The ringing sensation that can follow exposure to loud noises may indicate
damage to hair cells. Cochlear implants, or “artificial ears,” are sometimes successful
in transmitting sounds past damaged hair cells to the auditory nerve. They work
by converting sounds into electrical impulses. But these implants cannot correct for
damage to the auditory nerve itself. If the auditory nerve does not function, even Say what? A cause for concern is the
staggering proportion of teens, nearly
sounds that cause the hair cells on the basilar membrane to dance frantically will not
one in five, who are already showing
be sensed in the auditory cortex of the brain.
signs of hearing loss. What can you do to
protect your hearing?
Table 3.3 Now Hear This: Teens and Hearing Problems

Twenty-eight percent report having to turn up the volume on the television or radio to nerve deafness Deafness associated with
hear well. nerve damage, usually involving damage
to the hair cells or to the auditory nerve
Twenty-nine percent report saying “what” or “huh” during normal conversations. itself.
Seventeen percent report having had tinnitus, or ringing of the ears.
Source: CNN. (2006, March 14). “Poll: Teens Not Heeding Headphone Warning.” Retrieved from www.cnn.com/2006/HEALTH
/conditions/03/14/ipod.hearingrisk/index.html
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Hearing loss in later life is not inevitable. It is largely due to years of abuse
from loud music and noise. What steps are you taking to protect and preserve your
hearing?
Before moving on, you may wish to review the basic concepts in hearing that are
outlined in Concept Chart 3.3.
Concept Chart 3.3 Hearing

Source of Sensory
Information Sound Waves
Receptor organs The ears. The outer ear funnels sound waves through
the eardrum to the middle ear, where they are amplified
© Wolfgang Amri/Shutterstock.com
by three tiny bones and transmitted through the oval
window to the inner ear.
Receptor cells Hair cells on the basilar membrane within the cochlea of
the inner ear
Pitch perception Three theories contribute to our understanding of pitch

perception: frequency theory for lower frequency sounds,
the volley principle for middle frequency sounds, and place
© Jason Nemeth/
frequency for higher frequency sounds.

Shutterstock.com
module Review 3.3 Hearing: The Music of Sound
Recite It
5. Explain how the ear enables us to hear sounds. Perception of pitch is likely determined by a combina-
Sound waves enter the outer ear and are funneled to the tion of the place on the (e) _______ membrane of great-
(a) _______ , causing it to vibrate. This mechanical energy est vibration (place theory), the (f) _______ of neural
is conveyed to tiny bones in the middle ear—the hammer, impulses (frequency theory), and the sequencing of
anvil, and stirrup—and then through the (b) _______ win- firing of groups of neurons along the basilar membrane
dow to the (c) _______ in the inner ear. There, (d) _______ (g) (_______ principle).
cells bend in response to the vibrations, triggering neural The main types of deafness are (h) _______ deafness, usu-
impulses that are transmitted to the brain. ally caused by damage to the middle ear, and (i) _______
deafness, usually caused by damage to the hair cells of
6. Explain the perception of pitch and identify the main types the inner ear or to the auditory nerve.
and causes of deafness.
Recall It
1. Which characteristics of sound waves give rise to the percep- 2. Name the membrane in the inner ear that vibrates at different
tion of loudness and pitch? frequencies, giving rise to our perception of pitch.
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module 3.4 105
3. Match these parts of the ear with the descriptions that follow: iv. the membrane in the cochlea that moves in response
(a) eardrum; (b) ossicles; (c) cochlea; (d) basilar membrane; to sound vibration
(e) organ of Corti; (f ) hair cells. v. three small bones in the middle ear that conduct
i. a membrane that separates the outer ear from the sound vibrations
middle ear vi. a snail-shaped bony tube in the inner ear in which
ii. sensory receptors for hearing fluid moves in response to the vibrations of the
iii. a gelatinous structure attached to the basilar mem- oval window
brane and lined with sensory receptors
Think About It
■■ What characteristics of sound waves give rise to the per- ■■ What steps are you taking to protect your hearing from
ception of loudness and pitch? the damaging effects of noise? Are you doing enough?
MODULE 3.4 Our Other Senses: Chemical, Skin,

and Body Senses
7 Explain how we sense odors and tastes.
8 Identify the various skin senses and explain the gate-control theory of pain.
9 Describe the functions of the kinesthetic and vestibular senses, and explain how they work.
We usually think of five senses—sight, hearing, smell, taste, and touch. Yet there are
actually many more. Here we take a look at the chemical, skin, and body senses.
These are the sensory systems that allow us to smell, taste, and touch and that keep
us informed about the position and movement of our bodies.
The nose and tongue are like human chemistry laboratories. Smell and taste are
chemical senses because they are based on the chemical analysis of molecules of
substances that waft past the nose or that land on the tongue. The chemical senses
allow us to perform chemistry on the fly.
Olfaction: What Your Nose Knows

Our sense of smell, or olfaction, depends on our ability to detect shapes of molecules of CONCEPT 3.19
odorous chemical substances that waft into our nose. The work of detecting these chem- The sense of smell depends on receptors in
ical shapes is performed by millions of odor receptors that line our nasal passageways. the nose that detect thousands of chemical
Like our other senses, olfaction is adaptive, allowing us to distinguish between substances and transmit information about
the savory smells of a home-cooked meal and the rotten smells of spoiled food. The them to the brain.
human olfactory system may not be as sensitive as that of dogs or cats, but it is none-
theless exquisitely sensitive. There are some 5 million odor receptors in the human
nose, representing more than 1,000 distinct types. Just how many different odors
the human nose can discern remains a point of controversy. Some scientists believe
the nose can distinguish between a trillion or more distinct odors (Bushdid et al.,
2014), but others maintain the number may be much, much lower, perhaps about
5,000 odors in total (Gerkin & Castro, 2015). But even accepting the lower estimate
means we can distinguish among thousands of different substances based on odor. olfaction The sense of smell.
Molecules of different chemical substances that waft into the nose fit into par- olfactory nerve The nerve that carries
ticular types of odor receptors as keys fit into locks, triggering olfactory messages impulses from olfactory receptors in the
that are carried to the brain by the olfactory nerve. This olfactory information is nose to the brain.
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processed by the brain, giving rise to sensations of odors corresponding to these par-
ticular chemical stimuli (Miyamichi et al., 2010) (see ■ Figure 3.13). The intensity
of the odor appears to be a function of the number of olfactory receptors that are
stimulated simultaneously.
Smell is the only sense in which sensory information does not go through the
Rainer Berg/Westend61 GmbH/Alamy Stock Photo

thalamus on its way to the cerebral cortex. Instead, olfactory information travels
through the olfactory nerve directly to the olfactory bulb, a structure in the front of
the brain above the nostrils. This information is then routed to the olfactory cortex
in the temporal lobe and to several structures in the limbic system, which, as noted in
Chapter 2, are a set of brain structures with important roles in emotion and memory.
The connections between the olfactory system and the limbic system may account
for the close relationship between odors and emotional memories. A whiff of choco-
late pudding simmering on the stove or of someone’s perfume may bring back strong
feelings associated with childhood experiences or a particular person.
Olfaction is a key factor in the flavor of foods (see Try This Out) (Bakalar, 2012).
Without the sense of smell, the flavor of a steak might not be all that different from
that of cardboard. An apple might taste the same as a raw potato. A declining sense
of smell in later life may be the major reason many older people complain that food
Try This Out doesn’t taste as good as it once did.
The Smell of Taste Odors are also keyed into memory and emotions (Fields, 2012). A familiar scent can
trigger recall of early memories and related emotions. A young woman reported that a
Ever notice that food tastes bland when
your nose is stuffed? To demonstrate how
mere sniff of a fragrance that her mother had favored would bring to mind loving mem-
olfaction affects the sense of taste, try ories of her mother. Investigators find that nearly every participant in their study could
eating a meal while holding your nostrils identify a particular odor they linked to feelings of happiness and disgust (Croy, Olgun,
closed. What effect does it have on & Joraschky, 2011). What particular scents evoke emotional responses for you?
your ability to taste your food? On your
enjoyment of the meal?
3
Olfactory
bulb
Olfactory
nerve
© light poet/Shutterstock.com
Receptor cells in 1
olfactory membrane
Nasal
passage
Do certain odors make you feel happy?
Investigators find that nearly everyone
they studied could pick out a particular
odor they associated with feeling happy
or disgusted. Other investigators find
that sniffing the odors of others can af-
fect the receiver’s emotional responses.
figure 3.13 Olfaction
1 Receptor cells (odor receptors) in the upper nose respond to the molecular shapes
olfactory bulb The area in the front of of particular chemical substances that enter the nose. 2 Molecules fit particular odor
the brain above the nostrils that receives receptors, triggering transmission of nerve impulses that travel through the olfactory nerve
sensory input from olfactory receptors in to the olfactory bulb in the brain. 3 The olfactory bulb processes this information, giving
the nose. rise to sensations of specific odors.
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module 3.4 107
Can you sniff happiness in others? Perhaps so, based on results from a recent
study showing that people who sniffed a vial of sweat taken from someone who was
in a happy mood showed happier facial expressions themselves than they did when
they sniffed sweat produced by a fearful person or one in an emotionally neutral
state (de Groot et al., 2015). It seems that chemosignals in the natural secretions of
others can rub off on our own emotional responses.
Our sensory organs were shaped over the course of millions of years of adap-
tation to the environment. Olfaction, among our other senses, is critical to our sur-
vival. It helps us avoid rotten and potentially harmful foods long before we put our
tongue to them. In various animal species, olfaction serves other functions as well.
Fur seals and many other animal species recognize their own young from the pack
on the basis of smell. Salmon roam the seven seas but sniff out the streams of their
birth at spawning time on the basis of a few molecules of water emitted by those
streams.
Many animal and insect species emit chemical substances, called pheromones, CONCEPT 3.20
that play important roles in regulating many behaviors, including attracting mates, Pheromones are chemical secretions that
marking territory, establishing dominance hierarchies, behaving aggressively, gather- play various roles in animal behavior, but
ing food, and bonding with young (e.g., McCann et al., 2015; Shackelford & Goetz, their functions in human behavior remain
2012; Van Oystaeyen et al., 2014). Pheromones are found in bodily secretions, such unclear.
as urine or vaginal secretions, and are detected by other members of the species
through the sense of smell or taste.
Pheromones regulate sexual attraction and mating behaviors in many species of
animals and insects (Mostafa, El Khouly, & Hassan, 2012). But do they serve similar
purposes in humans? We know that humans are capable of detecting an invisible
trail of body odors and that the brain uses that information to make judgments
about the characteristics of people we encounter, including their gender, fertility, and
age (Pazzaglia, 2015). We also know that the brain unconsciously processes these
chemical signals even if we don’t think we sensed an odor on a conscious level (Zhou
et al., 2014). Yet we lack evidence needed to determine how, or indeed if, phero-
mones influence human sexual attraction or behavior. Suffice it to say that what the
nose knows remains largely an open question. That said, an intriguing study suggests
that, hormonally speaking, men may be led around by their noses when exposed to
the scent of a woman.
Men in this study were asked to sniff a T-shirt previously worn by a woman
(Miller & Maner, 2010). Some men smelled T-shirts that had been worn by women
who were ovulating, which is the time of greatest female reproductive fertility. In many
animal species, males show the greatest mating interest when females are at their peak
fertility. Other men in the study sniffed T-shirts that had been worn by nonovulating
Adrian Samson/Stone/Getty Images
women. The findings showed that men who had been exposed to scents of ovulating
women had higher levels of testosterone than those who had sniffed scents of nonovu-
lating women. This finding suggests that olfactory cues associated with female fertility
are tied into male hormonal responses. Whether these influences actually affect men’s
sexual behavior or interest in women still remains to be determined.
Yet another intriguing study exposed men to chemical secretions in a woman’s
tears while they were making judgments of the sex appeal of images of women
It turns out that chemical signals in
presented on a computer screen (Gelstein et al., 2011). Although tears are odorless,
women’s tears dampen men’s sexual in-
sniffing a woman’s tears reduced the perceived sexiness that men attributed to the terest. This effect holds even if men only
female images. Other men who sniffed women’s tears while watching an emotional sniff a woman’s tears and do not actually
movie rated their level of sexual arousal lower, had lower physiological measures of see the woman.
sexual arousal, and even had lower testosterone levels—a hormone linked to sexual
arousal—than did men exposed to control samples of saline. It appears that women’s
tears contain chemical signals that dampen men’s sexual interest, even without con- pheromones Chemical substances that
scious awareness or even without the physical presence of a crying woman. are emitted by many species and that
Whatever role scents may play in sexual arousal in humans, we should recognize have various functions, including sexual
that we are primarily visual creatures when it comes to sexual arousal. As the p
rominent attraction.
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biological anthropologist Helen Fisher put the issue, “For humans . . . it’s usually love at
first sight, not love at first smell. . . . There are many factors to sex appeal, and romance
and scent is among them. But from studying the brain, I would argue that our brains
are largely built for visual stimuli” (cited in Sweeney, 2009, p. E3).
Taste: The Flavorful Sense

Taste, like our other senses, plays an important role in adaptation and survival. We
rely on both taste and smell to discriminate between healthy, nutritious food and
spoiled or rotten food. (The sense organs are not perfect, however; some poisonous
substances are undetectable by smell or taste.)
CONCEPT 3.21 There are thousands of different kinds of food and thousands of different flavors.
Like the sense of smell, the sense of taste Yet there are only four basic tastes: sweet, sour, salty, and bitter. The flavor of a food
depends on receptors that detect chemical results from combinations of these taste qualities, the aroma of the food, its texture,
substances and transmit information about and its temperature.
them to the brain. Tastes are sensed by receptors called taste cells. These are nerve cells located
within pores or openings on the tongue called taste buds. Most taste buds are found
near the edges and back of the tongue. Yet people without tongues can also sense
taste because additional taste receptors are located on the roof of the mouth, inside
the cheeks, and in the throat. Some taste receptors are more sensitive to a specific
taste quality; others respond to several tastes. Despite these sensitivities, the brain
decodes stimulation arising from virtually any part of the tongue containing taste
receptors to produce any of the primary tastes (Sugita & Shiba, 2005; Trivedi, 2012).
Recent evidence indicates that particular clusters of neurons in the part of the cortex
that processes taste stimuli respond specifically to particular taste qualities such as
saltiness, sweetness, and bitterness (Miller, 2011).
Taste receptors differ from other neurons in that they regenerate very quickly—
within a week to ten days. This is a good thing because people kill them off regularly
by eating very hot food, such as pizza that is just out of the oven.
Why do some people like their food spicy, while others like it plain? Differences
in cultural backgrounds play a part in taste preferences. For example, people from
some cultures develop preferences for spicy foods. But why do people tend to sweat
Michael Stewart/Corbis/VCG/Getty Images
when they eat spicy foods? It turns out that the chemical that makes food spicy
also activates receptors that detect warmth (Aamodt & Wang, 2008). These warmth
receptors are found not only on the tongue but also throughout the body. So when
you chew into a hot chili pepper, the brain senses warmth and produces a natural
sweating response. No wonder we say spicy foods are hot.
Genetic factors influence taste sensitivities (Sandell & Breslin, 2006). Some
people who douse their meat with salt may be nearly taste-blind to salt as the result
of a genetic trait. Others are genetically predisposed to be extremely sensitive to salt,
Whether there are naturally sexy scents
that induce sexual attraction in people pepper, and other spices. Some inherit a sensitivity to bitter tastes that turns them
remains a question that scientists (as off to sharp-tasting vegetables like Brussels sprouts (Pearson, 2006). Preference for
well as fragrance companies) continue to sugary foods (a “sweet tooth”) is also influenced by genetic factors (Eny et al., 2008).
explore. Different species show differences in taste sensitivities. Cats appear to be taste-
blind to sweetness, but pigs can sense sweetness. (It might be accurate to say that
while humans may eat like pigs, pigs may eat like humans.) About one in four peo-
ple (more women than men) are born with a very dense network of taste buds that
makes them overly sensitive to certain tastes. These people, called “supertasters,”
have a greater than average number of taste buds and so experience tastes more
intensely than do other people (Bartoshuk, 2007). They may recoil at the sharp or
taste cells Nerve cells that are sensitive to bitter tastes of many fruits and vegetables, such as broccoli, or may find sugary foods
tastes. sickeningly sweet. Ethnic and gender differences come into play, as Asian women are
taste buds Pores or openings on the the most likely to be supertasters, whereas Caucasian men are much less likely to
tongue containing taste cells. belong to this group (Carpenter, 2000).
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module 3.4 109
The Skin Senses: Your Largest Sensory Organ

CONCEPT 3.22
You may not think of your skin as a sensory organ. But it is actually the body’s Sensory receptors in the skin are sensitive
largest sensory organ. It contains receptors for the body’s skin senses that code for to touch, pressure, temperature, and pain,
sensations of touch, pressure, warmth, cold, and pain. Some skin receptors respond and transmit information about these
to just one type of stimulation, such as pressure or warmth. Others respond to more stimuli to your brain.
than one type of stimulation.
Nearly a half million receptors for touch and pressure are distributed through- Heat Cold Light Pain (Hair) Light
out the body. They transmit sensory information to the spinal cord, which relays it touch touch
to the somatosensory cortex, the part of the cerebral cortex that processes infor-
mation from our skin receptors and makes us aware of how and where we have
been touched. Many touch receptors are located near the surface of the skin (see
■ Figure 3.14). They fire when the skin is lightly touched—for example, caressed,
stroked, or patted. Other receptors at deeper levels beneath the skin fire in response
to pressure.
Receptors for temperature are also found just beneath the skin. Scientists gener-
ally agree that specific receptors exist for warmth and cold. In one of nature’s more
interesting surprises, sensations of hotness are produced by simultaneous stimula-
tion of receptors for warmth and cold. If you were to clutch coiled pipes with warm
and cold water circulating through them, you might feel as though your hand were
being burned. Then, if the pipes were uncoiled, you would find that neither one by
itself could give rise to sensations of hotness.
Reflect for a moment about what it might mean if you did not experience pain.
At first thought, not sensing pain might seem to be a good thing. After all, why go
through life with headaches, toothaches, and backaches if you do not have to do so? Nerve Touch Strong
Yet a life without pain could be a short one. pressure
Pain is a sign that something is wrong. Without the experience of pain, you might figure 3.14 Your Largest Sensory
not notice splinters, paper cuts, burns, and the many sources of injury, irritation,
Organ—Your Skin
and infection that can ultimately threaten life if not attended to promptly. Pain is
The skin contains receptors that are
adaptive—that is, we use it to search for and do something about the source of pain sensitive to touch, pressure, warm and
and learn to avoid those actions that cause pain. cold temperatures, and pain.
Pain receptors are located not just in the skin but also in other parts of the body,
including muscles, joints, ligaments, and the pulp of the teeth—the source of tooth
pain. We can feel pain in most parts of the body. Pain can be particularly acute where
nerve endings are densely packed, as in the fingers and face.
People often try to control pain by rubbing or scratching a painful area or apply-
Mike Harrington/The Image Bank/Getty Images
ing an ice pack. An explanation of why these methods may help involves a theory
developed by psychologist Ronald Melzack and biologist Patrick Wall (1965, 1983).
According to their gate-control theory of pain, a gating mechanism in the spinal cord
opens and closes to let pain messages through to the brain or to shut them out. The
“gate” is not an actual physical structure in the spinal cord but, rather, a pattern of ner-
vous system activity that results in either blocking pain signals or letting them through.
Creating a bottleneck at the “gate” may block out pain signals. Signals associ-
ated with dull or throbbing pain are conducted through the neural gate by nerve
fibers that are thinner and slower than the nerve fibers that carry sensory signals for Used for centuries by Chinese physicians,
warmth, cold, and touch. The signals carried by the faster and thicker nerve fibers the benefits of acupuncture are still be-
can cause a bottleneck at the neural gate, thus blocking the passage of other mes- ing debated by Western scientists.
sages. Rubbing or scratching an area in pain sends signals to the spinal cord through
fast nerve fibers. Those signals may successfully compete for space with pain mes- skin senses The senses of touch, pressure,
sages carried by thin fibers, which close the gate and temporarily block signals for warmth, cold, and pain that involve
dull and throbbing pain from reaching the brain. However, the first sharp pangs of stimulation of sensory receptors in the skin.
pain you experience when you stub your toe or cut your finger are carried by large gate-control theory of pain The belief
nerve pathways and apparently cannot be blocked out. This is a good thing, as it that a neural gate in the spinal cord opens
ensures that pain messages register quickly in the brain, alerting you instantly to the to allow pain messages to reach the brain
part of your body that has been injured. and closes to shut them out.
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CONCEPT 3.23 An ice pack applied to the source of

The gate-control theory of pain proposes pain may help for several reasons. In addi-
that the spinal cord contains a gating tion to reducing inflammation and swell-
mechanism that controls the transmission ing—both of which contribute to the ex-
of pain messages to the brain. perience of pain—ice produces sensations
of cold that help create a bottleneck at the
gate in the spinal cord and thus, as in the
earlier example, may temporarily block
pain messages from reaching the brain.
The brain plays a critical role in con-
trolling pain. In response to pain, the brain
signals the release of endorphins. As you
may recall from Chapter 2, endorphins are
neurotransmitters that are similar in chem-
ical composition to narcotic drugs, such as
Roy McMahon/Cardinal/Corbis
heroin. Like heroin, they have painkilling
effects. They lock into receptor sites in the
spinal cord that transmit pain messages,
thereby closing the “pain gate” and prevent-
ing pain messages from reaching the brain.
The release of endorphins may explain
Applying an ice pack to an injured area the benefits of a traditional Chinese med-
may help reduce pain. Based on your ical practice called acupuncture. The acu-
reading of the text, how would you puncturist inserts thin needles at “acupunc-
explain this phenomenon?
ture points” on the body and then rotates
them. According to traditional Chinese be-
liefs, manipulation of the needles releases the body’s natural healing energy. Although
people with chronic pain who undergo acupuncture often report improvement, inves-
tigators question whether the benefits of acupuncture involve anything more than a
acupuncture An ancient Chinese practice strong placebo effect (Avins, 2012; Cloud, 2011a; Linde et al., 2009a; 2009b). Investi-
of inserting and rotating thin needles gators doubt whether acupuncture provides any meaningful benefits over sham (fake)
in various parts of the body in order to procedures in which needles are inserted in spots that are not acupuncture points in the
release natural healing energy. body (Hinman et al., 2014; Schwenk, 2014; Vickers et al., 2012).
Applying Psychology
Psychology and Pain Management
The brain is a marvel of engineering. By allowing us to experience the first pangs
of pain, it alerts us to danger. Without such a warning, we might not pull our hand
CONCEPT 3.24 away from a hot object in time to prevent burns. Then, by releasing endorphins, the
Psychological interventions may be helpful brain gradually shuts the gate on pain.
in managing pain. Though we all experience pain in response to injury, more than 100 million
Americans suffer from chronic pain, which includes back pain, headaches, and ar-
CONCEPT LINK thritis pain (Beck, 2011). Not surprisingly, the management of chronic pain is a
Meditation is used to combat stress, rapidly growing field. New technologies and approaches to pain management are
relieve pain, and lower blood pres- being introduced to clinical practice every year. Although pain has a biological ba-
sure. See Module 4.3. sis, psychological methods can be used to reduce the suffering of pain patients and
help them cope more effectively with chronic pain (for example, Burns et al., 2015;
Connelly, 2013; Davis et al., 2015; Powers et al., 2013). In this module, we focus
on psychological factors in pain management. However, before attempting to treat
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module 3.4 111
pain yourself, consult a health professional to determine the source of the pain and
the appropriate course of treatment.
Distraction
Distraction not only helps direct attention away from pain, but it actually reduces
pain signals traveling from the spinal cord to the brain (Sprenger et al., 2012). Fewer
pain signals translate to lesser pain. So if you are faced with a painful medical or
dental procedure, you might help keep your mind off your pain by focusing on a
pleasing picture on the wall or some other stimulus or by letting your mind become
absorbed in a pleasant fantasy. Chronic pain sufferers may find they are better able
to cope with the pain if they distract themselves by exercising or perhaps by becom-
ing immersed in a good book or video.
Creating a Bottleneck at the “Gate”

As noted earlier, the gate-control theory of pain holds that other sensory stimuli may
temporarily block pain messages from passing through a neural gate in the spinal
cord. You can attempt to create a traffic jam at the gate by lightly rubbing an irri-
tated area. Interestingly, applying both heat and cold may help because each sends
messages through the spinal cord that compete for attention. Cold packs have the
additional advantage of reducing inflammation.
Changing Thoughts and Attitudes

What people say to themselves about their pain can affect how much pain they feel and
how well they cope with it. Thinking pessimistic thoughts (“This will never get better”)
and catastrophic thoughts (“I can’t take this anymore. I’m going to fall apart!”) can
worsen the feelings of pain (for example, Pinto et al., 2011). Findings from brain-scan-
ning studies show higher levels of catastrophizing or thinking the worst are associated
with greater levels of pain-related brain activity (Edwards et al., 2009).
Negative thinking can also lead to perceptions of lack of control, which in turn
can produce feelings of helplessness and hopelessness. Psychologists help pain suffer-
ers examine their thoughts and replace negative or pessimistic self-evaluations with
rational alternatives—thoughts like “Don’t give in to hopelessness. Focus on what
you need to do to cope with this pain.” Psychologists find that helping pain patients
alter catastrophic thinking reduces the intensity of the pain they experience and
improves their daily functioning (Turner, Mancl, & Aaron, 2006). Even if changing
thoughts and attitudes does not eliminate pain, it can help people cope more effec-
tively in managing their pain symptoms.
Obtaining Accurate Information

One of the most effective psychological methods for managing pain is obtaining fac-
tual and thorough information about the source of the pain and the available treat-
ments. Many people try to avoid thinking about pain and its implications. Obtaining
information helps people take an active role in controlling the challenges they face.
Meditation and Biofeedback

There are many forms of meditation, but most of them involve the narrowing of CONCEPT 3.25
attention through repetition, such as repeating a particular word, thought, or phrase, By providing information about changes
or through maintaining a steady focus on one object, such as a burning candle or the in internal bodily processes, biofeedback
design on a vase. Meditation can induce a relaxed, contemplative state. As discussed training helps people gain some degree of
further in Chapter 4, meditation can be used to help relieve pain as well as the effects conscious control over their physiological
functioning.
of stress on the body.
Psychologists find that providing people with feedback about their internal b odily
functions (“biofeedback”) helps them gain greater awareness and some d egree of
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voluntary control over their internal bodily processes. In biofeedback training (BFT),
people are hooked up with physiological monitoring equipment that provides them
with a continual stream of information about their internal bodily states. A rising
tone may indicate increasing heart rate or muscle tension, while a lower tone indi-
Bonnie Kamin/ PhotoEdit

cates changes in the opposite direction. People use these biofeedback signals as cues
to help them learn to modify their heart rates, blood pressure, muscle tension, body
temperature, brain wave patterns, and other physiological processes (for example,
Dalen et al., 2009; Nestoriuc & Martin, 2007; Weir, 2016).
One form of biofeedback training used to help relieve tension headache pain is
electromyographic (EMG) biofeedback. In EMG, electrodes placed on the forehead or
biofeedback training (BFT) A method elsewhere on the body monitor muscle tension. A tone is used to indicate increases
of learning to control certain bodily or decreases in muscle tension. By learning to lower the tone, people can relax their
responses by using information from forehead muscles, which can help reduce pain associated with tension headaches.
the body transmitted by physiological People who suffer from migraine headaches, which affects an estimated 36 mil-
monitoring equipment. lion Americans (Gelfand, 2014), may benefit from thermal biofeedback, a form of
electromyographic (EMG) biofeedback training that teaches people to modulate the flow of blood to their
biofeedback A form of BFT that involves extremities. Migraines involve intense, pulsating pain on one side of the head that
feedback about changes in the level is associated with changes in blood flow to the brain (Linde et al., 2005). In ther-
of muscle tension in the forehead or mal biofeedback, a temperature-sensing device is attached to a finger. The device
elsewhere in the body. beeps more slowly (or more rapidly, depending on the settings) as the temperature
migraine headaches Prolonged, intense in the finger rises. People learn to raise the temperature in their fingers, perhaps
headaches brought on by changes in by imagining a finger growing warmer. The temperature rises as more blood flows
blood flow in blood vessels in the brain. to the limbs and away from the head. This change in blood flow may help relieve
thermal biofeedback A form of BFT migraine pain.
that involves feedback about changes in Some of the benefits of BFT may be achieved through simpler forms of relaxation
temperature and blood flow in selected training that don’t require expensive equipment, such as muscle relaxation tech-
parts of the body; used in the treatment of niques and deep breathing exercises. In Chapter 4, we discuss another psychological
migraine headaches. technique that can help control pain—hypnosis.
The Kinesthetic and Vestibular Senses:

Of Grace and Balance
Kinesthesia is the body sense that allows you to ride a bicycle without watching the
© Andersen Ross/Blend Images/Getty Images
movements of your legs, type without looking at the keyboard, and wash the back of
your neck without checking yourself in the mirror. It also makes it possible to touch
your nose or your ears with your eyes closed or while blindfolded, or to swat away
a mosquito that lands on your hand, even in darkness (University College London,
2010). Your kinesthetic sense keeps you continuously informed about the move-
ments of the parts of your body and their positions in relation to one another. The
sensory information that makes these tasks possible is processed by the brain based
on information it receives from receptors in the joints, ligaments, tendons, skin, and
Our kinesthetic sense allows us to fine- muscles (Azañón et al., 2010).
tune the movements of our body. You may occasionally watch what you are doing or think about what you are
doing, but most of the time your movements are performed automatically based on
kinesthesia The sense that keeps us this kinesthetic information.
informed about movement of the parts of Did you know there is a movement-sensing mechanism in your inner ear?
the body and their position in relation to The vestibular sense monitors the posture and movement of your body in space
each other. and enables you to maintain your balance (Ferrè, Lopez, & Haggard, 2014). It
vestibular sense The sense that keeps us allows you to know whether you are moving faster or slower and to sense the
informed about balance and the position position and rotation of your head, as when you are tilting your head or spin-
of our body in space. ning around. You rely on your vestibular sense to know when the train or car in
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module 3.4 113
Semicircular
canal
Nerve leading
to brain
Hair cells
Fluid in
semicircular
canals
Membrane in
vestibular sac
Semicircular
Canals
Hair cells
Vestibular
Sacs
Nerve leading
to brain
figure 3.15 The Vestibular Sense

Hair-cell receptors in the inner ear bend in response to forces of gravity when we tilt our
head and to movement of the head through space, triggering messages the brain uses to
maintain our sense of balance and equilibrium and detect movement and orientation of
our head in space.
CONCEPT 3.26
Sensory receptors in your joints, ligaments,
which you are riding is speeding up, slowing down, coming to a stop, or reversing and muscles transmit information that the
direction. Changes in the position of your head in space, such as when you rotate brain uses to keep you aware of the posi-
or tilt your head or move forward, backward, or sideways, cause movement of tion and movement of parts of your body.
fluid within the semicircular canals in your inner ear, and shifts in the position
CONCEPT 3.27
of crystals in the vestibular sacs that connect the canals, which in turn stimu- Sensory organs within your inner ears
lates tiny hair-cell receptors in your inner ear (see ■ Figure 3.15). These sensory respond to movements of your head, and
receptors transmit messages to the brain that are decoded to allow you to sense provide the brain with sensory information
the position and movement of your head in relation to the outside world (Day & it needs to help you maintain your balance
Fitzpatrick, 2005). and sense the position and movement of
If you spin around and around and come to an abrupt stop, you are likely to your body in space.
feel dizzy. The reason is that fluid in the semicircular canals in your inner ears
keeps swirling about for a while after you stop, making it seem as if the world is semicircular canals Three curved,
still spinning. You may experience motion sickness when the vestibular and visual tubelike canals in the inner ear that
senses receive conflicting information about movement, as when you are riding in are involved in sensing changes in the
a car headed in one direction while observing a moving train headed in the other direction and movement of the head.
direction. vestibular sacs Organs in the inner ear
Concept Chart 3.4 reviews the chemical, skin, and bodily senses. that connect the semicircular canals.
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Concept Chart 3.4 Chemical, Skin, and Body Senses

Olfaction Source of sensory information Molecules of the substance being sensed
Receptor organ The nose
Ryan McVay/Lifesize/
Receptor cells Receptors in each nostril that can sense about 10,000 different
Getty Images
substances on the basis of their molecular shapes

Taste Source of sensory information Molecules of the substance being sensed

Receptor organs Mainly taste buds on the tongue, although there are additional
Christopher Robbins/
Riser/Getty Images
receptors elsewhere in the mouth and throat

Receptor cells Taste cells located in taste buds are nerve cells that are sensitive to
different tastes.
Skin senses Source of sensory information Touch, pressure, warmth, cold, and pain
Receptor organ The skin (pain can also originate in many other parts of the body)
Receptor cells Receptors that code for touch, pressure, warmth, cold, and pain
Loop Delay/Getty Images
Kinesthesis Source of sensory information Movement and relative position of body parts
Receptor cells Receptors located mainly in joints, ligaments, and muscles
Thinkstock/Comstock Images/
Getty Images
Vestibular sense Source of sensory information Motion of the body and orientation in space
Receptor organs Semicircular canals and vestibular sacs in the inner ear
PCN Photography/Alamy Stock
Receptor cells Hair-cell receptors that respond to the movement of fluid in the
semicircular canals and to shifts in position of crystals in vestibular sacs
Photo
module Review 3.4 Our Other Senses: Chemical, Skin, and Body Senses
Recite It
7. Explain how we sense odors and tastes. taste receptors are more sensitive to one basic type of taste
Olfaction, or sense of smell, depends on receptors in the (sweet, sour, salty, (d) _______) while others respond to
nostrils that are capable of sensing different (a) _______ several tastes. Stimulation of taste receptors is transmitted
substances on the basis of their (b) _______ shapes. This to the brain for processing these taste sensations.
information is transmitted to the brain for processing, 8. Identify the various skin senses and explain the gate-control
giving rise to the sensation of odor. theory of pain.
The sense of taste involves stimulation of (c) _______
The skin senses enable us to detect touch, (e) _______, tem-
receptors located in taste buds, mostly on the tongue. Some
perature, and pain. Different receptors in the skin respond
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module 3.5 115
to these stimuli and transmit the information to the brain in relation to one another. Receptors in the (h) _______ ,
for processing. The (f) _______-_______ theory of pain ligaments, and muscles transmit information about body
holds that there is a gating mechanism in the spinal cord movement and position to the brain for processing.
that opens to allow pain messages through to the brain to The (i) _______ sense is the sensory system that en-
signal that something is wrong and closes to shut them off. ables you to detect your body’s position and maintain
your (j) _______. As the position of your head changes,
9. Describe the functions of the kinesthetic and vestibular
messages are transmitted to the brain, which interprets
senses, and explain how they work.
them as information about the position of your body in
The (g) _______ sense enables you to sense the move- space.
ment of various parts of your body and their positions
Recall It
1. Olfactory receptors in the nose recognize different chemical 4. What kinds of sensory receptors are found in the skin?
substances on the basis of their
5. The receptors that provide sensory information that helps us
a. aromas. c. density.
maintain our balance are located in
b. molecular shapes. d. vibrations.
a. joints and ligaments. c. muscles.
2. Approximately how many different substances can our olfac- b. the back of the eye. d. the inner ear.
tory receptors sense?
6. John is learning to swing a golf club. He relies on his _______
3. What do we call chemicals that function as sexual attractants? sense to know how far back he is swinging the club.
Think About It
■■ Selling cars is no longer simply a matter of performance, (Hakim, 2003). Do you think people will be led by their
value, styling, and safety. Now aroma has entered the noses when buying their next car?
picture. General Motors, for example, has imbued some
■■ Do you believe you are led around by your nose? How is
of its Cadillacs with a sweet scent they call “Nuance”
your behavior affected by aromas?
MODULE 3.5 Perceiving Our World:

Principles of Perception
10 Describe the roles of attention, perceptual set, and modes of visual processing in perception.
11 Identify and describe the Gestalt principles of grouping objects into meaningful patterns
or forms.
12 Define the concept of perceptual constancy and apply the concept to examples.
13 Identify and describe cues we use to judge distance and perceive movement and apply
these cues to examples.
14 Identify some common types of visual illusions, and explain why it is the brain, not the
eyes, that deceives us.
15 Evaluate evidence concerning the existence of subliminal perception and extrasensory
perception.
Perception is the process by which the brain interprets sensory information, turning
it into meaningful representations of the external world. Through perception, the
brain attempts to make sense of the mass of sensory stimuli that impinge on our perception The process by which
sensory organs. Were it not for perception, the world would seem like a contin- the brain integrates, organizes, and
ually changing hodgepodge of disconnected sensations—a buzzing confusion of interprets sensory impressions to create
lights, sounds, and other sensory impressions. The brain brings order to the mix representations of the world.
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CONCEPT 3.28 of sensations we experience, organizing them into coherent pictures of the world
Through the process of perception, the around us. To paraphrase Shakespeare, sensation without perception would be
brain pieces together sensory information “full of sound and fury but signifying nothing.”
to form meaningful impressions of the Consider what you see on this page. When the dots of black ink register on your
world. retina, your brain transforms these images into meaningful symbols that you perceive
as letters. Perception is an active process in which the brain pieces together bits and
pieces of sensory information to form orderly impressions or pictures of the world.
Though perceptions help us make sense of the world, they may not accurately re-
flect external reality. Look at the central circles in the left and right configurations in
■ Figure 3.16. Which of these two circles is larger? If you were to measure the diam-
eter of each central circle with a ruler, you would find that they are exactly the same
size. Yet you may perceive the central circle at the right to be larger than the one at
the left. This is because the circle on the right is presented within an array of smaller
circles, and your brain takes into account the context in which these shapes appear.
With perception, what you see is not necessarily what you get. Take a quick look at
the gender-ambiguous facial image in the nearby photograph. Do you perceive it be a
Gina Kelly/Alamy Stock Photo
man’s face, or a woman’s? The answer may depend on which part of your visual field
the image appears. Investigators recently discovered that if a series of gender-ambig-
uous images like this one are presented in a particular area of the visual field, say the
upper right-hand corner, some people will perceive all the faces as male, whereas others
will perceive the same faces as female (Afraz, Pashkam, & Cavanagh, 2010). We can-
not yet explain why the visual processing centers in the brain of some people respond
Is this the face of a man or a woman?
differently to ambiguous images than those in other people. But the lesson here is that
Your answer may depend on the part of
perceptual experiences of the same stimuli do vary from person to person.
your visual field in which the image is
In this module, we explore basic concepts of perception, paying particular
projected.
attention to visual perception—the area of perception that has captured the most
research attention.
Attention: Did You Notice That?

Attention is the first step in perception. Through selective attention, you limit your
attention to certain stimuli while filtering out other stimuli. When you focus attention
on something, such as the sound of a person’s voice, the brain filters out or ignores
other stimuli (Sacchet et al., 2015). The process of selective attention prevents you
figure 3.16 Perception Versus from being flooded with extraneous information. It explains why you may perceive
Reality? certain stimuli but not others. It allows you to focus on the words you are reading
Which of the circles in the middle of but not perceive the sounds of a car passing outside the window or the feeling of
these two groupings is larger? your toes touching the inside of your shoes. We also pay more attention to stimuli
that are meaningful or emotionally significant. For example, a parent in a deep sleep
may perceive the faint cry of an infant in the next room but be undisturbed by the
CONCEPT 3.29
Many factors affect our attention to par-
wail of a siren from an ambulance passing just outside the house.
ticular stimuli, including motivation and Our motivational states—whether we’re hungry or thirsty, for example—play
repeated exposure. important roles in attention. When we are hungry, we are more likely than when
we’ve just eaten to pay attention to odors wafting out of a restaurant. We also are
CONCEPT LINK more likely to notice billboards on the side of the road advertising nearby restau-
Our ability to divide our attention al rants. I recall one professor who had the habit of dropping the words “midterm
lows us to multitask, which can pose exam” into his lectures when he felt the class was nodding off. That seemed to moti-
a risk when we combine driving with using vate his students to pay closer attention.
a cell phone. See Module 4.1. Repeated exposure may increase attention to particular stimuli. Prenatal auditory
exposure may explain why three-day-old infants prefer the sounds of their mother’s
voice—as measured by head turning—to the voices of other women (DeCasper &
selective attention The process by which
Fifer, 2008).
we attend to meaningful stimuli and filter On the other hand, exposure to a constant stimulus can lead us to become
out irrelevant or extraneous stimuli. habituated, or accustomed, to it. When you first turn on an air conditioner or fan,
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module 3.5 117
you may notice the constant humming sound it makes. But after a time, you no
longer perceive it, even though the sound continues to impinge on the sensory recep-
tors in your ears. Your brain has adapted to the constant stimulus by tuning it out.
Habituation makes sense from an evolutionary perspective, because constant stimuli
are less likely than changing stimuli to require an adaptive response.
figure 3.17 What Do You See Here,

Perceptual Set: Seeing What You Expect to See the Letter B or the Number 13?
Perceptual set is the tendency for perceptions to be influenced by expectations or pre- Your answer may depend on your
conceptions. Do you see the number 13 or the letter B in ■ Figure 3.17? In a classic perceptual set.
study, Jerome Bruner and A. Leigh Minturn (1955) showed this figure to research par-
ticipants after they had seen either a series of numbers or a series of letters. Among those CONCEPT 3.30
who had viewed the number series, 83 percent said the stimulus was the number 13. Of Our interpretations of stimuli depend in
those who had seen the letter series, 93 percent said the stimulus was a B. When faced part on what we expect to happen in par-
with ambiguous stimuli, people often base their perceptions on their expectations and ticular situations.
preconceptions. We might speculate that devoted fans of science fiction would be more
likely than others to perceive flickering lights
in the night sky as a UFO. ■ Figure 3.18 shows
another example of a perceptual set.
Modes of Visual
(a) Processing:
(a) (a) (b) (b) (b) (c) (c)
Bottom-Up Versus Top-Down figure 3.18 A Duck or a Rabbit?
The figure in (a) appears to be a duck when
As noted earlier, Hubel and Wiesel’s (1979) work on feature detectors showed that you see it after viewing the figure in (c). But
specialized receptors in the visual cortex respond only to specific visual features, if you first observed the figure in (b), then
such as straight lines, angles, or moving points of light. Two general modes of visual the figure in (a) appears to be a rabbit.
processing, bottom-up processing and top-down processing, help account for how Source: From H. R. Shiffman, Sensation and Perception:
the brain transforms bits and pieces of visual stimuli into meaningful patterns. An Integrated Approach, Copyright © 2000 by John Wiley
In bottom-up processing, the brain assembles specific features of shapes, such as & Sons, Inc. Used by permission.
angles and lines, to form patterns that we can compare with stored images we have
seen before. For example, the brain combines individual lines and angles to form a
pattern we recognize as the number 4. Bottom-up processing may also be used to
combine the individual elements of letters and words into recognizable patterns. The Brain Loves a Puzzle
But how is it that we can read handwriting in which the same letter is never formed As you read ahead, use the information
twice in exactly the same way? This style of processing, called top-down processing, in the text to solve the following puzzle:
involves perceiving patterns as meaningful wholes—such as recognizing faces of
Alamy stock photo

Frances Roberts/
people we know—without needing to piece together their component parts. We also
use top-down and bottom-up types of processing for sounds or auditory stimulation
(Tervaniemi et al., 2009). For example, we engage in bottom-up processing when
trying to discriminate between different musical instruments in orchestral music or Did you ever notice the arrow in the
FedEx logo? If not, why not?
listening carefully for particular words in a song. We engage in top-down processing
when we follow a melody in our head or hear the blending of instruments in a sym-
phony or of words and lyrics in a song. perceptual set The tendency for
Top-down processing is based on acquired experience and knowledge with pat- perceptions to be influenced by one’s
terns, but it is not perfect. You may have had the experience of thinking you recog- expectations or preconceptions.
nized someone approaching you from a distance, only to find you were mistaken as bottom-up processing A mode of
you got a closer look at the person. You made the mistake because of the tendency perceptual processing by which the
to perceive faces on the basis of their whole patterns rather than building them up brain recognizes meaningful patterns by
feature by feature (see Figure 3.18). Despite the occasional miss, facial recognition piecing together bits and pieces of sensory
is something the human brain does better than any computer system yet devised information.
(Wagstaff, 2006). Can you think of other abilities the human brain does better than top-down processing A mode of
computers? perceptual processing by which the brain
We now turn to the contributions of Gestalt psychologists to help us understand identifies patterns as meaningful wholes
how the brain organizes our visual perceptions. rather than as piecemeal constructions.
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Gestalt Principles of Perceptual Organization
Alamy stock photo

Frances Roberts/
Max Wertheimer and the other early Gestalt psychologists conducted studies in
which they observed the ways people assemble bits of sensory stimulation into
meaningful wholes (Pomerantz & Portillo, 2011; Wagemans et al., 2012a, b). On
Do you now see the arrow in the FedEx
this basis, they formulated laws of perceptual organization. Here we consider laws of
logo? We typically perceive letters as fig-
figure–ground perception and laws of grouping.
ures and white space as ground. If you
are having trouble perceiving the arrow,
try reversing the figure and ground. You Figure and Ground
should then perceive the arrow in the Look around as you are walking down the street. What do you see? Are there people
white space between the E and the X.
milling about? Are there clouds in the sky? Gestalt psychologists have shown that
people, clouds, and other objects are perceived in terms of figure, and the back-
Concept 3.31 ground against which the figures are perceived (the street, for the people; the sky, for
The brain forms meaningful visual patterns the clouds) serves as the ground. Figures have definite shapes, but ground is shape-
using two different modes of processing less. We perceive objects as figures when they have shapes or other characteristics,
visual stimuli: bottom-up processing and such as distinctive coloring, which are set against a backdrop of the ground in which
top-down processing.
they appear (Peterson & Skow, 2008; Wagemans et al., 2012a, b).
Sometimes, however, when we perceive an outline, it may be unclear as to what con-
Concept 3.32
Gestalt psychologists described how the stitutes the figure and what constitutes the ground. Does ■ Figure 3.19 show a vase, or
brain constructs meaning from sensations by does it show two profiles? Which is the figure, and which is the ground? Outline alone
organizing them into recognizable patterns. does not tell the tale, because the same outline describes a vase and human profiles. What
other cues do you use to decide which is the figure and which is the ground?
CONCEPT LINK Let’s return to the puzzle we posed about the FedEx logo. Most of us have seen
Gestalt therapy is a form of psycho- this logo countless times, but many people—you perhaps—have never noticed the
therapy that helps individuals blend arrow. (Hint: Focus on the Ex and perceive the arrow in white as a figure set against
conflicting parts of the personality into an in- an orange background). Reversing figure and ground relationships leads us to per-
tegrated whole or “Gestalt.” See Module 14.1. ceive objects in different ways.
Now let’s now consider ■ Figure 3.20, an ambiguous figure that can be perceived
in different ways depending on how you organize your perceptions. What does the
figure look like? Take a minute to focus on it before reading further.
Try This Out
Your Neighborhood Gestalt
Take a walk through your neighborhood
or local area. Look around you. How
many examples of the Gestalt laws of
perceptual organization can you identify?
figure 3.19 Reversible Figure

Whether you see two profiles facing figure 3.20 Ambiguous
each other in this picture or a vase Figure
depends on your perception of figure Do you see an old woman or a
laws of perceptual organization The and ground. See if you can shift back young one? If you have trouble
principles identified by Gestalt psychologists and forth between perceiving the switching between the two, look
that describe the ways in which the brain profiles and the vase by switching the at Figure 3.22, in which figure and
groups bits of sensory stimulation into parts you take to be figure and those ground are less ambiguous.
meaningful wholes or patterns. you take to be ground.
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module 3.5 119
(a) Proximity (b) Similarity (c) Continuity (d) Closure (e) Connectedness
figure 3.21 Gestalt Laws of Grouping
Gestalt psychologists recognized that people group objects according to certain
organizational principles. Here we see examples of five such principles: proximity, similarity,
continuity, closure, and connectedness.
Did you see an old woman or a young one? Are you able to
switch back and forth? If you are struggling to switch between the
two, here is a helpful hint: The old woman is facing forward and
downward, while the young woman is facing diagonally away. Also,
the old woman’s nose is the young woman’s chin, and her right eye
is her counterpart’s left ear. Whether you see an old woman or a
young one depends on how you organize your perceptual experi-
ence—which parts you take to be the figure and which parts you
take to be the ground. ■ Figure 3.22 provides an example in which
figure and ground are less ambiguous.
Gestalt Laws of Grouping

People tend to group bits and pieces of sensory information into unitary forms or wholes figure 3.22 Old/Young Woman
(see Try This Out). Gestalt psychologists described several principles of grouping, includ- The figure on the right shows the
ing proximity, similarity, continuity, closure, and connectedness. downward-looking “old woman” more
■ Figure 3.21(a) illustrates proximity, or nearness. Most observers would per- clearly as figure than as ground, while
ceive the figure as consisting of three sets of parallel lines rather than six separate the one on the left highlights the figural
aspects of the “young woman” looking
lines, although six lines are sensed. That is, we use the relative closeness of the lines
away from the perceiver. Now look back
as a perceptual cue for organizing them into a group.
at Figure 3.20 and see if you can’t switch
How would you describe ■ Figure 3.21(b)? Do you perceive nine separate geo-
back between the two impressions.
metric shapes or two columns of X’s and one column of ●’s? If you describe it in
terms of X’s and ●’s, you are using the principle of similarity—that is, grouping
figures that are similar to one another (in this case, geometric figures that resemble
each other). If you see four bare-chested young men at a football game who’ve
painted their bodies in the colors of the home team, you are likely to perceive them
as a group distinct from the other fans. proximity The principle that objects that
are near each other will be perceived as
■ Figure 3.21(c) represents another way we group stimuli, continuity, which is
belonging to a common set.
the tendency to perceive a series of stimuli as a unified form when the stimuli appear
to represent a continuous pattern. Here we perceive two intersecting continuous similarity The principle that objects that
lines, one curved and one straight, rather than four separate lines. are similar will be perceived as belonging
Now, check ■ Figure 3.21(d). You sense a number of short lines, but do you per- to the same group.
ceive a meaningless array of lines or a broken triangle? If you perceive the triangle, continuity The principle that a series of
your perception draws on the principle of closure—grouping disconnected pieces of stimuli will be perceived as representing a
information into a meaningful whole. You perceive a complete form even when there unified form.
are gaps in the form. This illustrates the principle for which Gestalt psychologists are closure The perceptual principle
best known—that the whole is more than the sum of the parts. that people tend to piece together
■ Figure 3.21(e) gives an example of connectedness—the tendency to perceive ob- disconnected bits of information to
jects as belonging together when they are positioned together or are moving together. perceive whole forms.
Thus, you perceive three sets of connected triangles rather than six triangles with three connectedness The principle that objects
interspersing lines. Perhaps you have noticed this tendency while watching two people positioned together or moving together
walk down a street next to each other and being surprised when they suddenly walk will be perceived as belonging to the
off in different directions without saying goodbye. In such circumstances, we tend to same group.
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perceive the people as belonging together because they are moving

together (Ip, Chiu, & Wan, 2006; Sekuler & Bennett, 2001).
Perceptual Constancies
Here we focus on perceptual constancy—the tendency to perceive the
size, shape, color, and brightness of an object as remaining the same
even when the image it casts on the retina changes. We could not adjust
to our world very well without perceptual constancy. The world is con-
stantly shifting before our eyes as we look at objects from different dis-
figure 3.23 Shape Constancy tances and perspectives. Just turning our heads changes the geometry
Perception of an object’s shape remains of an object projected on the retina. Yet we don’t perceive objects as changing before our
the same even when the image it casts eyes. We perceive them as constant—a good thing, because, of course, they are constant.
on the retina changes with the angle For example, the ability to perceive that a tiger is a tiger and not a housecat regardless of
of view. You perceive three rectangular the distance from which the animal is viewed could be a lifesaving mechanism.
doors, despite the fact that the image The tendency to perceive an object as being the same shape even when the object
each projects on the retina is different. is viewed from different perspectives is shape constancy. If you observe a round bowl
on a table from different angles, the image it casts on your retina changes shape.
CONCEPT 3.33 Nonetheless, you perceive the bowl as round. In other words, its shape remains
We tend to perceive objects as having a constant despite the change in your angle of view. Similarly, you perceive a door as
constant size, shape, color, and brightness having an unchanging shape despite differences in the image it casts on your retina
even when the image they cast on our when it is open or closed (see ■ Figure 3.23).
retinas changes. Returning to the bowl, as you approach the bowl at eye level, its size—in terms
of the size of the retinal image—grows. As you move farther away from it, the size of
CONCEPT 3.34 its retinal image decreases. Yet you continue to perceive the bowl as being the same
Our perception of depth depends on both size, just as I knew my daughter did not suddenly become a giant as she approached
monocular and binocular cues for judging
the camera. The tendency to perceive an object as being the same size despite changes
distance.
in the size of the retinal image it casts is size constancy (Combe & Wexler, 2010).
Experience teaches people about distance and perspective. We learn that an ob-
perceptual constancy The tendency ject seen at a distance will look smaller than when it is close and that an object seen
to perceive the size, shape, color, and from different perspectives will appear to have different shapes. If we are wrong,
brightness of an object as remaining the please send out an all-points bulletin for a runaway giant infant.
same even when the image it casts on the People also perceive objects as retaining their color even when lighting condi-
retina changes. tions change. This tendency is called color constancy. For example, if your car is red,
shape constancy The tendency to perceive you perceive it to be red even though it may look grayish as evening falls. The ten-
an object as having the same shape despite dency for perceived brightness or lightness of an object to remain relatively constant
differences in the images it casts on the despite changes in illumination is called brightness constancy or lightness constancy
retina as the viewer’s perspective changes. (Wilcox & Duke, 2003). For example, a piece of white chalk placed in the shade on
size constancy The tendency to perceive a sunny day reflects less light than does a black hockey puck placed directly in sun-
an object as having the same size despite light. Yet we perceive the chalk to be brighter than the hockey puck.
changes in the images it casts on the retina
as the viewing distance changes.
color constancy The tendency to perceive Cues to Depth Perception
an object as having the same color despite
changes in lighting conditions. How do we know that some objects are closer than others? The perception of dis-
tance, or depth perception, relies on cues involving both the individual eye (monocu-
brightness constancy The tendency to
lar cues) and both eyes working together (binocular cues) (Proffitt, 2006).
perceive objects as retaining their brightness
even when they are viewed in dim light.
binocular cues Cues for depth that Binocular Cues for Depth
involve both eyes, such as retinal disparity Having two eyes also comes in handy for judging distance. Some cues for depth,
and convergence. called binocular cues, depend on both eyes. Our eyes are a few inches apart, so each
retinal disparity A binocular cue for eye receives slightly different images of the world (Farell, 2006). The brain interprets
distance based on the slight differences in differences in the two retinal images—the retinal disparity between them—as cues to
the visual impressions formed in both eyes. the relative distances of objects. The closer an object, the greater the retinal disparity.
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module 3.5 121
You can see for yourself how retinal disparity works by holding a finger an inch
in front of your nose. First close your left eye and look at the finger only with your
right eye. The finger looks as if it is off to the left. Then close your right eye and look
at the finger with your left eye. The finger seems off to the right. The finger appears
to move from side to side as you open and close each eye. The distance between the
two apparent fingers corresponds to the retinal disparity between the two images
that form on your retina. Now hold a finger straight ahead at arm’s length away
from your eyes. Again close one eye and focus on the finger. Then close that eye and
open the other. The finger may still seem to “move,” but there will be less distance
between the two “fingers” because retinal disparity is smaller at greater distances.
Now let’s try an experiment to illustrate the binocular cue of convergence, which
depends on the muscular tension produced by turning both eyes inward to form
a single image. Hold a finger once more at arm’s length. Keeping both eyes open,
concentrate on the finger so that you perceive only one finger. Now bring it slowly
Susan Van Etten/PhotoEdit

closer to your eyes, maintaining the single image. As you do, you will feel tension
in your eye muscles. This is because your eyes are converging, or looking inward,
to maintain the single image, as shown in ■ Figure 3.24. The closer the object—in
this case, the finger—the greater the tension. Your brain uses the tension as a cue for
depth perception.
figure 3.24 Binocular Cues for
Depth
Monocular Cues for Depth When we rely on binocular cues for
Monocular cues depend on one eye only. When people drive, they use a combination judging the depth of a nearby object,
of binocular and monocular cues to judge the distance of other cars and of the our eyes must converge on the object,
surrounding scenery. Although there are advantages to using binocular cues, most which can give us that cross-eyed look.
people can get by driving with monocular cues only, which include relative size,
interposition, relative clarity, texture gradient, linear perspective, and shadowing:
■■ Relative size. When two objects are believed to be the same size, the one that
appears larger is perceived to be closer, as in ■ Figure 3.25(a).
■■ Interposition. When objects block or otherwise obscure our view of
other objects, we perceive the obscured object as farther away. Notice that in
■ Figure 3.25(b), we perceive the horses in front to be closer than the ones that
are partially blocked.
■■ Relative clarity. Smog, dust, smoke, and water droplets in the atmosphere cre-
ate a “haze” that makes distant objects appear blurrier than nearer objects, as
in ■ Figure 3.25(c). You may have noticed how much closer faraway mountains
appear on a really clear day. convergence A binocular cue for distance
■■ Texture gradient. The relative coarseness or smoothness of an object is used based on the degree of tension required to
as a cue for distance. Closer objects appear to have a coarser or more de- focus two eyes on the same object.
tailed texture than more distant objects. Thus, the texture of flowers that monocular cues Cues for depth that can
are farther away is smoother than the texture of those that are closer, as in be perceived by each eye alone, such as
■ Figure 3.25(d). relative size and interposition.
BIZARRO © 2004 Dan Piraro, Dist. By King Features
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Helmuth Rieger / Alamy stock photo
Art Wolfe/Stone/Getty Images

David Stoecklein/Cusp/Corbis
(a) (b) (c)
© Francis DeRichemond/The Image Works
© Mladen Mitrinovic/Shutterstock.com
Naval History & Heritage Command

(d) (e) (f)
figure 3.25 Monocular Cues for Depth
We use many different monocular cues to judge depth, including:
(a) Relative size (d) Texture gradient
(b) Interposition (e) Linear perspective
(c) Relative clarity (f ) Shadowing
■■ Linear perspective. Linear perspective is the perception of parallel lines con-

verging as they recede into the distance. As we look straight ahead, objects and
the distances between them appear smaller the farther away they are from us.
Thus, the road ahead of the driver, which consists of parallel lines, appears to
grow narrower as it recedes into the distance, as in ■ Figure 3.25(e). It may
even seem to end in a point.
■■ Shadowing. Patterns of light and dark, or shadowing, create the appearance
of three-dimensional objects or curving surfaces. Shadowing can make an
object appear to be concave or convex. Notice how the dents that appear in
■ Figure 3.25(f) look like bumps when the image is turned upside down. We
perceive objects that are lighter on top and darker on the bottom to be bumps,
whereas the opposite is the case for dents (Gaulin & McBurney, 2001).
Motion Perception
Concept 3.35 We use various cues to perceive motion. One is the actual movement of an object
We use two basic cues in perceiving across our field of vision as the image it projects moves from point to point on the
movement: the path of the image as it retina. The brain interprets the swath that the image paints across the retina as a sign
crosses the retina and the changing size of movement (Derrington, 2004). Another cue is the changing size of an object. Ob-
of the object. jects appear larger when they are closer. When you are driving and you see the cars
ahead suddenly looming much larger, you perceive that you are moving faster than
they are—so fast you may need to slam on the brakes to avoid a collision. When cars
ahead grow smaller, they appear to be moving faster than you are.
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module 3.5 123
(a) Müller-Lyer Illusion (b) Ponzo Illusion (c) (d)

figure 3.26 Müller-Lyer Illusion and Ponzo Illusion
Visual illusions involve misperceptions in which our eyes seem to be playing tricks on us.
Visual Illusions: Do Your Eyes Deceive You?

Our eyes sometimes seem to play tricks on us in the form of visual
illusions. ■ F
igure 3.26 shows two well-known visual illusions: the
Müller-Lyer illusion (a) and the Ponzo illusion (b). In both cases,
what you think you see isn’t exactly what you get when you pull out
a ruler. Although the center lines in (a) are actually the same length,
as are the center lines in (c) and (d), the line on the right in (a) seems
longer, as does the center line in (d) as compared to the one in (c). The
figure with the inward wings creates the impression of an outward
corner of a room that appears to be closer (c). In the Müller-Lyer illu-
sion, the figure with the outward wings suggests the inner corner of a
room (d), which makes the center line seem farther away.
Although no one explanation may fully account for the Müller-
Andia/Photoshot
Lyer illusion, a partial explanation may involve how the brain inter-
prets size and distance cues.
As you’ll recall from the discussion of size constancy, people tend To create the three-dimensional effect,
to perceive an object as remaining the same size even as the image it projects on the as in the movie Avatar, slightly different
retina changes in relation to distance from the observer. But when two objects of the images are projected to each eye. The
same size appear to be at different distances from the observer, the one that is judged brain pieces together the information to
to be farther away is perceived to be larger. In the Müller-Lyer illusion, the figure with give the impression of depth.
the outward wings suggests the inner corner of a room, which makes the center line
seem farther away. The figure with the inward wings creates the impression of an out-
ward corner of a room that appears to be closer to the observer. Because both center
lines actually create the same size image on the retina, the brain interprets the one that
appears to be farther away as being longer.
Concept 3.36
Now consider the Ponzo illusion (also called the railroad illusion). Which of the
Visual illusions are misperceptions of visual
two horizontal lines in Figure 3.26(b) looks longer? Why do you think people gener- stimuli in which it seems that our eyes are
ally perceive the line at the top to be longer? Converging lines may create an impres- playing tricks on us.
sion of linear perspective, leading us to perceive the upper line as farther away. As
with the Müller-Lyer illusion, because lines of equal length cast the same size image
on the retina, the one perceived as farther away is judged to be longer.
Another type of illusion involves impossible figures, such as the one in
■ F
igure 3.27. Impossible figures fool the brain into creating the impression of a
whole figure when the figure is viewed from certain perspectives. An impossible fig-
ure appears to make sense when you look at parts of it, but not when you try to take visual illusions Misperceptions of visual
into account the characteristics of the whole figure. stimuli.
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The well-known moon illusion has baffled people for ages (see ■ Figure 3.28).
When a full moon appears near the horizon, it may seem enormous compared with its
“normal” size—that is, its apparent size when it is high in the evening sky. Actually, the
image the moon casts on the retina is the same size whether it sits high in the sky or just
over the horizon. We don’t have an entirely satisfactory explanation of this illusion.
One leading theory, the relative size hypothesis, relates the phenomenon to the
amount of space surrounding the perceived object. When the moon is at the horizon,
it appears larger by comparison with objects far off in the distance, such as tall trees
and mountains. When the moon is high in the sky, there is nothing to compare it with
except the vast featureless wastes of space, and this comparison makes it seem smaller.
You can test out the moon illusion for yourself by looking at the full moon on
figure 3.27 An Impossible Figure the horizon. Then, to remove any distance cues, look again at the moon through a
Notice how the figure makes sense if rolled-up magazine. You’ll find that the moon appears to shrink in size. One problem
you look at certain of its features, but with the relative size hypothesis is that it doesn’t account for all cases in which the
not when you take all its features into phenomenon is observed, such as in a planetarium in which the moon is in open sky
account. without any intervening landscape cues.
We discussed how we perceive actual movement, but the il-
lusion of stroboscopic movement, a form of apparent movement,
puts the motion in motion pictures (see ■ Figure 3.29). We per-
ceive the rapid progression of illuminated still images projected
by a film projector to be a seamless “motion picture.” The film it-
self contains a series of still images projected at more than 20 pic-
tures, or “frames,” per second. Each frame differs somewhat from
the one shown before. This is nothing but a quick slide show; the
“movie” mechanism lies within us—the viewers.
Russell Kord/Alamy stock photo
Visual illusions may also influence how much we eat (Wansink,

2013). In ■ Figure 3.30, the dark circle on the left appears larger than
the one on the right, even though they are the same size (go ahead
and measure them). Now imagine these are two plates and the cir-
cles represent portions of food placed on them. When portion sizes
appear smaller, such as when food is placed on larger plates, people
figure 3.28 Moon Illusion may have a tendency to eat more. Why not try out this principle at home by using lun-
The moon illusion refers to the perception cheon plates rather than dinner plates when serving food?
that the moon is larger when at the
horizon than when it is high in the sky.
Cultural Differences in Perceiving Visual Illusions
Suppose you lived in a culture in which structures with corners and angles were uncom-
mon. Would you be as likely to experience the Müller-Lyer illusion as someone raised
in, say, Cleveland or Dallas? To find out, Darhl Pedersen and John Wheeler (1983)
tested two groups of Navajo Indians on the Müller-Lyer illusion. One group lived in
rectangular houses that provided daily exposure to angles and corners. Another group
lived in traditional rounded huts with fewer of these cues. Those living in the rounded
stroboscopic movement A type of huts were less likely to be deceived by the Müller-Lyer illusion, suggesting that prior
apparent movement based on the rapid experience plays a role in determining susceptibility to the illusion. Other studies have
succession of still images, as in motion produced similar results. For example, the illusion was observed less frequently among
pictures. the Zulu people of southern Africa, who also live in rounded structures (Segall, 1994).
© Andrew Davidhazy/Roches-
ter Institute of Technology
figure 3.29 Stroboscopic Movement

The perception of movement in “moving pictures” is a feature of the viewer, not the projector.
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module 3.5 125
The carpentered-world hypothesis was put forth to account for cultural differ-
ences in susceptibility to the Müller-Lyer illusion (Segall, Campbell, & Herskovits,
1966). A carpentered world is one, like our own, that is dominated by structures
(buildings, rooms, and furniture) in which straight lines meet at right angles. People
living in noncarpentered worlds, which consist largely of rounded structures, are
less prone to the illusion because of their limited experience with angular structures.
Cultural experience, rather than race, seems the determinant. Zulus who move to
cities where they become accustomed to seeing angular structures are more likely to
be fooled by the illusion (Segall, Campbell, & Herskovits, 1963). figure 3.30 The Dinner Plate
Studies with the Ponzo (railroad) illusion also show cultural differences. The illu- Illusion
sion is less prominent among the people of Guam, an island with a hilly terrain and Notice how the circle on the left appears
no long, uninterrupted highways or railroads (Leibowitz, 1971). larger, even though they are the same
The lesson here goes beyond cultural differences in visual illusions. Perception is size. Now imagine the two circles are
influenced not only by our sensory systems but also by our experience of living in a portions of food served on two plates of
particular culture. People from different cultures may perceive the physical world differ- different sizes. If your eyes are fooled into
ently. Consider a classic example offered by the anthropologist Colin Turnbull (1961). thinking the portion of food looks larger,
Turnbull took Kenge, an African pygmy guide, on his first trip outside the dense forest might you actually eat less?
into the open plain. When Kenge saw buffalo several miles away on the plain, he took
them to be insects. When he got closer to the animals and recognized them as buffalo, he
was aghast at how the animals had been able to grow so quickly. Why would Kenge mis- CONCEPT 3.37
take a buffalo for an insect? In Kenge’s culture, people lived in remote villages in a dense The susceptibility to visual illusions is
forest. He had never before had an unobstructed view of objects at a great distance. He influenced by cultural factors, such as the
lacked the experience needed to acquire size constancy for distant objects—to learn that types of structures to which people in a
particular culture are accustomed.
objects retain their size even as the image they project on our eyes grows smaller.
Recent research shows that Westerners and East Asians
tend to perceive the same visual scenes in different ways.
Investigators found that Americans tend to focus more
attention on objects in the foreground of visual scenes
than do East Asians, whereas East Asians take in more
of the background or contextual characteristics than do
Americans (Chua, Boland, & Nisbett, 2005; Masuda &
Nisbett, 2001). When it comes to West and East, Nisbett
and his colleagues claim, we have two fundamentally dif-
ferent processing styles, a Western style of focusing on
categorizing specific objects versus a more holistic Eastern
style of attending to contextual information and making
JJ pixs/Alamy stock photo
judgments about relationships among objects rather than

simply classifying them (Chua, Boland, & Nisbett, 2005).
Next we focus on two controversies in perception that
have sparked a continuing debate within both the scien-
tific community and the society at large. According to the carpentered-world
hypothesis, people living in cultures in
which right-angled structures are rare
Controversies in Perception: Subliminal Perception are less prone to the Müller-Lyer illusion.
and Extrasensory Perception

It created quite a stir during the 2000 U.S. presidential race when a campaign com-
mercial for then candidate George W. Bush used what appeared to be a subliminal slur carpentered-world hypothesis An
against his opponent, Vice President Al Gore (ABC News, 2000). The word RATS was attempt to explain the Müller-Lyer illusion
flashed during an ad attacking Gore’s health care plan. The producer of the ad claimed in terms of the cultural experience of living
the message was not intended as a slur against Gore and simply represented a visual in a carpentered, right-angled world like
reminder of the word bureaucrats (rats being the last four letters of the word). our own.
Whether or not it was intended as a slur, the commercial led people to wonder subliminal perception Perception of
whether subliminal perception could affect people’s attitudes and behaviors. In sub- stimuli that are presented below the
sequent research, psychologists subliminally exposed research participants to four threshold of conscious awareness.
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different stimuli: RATS, STAR, ARAB, or XXXX. They then showed
Bill Greenblat/Newsmakers/Getty Images

them a picture of a fictional political candidate and asked them to rate
the person’s likeability and competence (Weinberger & Westen, 2008).
Participants who were flashed the “RATS” stimulus rated the candidate
more negatively than did participants in the other stimulus conditions.
An even more controversial topic is extrasensory perception (ESP) —
perception that occurs without benefit of the known senses. Is it possi-
ble to read people’s minds or to know the contents of a letter in a sealed
envelope? Here we consider these long-standing controversies in light
of the evidence that scientists have been able to gather.
Subliminal Perception: Did You See Something Flash By?

CONCEPT 3.38 Does subliminal perception exist? Two-thirds of Americans think so (Onion, 2000).
Though we sometimes perceive things we But does scientific evidence support this belief? The answer, researchers report, is yes,
are not conscious of perceiving, there is no but it is a qualified yes.
evidence that subliminal cues have signifi- Research evidence shows that people can detect a wide range of subliminal stimuli
cant effects on our daily lives. (visual images, sounds, and even some odors) without being consciously aware of
them (Levy et al., 2014; Lin & Murray, 2014; Verwijmeren et al., 2011, 2013). Sub-
liminal exposure to certain brand names may have subtle effects on our behavior, even
making us think more creatively. Investigators flashed images of the logos of Apple and
IBM at speeds too fast to be detected consciously. The investigators had earlier found
the Apple brand to be more strongly associated with creativity. In their experiment,
people who were flashed images of the Apple logo showed more creative responses in a
follow-up task than those exposed to either an IBM logo or no logo at all (Fitzsimons,
Chartrand, & Fitzsimons, 2008; Walker, 2008). In another research study, subliminal
exposure to fast food images increased the participants’ reading speed in a later read-
ing task (Zhong, 2010). The upshot of this research is that we may be influenced by
stimuli that whiz by us so quickly they don’t register fully in consciousness.
How might we account for subliminal effects? One possibility is that people may
be able to detect some features of a subliminally presented stimulus, even though
they cannot report verbally what they have seen. Partial perception of a stimulus
may help account for subliminal effects in laboratory studies, but we still lack any
convincing evidence that subliminal messaging in advertising or motivational audio-
tapes actually influences purchase decisions or helps people become more successful
in life, or has any meaningful impact on people’s lives.
Extrasensory Perception: Is It for Real?

A man claims to be able to bend spoons with his mind. A woman claims to be able to
extrasensory perception (ESP) find the bodies of crime victims aided by nothing more than a piece of clothing worn
Perception that occurs without benefit of by the victim. Another woman claims to be able to foretell future events. The study
the known senses.
of such paranormal phenomena—events that cannot be explained by known phys-
parapsychology The study of paranormal ical, psychological, or biological mechanisms—is called parapsychology. The major
phenomena.
telepathy Communication of thoughts
from one mind to another that occurs
Bernd Pfeifer/imagebroker / Alamy
Pius Koller/ImageBroker/Glow
without using the known senses.

clairvoyance The ability to perceive
objects and events without using the
known senses.
stock photo
Images, Inc
precognition The ability to foretell the

future. In a test of the effects of subliminal cues, research participants demonstrated more creative
psychokinesis The ability to move objects responses after they were flashed subliminal images of the Apple brand logo as compared
by mental effort alone. with others who were exposed to either an IBM logo or no logo at all.
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module 3.5 127
focus of paranormal psychology is extrasensory perception, the so-

called “sixth sense” by which people claim they can perceive objects
or events without using the known senses. The forms of paranormal
phenomena most commonly identified with ESP are telepathy, clair-
voyance, precognition, and psychokinesis.
Telepathy refers to the purported ability to project one’s thoughts
into other people’s minds or to read what is in their minds—to perceive
their thoughts or feelings without using the known senses. Clairvoyance
is the perception of events that are not available to the senses. A clair-
voyant may claim to know what someone across town is doing at that
precise moment or to identify the contents of a sealed envelope. Precog-
Sean Pavone/Shutterstock.com
nition is the ability to foretell the future. Psychokinesis (formerly called
telekinesis) is the ability to move objects without touching them. Strictly
speaking, psychokinesis is not a form of ESP because it does not involve
perception, but for the sake of convenience it is often classified as such.
Critical thinkers maintain an appropriate skepticism about
claims of ESP or other paranormal phenomena that seem to defy the laws of nature. A recent study showed that people ac-
Many claims have proven to be hoaxes, whereas others may be explained as random tually read more quickly after they were
or chance occurrences or mere statistical flukes, or based on findings that scientists flashed images of a fast food restaurant.
cannot replicate (Galak et al., 2012; Hyman, 2010; LeBel & Peters, 2011; Ritchie, Stimuli in our environment that whiz by
Wiseman, & French, 2012; Wagenmakers et al., 2011). Despite many decades of our eyes may have subtle effects on our
scientific study, we lack clear and convincing evidence supporting the existence of behavior, even if they fail to fully register
ESP that can withstand scientific scrutiny. As critical thinkers, we need to maintain a in consciousness.
skeptical attitude and insist that claims of extrasensory abilities be reliably demon-
strated under tightly controlled conditions before we are willing to accept them. CONCEPT 3.39
Claims of ESP remain just that—claims that
Concept Chart 3.5 provides an overview of many of the key concepts of percep-
have not met the rigorous tests of scientific
tion discussed in this module. inquiry.
Concept Chart 3.5 Overview of Perception

Basic concepts in Selective attention The tendency to pay attention to types of sensory information that are
perception important to us. Such factors as motivational states and repeated exposure
influence whether we attend to particular stimuli.
Perceptual set The tendency for our expectations or preconceptions to influence our perceptions.
Perceptual constancy The tendency to perceive objects as unchanging in size, shape, color, and brightness
despite changes in perspective, distance, or lighting conditions.
Modes of perceptual Bottom-up The process by which the brain forms perceptions by piecing together bits and
processing pieces of sensory data to form meaningful patterns.
Top-down The process by which the brain forms perceptions by recognizing whole
patterns without first piecing together their component parts.
Gestalt principles Figure–ground The tendency to perceive the visual environment in terms of figures (objects)
of perceptual that stand out from the surrounding background, or ground.
organization Proximity The tendency to perceive objects as belonging together when they are close to
one another.
Similarity The tendency to group objects that have similar characteristics.
Continuity The tendency to perceive a series of stimuli as a unified form when they appear
to represent a continuous pattern.
Closure The tendency to group disconnected pieces of information into a meaningful whole.
Connectedness The tendency to perceive objects as belonging together when they are
positioned together or are moving together.
(Continued)
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Concept Chart 3.5 (Continued)
Binocular cues
¯˚˘˚˙
Cues for depth Retinal disparity The disparity in the images of objects projected onto the retina, which the brain
perception uses as a cue to the distance of the objects. Nearby objects produce greater
retinal disparity.
Convergence Turning the eyes inward to focus on a nearby object, which creates muscular
tension that the brain uses as a cue for depth perception. The closer the object,
the more the eyes must converge to maintain the single image.
¯˚˚˚˚˘˚˚˚˚˙
Relative size An object that appears larger than another object believed to be of the same
size is judged to be closer.
Monocular cues
Interposition Objects that are obscured by other objects are perceived as being farther away.
Relative clarity Nearby objects are clearer than more distant objects.
Texture gradient The details of nearby objects appear to have a coarser texture than those of
distant objects.
Linear perspective Objects and the spaces between them look smaller as they become more
distant. Thus, parallel lines appear to converge as they recede into the distance.
Shadowing Shadows can create the appearance of curving surfaces or three dimensions,
giving the impression of depth.
Controversies in Subliminal perception Perception of stimuli presented below the threshold of conscious awareness.
perception Extrasensory Perception occurring without the benefit of the known senses.
perception (ESP)
module Review 3.5 Perceiving Our World: Principles of Perception
Recite It
10. Describe the roles of attention, perceptual set, and modes of 12. Define the concept of perceptual constancy and apply the
visual processing in perception. concept to examples.
Through the process of (a) _______ attention, we tend to Perceptual constancy is the tendency to perceive an object
perceive the most meaningful stimuli impinging upon us to be of the same shape, size, color, and (h) _______ even
at any one time. Attention is influenced by such factors as when the images it casts on the retina change in response
motivational states and repeated exposure. to changes in viewing perspective, distance, and lighting.
The tendency for perceptions to be influenced by expecta-
13. Identify and describe cues we use to judge distance and
tions and preconceptions is called perceptual (b) _______.
perceive movement, and apply these cues to examples.
The two general modes of visual processing are
(c) _______-up processing, which involves piecing (i) _______ cues include retinal disparity and conver-
together specific features of visual stimuli to form mean- gence. (j) _______ cues include relative size, interposition,
ingful patterns, and (d) _______-down processing, which relative clarity, texture gradient, linear perspective, and
involves recognizing patterns as meaningful wholes with- shadowing.
out first piecing together their component parts. 14. Identify some common types of visual illusions, and explain
11. Identify and describe the Gestalt principles of grouping why it is the brain, not the eyes, that deceives us.
objects into meaningful patterns or forms. Examples of visual illusions include the Müller-Lyer illu-
The Gestalt principles of perceptual organization in- sion, the Ponzo illusion, and the (k) _______ illusion. The
clude laws of (e) _______–ground perception and laws of Müller-Lyer illusion and the Ponzo illusion appear to in-
(f) _______ (proximity, similarity, continuity, closure, and volve the brain’s misperception of cues used in (l) _______
connectedness). These principles allow us to perceive the perception.
world as comprised of (g) _______ or unified forms rather The brain may be fooled into perceiving apparent move-
than isolated bits and pieces of sensory data. ment, as in the case of (m) _______ motion.
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module 3.5 129
15. Evaluate evidence concerning the existence of subliminal messages in everyday life affects attitudes or behavior.
perception and extrasensory perception. There is no hard evidence acceptable to a majority of scien-
Some limited forms of (n) _______ perception exist, but tists that proves the existence of such forms of (o) _______
there is no evidence that exposure to subliminally presented as telepathy, clairvoyance, precognition, and psychokinesis.
Recall It
1. The process by which the brain turns sensations into mean- 5. Name the monocular cue by which we perceive objects to be
ingful impressions of the external world is called ___. closer to us when they obscure objects that are behind them.
2. The newborn infant’s apparent preference for the sound of its 6. Which of the following is not a monocular cue for depth?
mother’s voice may be explained as a function of a. convergence c. interposition
a. sensory facilitation. b. relative clarity d. shadowing
b. prenatal auditory exposure. 7. Subliminal perception involves
c. inborn reflexes.
a. acquiring knowledge or insight without using the
d. the maximal adherence effect.
known senses.
3. What is the term we use to describe the tendency for our b. perceiving information presented below the level of con-
expectations and preconceived notions to influence how we scious awareness.
perceive events? c. perceiving stimuli in an underwater environment.
d. sensory systems that can transmit all of a stimulus’s
4. Name the Gestalt principle that describes the tendency to features.
perceive objects as belonging together when they are posi-
tioned together or moving together.
Think About It
■■ Drawing upon your understanding of Gestalt principles ■■ Have you ever had any unusual experiences that you
of perceptual organization, explain how perceptions believe involved ESP? Think critically. What alternative
differ from photographic images. explanations might account for these experiences?
THINKING CRITICALLY ABOUT PSYCHOLOGY

Based on your reading of this chapter, answer the following discover the man’s body in the area she had indicated.
questions. Then, to evaluate your progress in developing critical He had died of natural causes, and his body had been
thinking skills, compare your answers to the sample answers hidden by a dense thicket of bushes.
found in Appendix A. Critical thinkers adopt a skeptical attitude toward claims
of ESP. They evaluate the evidence and consider more plausi-
A few years ago, a police department asked a woman
ble alternative explanations. Consider these questions:
who claimed to have psychic abilities to help them locate
an elderly man who had disappeared in a wooded area 1. Do you believe this case demonstrates the existence
outside of town. Despite an extended search of the area, of ESP? Why or why not?
the police had been unable to locate the man. Working
only from a photograph of the man and a map of the 2. What, if any, additional information would you need
area, the woman circled an area of the map where she to help you evaluate the woman’s claims or to gener-
felt the man might be found. The police were amazed to ate alternative explanations?
Recite It Answers for Chapter 3

Module 3.1 1. (a) Sensation; (b) Perception; (c) meaningful, 3. (d) absolute, (e) difference; (f) signal detection; (g) adaptation Module 3.2 3. (a) cornea;
(b) pupil; (c) lens; (d) rods ; (e) bipolar; (f) optic; (g) fovea; (h) Cones; (i) peripheral, 4. (j) trichromatic; (k) opponent-process Module 3.3 5. (a) eardrum;
(b) oval; (c) cochlea; (d) hair, 6. (e) basilar; (f) frequency; (g) volley; (h) conduction, (i) nerve Module 3.4 7. (a) chemical; (b) molecular; (c) taste; (d) bitter,
8. (e) pressure (f) gate-control, 9. (g) kinesthetic; (h) joints; (i) vestibular; (j)balance Module 3.5 10. (a) selective; (b) set; (c) bottom; (d) top, 11. (e) figure;
(f)grouping (g) whole, 12. (h) brightness 13. (i) Binocular; (j) Monocular, 14. (k) moon; (l) depth; (m) stroboscopic, 15. (n) subliminal; (o) ESP
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CHAPTER
VISUAL OVERVIEW
13
3 Sensation and Perception
Modules
Module3.1,
3.13.2 Basic Concepts of Sensation
■■ Absolute Thresholds: Is something there?
■■ Difference Thresholds: Is something different there?
Examples of Weber’s Constants
■■ Sensory Adaptation: Getting duller with time
Weber’s Constant
Sensation (Approximate) ■■ Signal Detection: Picking up a signal
Sensory Receptors
Saltiness of food 1/5
■■ Rods and cones for vision
Pressure on skin 1/7 ■■ Hair cells for hearing
Loudness of sounds 1/10 ■■ Taste cells for taste
Odor 1/20
■■ Odor receptors for smell
■■ Skin receptors for skin senses
Heaviness of weights 1/50
■■ Kinesthetic receptors in the joints, ligaments, and tendons
Brightness of lights 1/60 ■■ Vestibular receptors in the inner ear
Pitch of sounds 1/333
Modules 3.2–3.4 Our Senses

The Senses
■■ Vision: Light energy ➔ Receptor cells in retina ➔ Neural impulses ➔ Sight
■■ Hearing: Sound vibrations ➔ Receptor cells in inner ear ➔ Neural impulses
along auditory nerve to auditory cortex ➔ Sound
■■ Chemical Senses: Chemical substances ➔ Transformed into neural impulses by
receptors in nose and mouth ➔ Smell and taste
■■ Skin Senses: Tactile stimuli ➔ Receptors in
skin ➔ Neural impulses transmitted to somatosensory cortex

➔ Touch, pressure, temperature, and pain
■■ Kinesthesis: Body receptors in joints, ligaments, and muscles ➔
Neural signals to brain ➔ Sense of position and movement of

parts of the body
■■ Vestibular Sense: Gravitational forces ➔ Stimulate receptors in
the inner ear ➔ Neural signals to

Ralph C. Eagle Jr./Science Source
brain ➔ Sense of position of the body in space and mainte-

nance of balance
130
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Modules
Module 3.5
3.4 Perceiving Our World: Principles of Perception
Psychological Processes
■■ Selective Attention: Attending to important stimuli
■■ Perceptual Set: Expectations influence perceptions
■■ Bottom-Up and Top-Down Processing: Perceiving parts of patterns versus perceiv-
ing whole patterns
■■ Gestalt Principles of Perceptual Organization: Brain organizes sensations into
recognizable wholes or patterns
■■ Perceptual Constancy: Objects retain their shapes and other properties even
when the images they cast change with changing conditions
Perceptual Cues
■■ Cues for Depth Perception: Monocular cues depend on the individual eye (rela-
tive size, texture gradient, linear perspective, and so on). Binocular cues depend
on both eyes working together (retinal disparity and convergence).
■■ Cues for Motion Perception: The two basic cues are the path of the image as it
crosses the retina and changing size of the object.
Visual Illusions
■■ When the Brain, Not the Eye, Plays Tricks on Us: Examples include the Müller-Lyer
illusion, the Ponzo illusion, the moon illusion, and apparent movement.
(a) Proximity (b) Similarity (c) Continuity (d) Closure (e) Connectedness
(a) Müller-Lyer Illusion (b) Ponzo Illusion (c) (d)
131
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Lesson 5 Key concepts: Cognition
algorithm a problem-solving strategy characterised by a specific set of

instructions
analytical aligned with academic problem solving and computations
intelligence
anchoring bias a faulty heuristic in which you fixate on a single aspect of a

problem to find a solution
artificial concept a concept that is defined by a very specific set of
characteristics
availability a faulty heuristic in which you make a decision based on
heuristic information readily available to you
cognition thinking, including perception, learning, problem solving,

judgment, and memory
cognitive the field of psychology dedicated to studying every aspect

psychology of how people think
cognitive script a set of behaviours that is performed the same way each
time; also referred to as an event schema
concept a category or grouping of linguistic information, objects,

ideas, or life experiences
confirmation bias a faulty heuristic in which you focus on information that
confirms your beliefs
convergent providing correct or established answers to problems

thinking
creative the ability to produce new products, ideas, or inventing a

intelligence new, novel solution to a problem
creativity the ability to generate, create, or discover new ideas,

solutions, and possibilities
crystallised characterised by acquired knowledge and the ability to
intelligence retrieve it
cultural the ability with which people can understand and relate to
intelligence those in another culture
Divergent thinking the ability to think “outside the box” to arrive at novel
solutions to a problem
dysgraphia a learning disability that causes extreme difficulty in writing

legibly
dyslexia common learning disability in which letters are not

processed properly by the brain
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emotional the ability to understand emotions and motivations in

intelligence yourself and others
event schema a set of behaviours that is performed the same way each
time; also referred to as a cognitive script
fluid intelligence the ability to see complex relationships and solve problems
functional the inability to see an object as useful for any other use
fixedness other than the one for which it was intended
heuristic a mental shortcut that saves time when solving a problem
hindsight bias the belief that the event just experienced was predictable,
even though it really was not
intelligence (also, IQ) a score on a test designed to measure
quotient intelligence
Multiple Gardner’s theory that each person possesses at least eight

Intelligences types of intelligence
Theory
natural concept mental groupings that are created “naturally” through your
experiences
norming administering a test to a large population so data can be

collected to reference the normal scores for a population
and its groups
overgeneralisation the extension of a rule that exists in a given language to an
exception to the rule
practical aka “street smart”

intelligence
problem-solving a method for solving problems

strategy
representative bias a faulty heuristic in which you stereotype someone or

something without a valid basis for your judgement
schema (plural = schemata) a mental construct consisting of a

cluster or collection of related concepts
trial and error a problem-solving strategy in which multiple solutions are

attempted until the correct one is found
working a heuristic in which you begin to solve a problem by

backwards focusing on the end result
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Lesson 5 Cognition and Memory Open Education Resource (OER) openstax
Lesson 5
Thinking and Intelligence
Figure 5.1 Thinking is an important part of our human experience, and one that has
captivated people for centuries. Today, it is one area of psychological study. The 19th-
century Girl with a Book by José Ferraz de Almeida Júnior, the
20th-century sculpture The Thinker by August Rodin, and Shi Ke’s 10th-century painting
Huike Thinking all reflect the fascination with the process of human thought. (credit “middle”:
modification of work by Jason Rogers; credit “right”: modification of work by Tang Zu-Ming)
Lesson outline
5.1 What Is cognition?
5.2 Language
5.3 Problem solving
5.4 What Are intelligence and creativity?
5.5 The source of intelligence
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Introduction
Why is it so difficult to break habits — like reaching for your ringing phone even when you
shouldn’t, such as when you’re driving? How does a person who has never seen or touched
snow in real life develop an understanding of the concept of snow? How do young children
acquire the ability to learn language with no formal instruction? Psychologists who study
thinking explore questions like these.
Cognitive psychologists also study intelligence. What is intelligence, and how does it vary
from person to person? Are “street smarts” a kind of intelligence, and if so, how do they
relate to other types of intelligence? What does an IQ test really measure? These questions
and more will be explored in this lesson as you study thinking and intelligence.
In this lesson, we will focus on high-level cognitive processes. As part of this discussion, we
will consider thinking and then briefly explore the development and use of language. We will
also discuss problem solving and creativity, before ending with a discussion of how
intelligence is measured and how our biology and environments interact to affect
intelligence. After completing this lesson, you will have a greater appreciation of the higher-
level cognitive processes that contribute to our distinctiveness as a species.
5.1 What Is cognition?
Imagine all of your thoughts as if they were physical entities, swirling rapidly inside your
mind. How is it possible that the brain is able to move from one thought to the next in an
organised, orderly fashion? The brain is endlessly perceiving, processing, planning,
organising, and remembering — it is always active. Yet, you don’t notice most of your brain’s
activity as you move throughout your daily routine. This is only one facet of the complex
processes involved in cognition. Simply put cognition is thinking, and it encompasses the
processes associated with perception, knowledge, problem solving, judgment, language,
and memory. Scientists who study cognition are searching for ways to understand how we
integrate, organise, and utilise our conscious cognitive experiences without being aware of
all of the unconscious work that our brains are doing (also see Kahneman, 2011).
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COGNITION
Upon waking each morning, you begin thinking — contemplating the tasks that you must
complete that day. In what order should you run your errands? Should you go to the bank,
the dry cleaners, or the grocery store first? Can you get these things done before you head
to class or work, or will they need to wait until school or work is done? These thoughts are
one example of cognition at work. Exceptionally complex, cognition is an essential feature
of human consciousness, yet not all aspects of cognition are consciously experienced.
Cognitive psychology is the field of psychology dedicated to examining how people think.
It attempts to explain how and why we think the way we do by studying the interactions
among human thinking, emotion, creativity, language, and problem solving, in addition to
other cognitive processes. Cognitive psychologists strive to determine and measure
different types of intelligence, why some people are better at problem solving than others,
and how emotional intelligence affects success in the workplace, among countless other
topics. They also sometimes focus on how we organise thoughts and information gathered
from our environments into meaningful categories of thought, which will be discussed later.
CONCEPTS AND PROTOTYPES
The human nervous system is capable of handling endless streams of information. The
senses serve as the interface between the mind and the external environment, receiving
stimuli and translating it into nervous impulses that are transmitted to the brain. The brain
then processes this information and uses the relevant pieces to create thoughts, which can
then be expressed through language or stored in memory for future use. To make this
process more complex, the brain does not gather information from external environments
only. When thoughts are formed, the brain also pulls information from emotions and
memories (Figure 5.2). Emotion and memory are powerful influences on both our thoughts
and behaviours.
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Figure 5.2 Sensations and information are received by our brains, filtered through
emotions and memories, and processed to become thoughts.
In order to organise this staggering amount of information, the brain has developed a file
cabinet of sorts in the mind. The different files stored in the file cabinet are called concepts.
Concepts are categories or groupings of linguistic information, images, ideas, or memories,
such as life experiences. Concepts are, in many ways, big ideas that are generated by
observing details, and categorising and combining these details into cognitive structures.
You use concepts to see the relationships among the different elements of your experiences
and to keep the information in your mind organised and accessible.
Concepts are informed by our semantic memory (you will learn more about semantic
memory later in the lesson) and are present in every aspect of our lives; however, one of
the easiest places to notice concepts is inside a classroom, where they are discussed
explicitly. When you study history, for example, you learn about more than just individual
events that have happened in the past. You absorb a large quantity of information by
listening to and participating in discussions, examining maps, and reading first-hand
accounts of people’s lives. Your brain analyses these details and develops an overall
understanding of the history. In the process, your brain gathers details that inform and refine
your understanding of related concepts like democracy, socialism, power, and freedom,
among others.
Concepts can be complex and abstract, like justice, or more concrete, like types of birds. In
psychology, for example, Piaget’s stages of development are abstract concepts. Some
concepts, like tolerance, are agreed upon by many people, because they have been used
in various ways over many years. Other concepts, like the characteristics of your ideal friend
or your family’s birthday traditions, are personal and individualised. In this way, concepts
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touch every aspect of our lives, from our many daily routines to the guiding principles behind
the way government’s function.
Another technique used by your brain to organise information is the identification of

prototypes for the concepts you have developed. A prototype is the best example or
representation of a concept. For example, for the category of civil disobedience, your
prototype could be Mohandas Gandhi, sometimes called Mahatma Gandhi (“Mahatma” is
an honorific title) (Figure 5.3).
Figure 5.3 In 1930, Mohandas Gandhi led a group in peaceful protest against a British tax
on salt in India.
Mohandas Gandhi served as a nonviolent force for independence for India while
simultaneously demanding that Buddhist, Hindu, Muslim, and Christian leaders — both
Indian and British — collaborate peacefully. Although he was not always successful in
preventing violence around him, his life and those of others within different countries and
contexts provide a steadfast example of the civil disobedience prototype (Constitutional
Rights Foundation, 2013). Just as concepts can be abstract or concrete, we can make a
distinction between concepts that are functions of our direct experience with the world and
those that are more artificial in nature.
NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL CONCEPTS
In psychology, concepts can be divided into two categories, namely natural and artificial.
Natural concepts are created “naturally” through your experiences and can be developed
from either direct or indirect experiences. For example, if you live in Lesotho, you have
probably had a lot of direct experience with snow. You’ve watched it fall from the sky, you’ve
5
seen lightly falling snow that barely covers the windshield of your car, and you’ve shovelled
fluffy white snow while you’ve thought, “This is perfect for skiing.” You’ve thrown snowballs
at your best friend and gone sledding down the steepest hill in town. In short, you know
snow. You know what it looks like, smells like, tastes like, and feels like. If, however, you’ve
lived your whole life Limpopo, a Northern Province of South Africa, you may never have
actually seen snow, much less tasted, smelled, or touched it. You know snow from the
indirect experience of seeing pictures of falling snow — or from watching films that feature
snow as part of the setting. Either way, snow is a natural concept because you can construct
an understanding of it through direct observations or experiences of snow
An artificial concept, on the other hand, is a concept that is defined by a specific set of
characteristics. Various properties of geometric shapes, like squares and triangles, serve
as useful examples of artificial concepts. A triangle always has three angles and three sides.
A square always has four equal sides and four right angles. Mathematical formulas, like the
equation for area (length × width) are artificial concepts defined by specific sets of
characteristics that are always the same. Artificial concepts can enhance the understanding
of a topic by building on one another. For example, before learning the concept of “area of
a square” (and the formula to find it), you must understand what a square is. Once the
concept of “area of a square” is understood, an understanding of area for other geometric
shapes can be built upon the original understanding of area. The use of artificial concepts
to define an idea is crucial to communicating with others and engaging in complex thought.
According to Goldstone and Kersten (2003), concepts act as building blocks and can be
connected in countless combinations to create complex thoughts.
SCHEMATA
A schema is a mental construct consisting of a cluster or collection of related concepts

(Bartlett, 1932). There are many different types of schemata (schemata is the plural of
schema), and they all have one thing in common: schemata are methods of organising
information that allows the brain to work more efficiently. When a schema is activated, the
brain makes immediate assumptions about the person or object being observed.
There are several types of schemata. A role schema makes assumptions about how
individuals in certain roles will behave (Callero, 1994). For example, imagine you meet
someone who introduces himself as a firefighter. When this happens, your brain
automatically activates the “firefighter schema” and begins making assumptions that this
person is brave, selfless, and community oriented. Despite not knowing this person, already
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you have unknowingly made judgments about him. Schemata also help you fill in gaps in
the information you receive from the world around you. While schemata allow for more
efficient information processing, there can be problems with schemata, regardless of
whether they are accurate: Perhaps this particular firefighter is not brave, he just works as
a firefighter to pay the bills while studying.
An event schema, also known as a cognitive script, is a set of behaviours that can feel
like a routine. Think about what you do when you walk into an elevator (Figure 5.4). First,
the doors open, and you wait to let exiting passengers leave the elevator car. Then, you
step into the elevator and turn around to face the doors, looking for the correct button to
push. You never face the back of the elevator, do you? And when you’re riding in a crowded
elevator and you can’t face the front, it feels uncomfortable, doesn’t it? Interestingly, event
schemata can vary widely among different cultures and countries. For example, while it is
quite common for people to greet one another with a handshake in the United States, in
Tibet, you greet someone by sticking your tongue out at them, and in Kenya the Maasai
warriors perform an elaborate jumping dance (Carla, 2019).
Figure 5.4 What event schema do you perform when riding in an elevator? (Credit:
“Gideon”/Flickr)
Because event schemata are automatic, they can be difficult to change. Imagine that you
are driving home from work or school. This event schema involves getting in the car, shutting
the door, and buckling your seatbelt before putting the key in the ignition. You might perform
this script two or three times each day. As you drive home, you hear your phone’s ring tone.
Typically, the event schema that occurs when you hear your phone ringing involves locating
the phone and answering it or responding to your latest text message. So without thinking,
you reach for your phone, which could be in your pocket, in your bag, or on the passenger
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seat of the car. This powerful event schema is informed by your pattern of behaviour and
the pleasurable stimulation that a phone call or text message gives your brain. Because it
is a schema, it is extremely challenging for us to stop reaching for the phone, even though
we know that we endanger our own lives and the lives of others while driving (Neyfakh,
2013) (Figure 5.5).
Figure 5.5 Texting while driving is dangerous, but it is a difficult event schema for some
people to resist.
Remember the elevator? It feels almost impossible to walk in and not face the door. Our
powerful event schema dictates our behaviour in the elevator, and it is no different with our
phones. Current research suggests that it is the habit, or event schema, of checking our
phones in many different situations that makes refraining from checking them while driving
especially difficult (Bayer & Campbell, 2012). Because texting and driving have become a
dangerous epidemic in recent years, psychologists are looking at ways to help people
interrupt the “phone schema” while driving. Event schemata like these are the reason why
many habits are difficult to break once they have been acquired. As we continue to examine
thinking, keep in mind how powerful the forces of concepts and schemata are to our
understanding of the world.
5.2 Language
Language is a communication system that involves using words and systematic rules to
organise those words to transmit information from one individual to another. While
language is a form of communication, not all communication is language. Many species
communicate with one another through their postures, movements, odours, or vocalisations.
This communication is crucial for species that need to interact and develop social
relationships with their conspecifics. However, many people have asserted that it is
language that makes humans unique among all of the animal species (Corballis &
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Suddendorf, 2007; Tomasello & Rakoczy, 2003). This section will focus on what
distinguishes language as a special form of communication, how the use of language
develops, and how language affects the way we think.
COMPONENTS OF LANGUAGE
Language, be it spoken, signed, or written, has specific components: a lexicon and

grammar. Lexicon refers to the words of a given language. Thus, lexicon is a language’s
vocabulary. Grammar refers to the set of rules that are used to convey meaning through
the use of the lexicon (Fernández & Cairns, 2011). For instance, English grammar dictates
that most verbs receive an “-ed” at the end to indicate the past tense.
Words are formed by combining the various phonemes that make up the language. A
phoneme (e.g., the sounds “ah” vs “eh”) is a basic sound unit of a given language, and
different languages have different sets of phonemes. Phonemes are combined to form
morphemes, which are the smallest units of language that convey some type of meaning
(e.g., “I” is both a phoneme and a morpheme). We use semantics and syntax to construct
language. Semantics and syntax are part of a language’s grammar. Semantics refers to
the process by which we derive meaning from morphemes and words. Syntax refers to the
way words are organised into sentences (Chomsky, 1965; Fernández & Cairns, 2011).
We apply the rules of grammar to organise the lexicon in novel and creative ways, which
allows us to communicate information about both concrete and abstract concepts. We can
talk about our immediate and observable surroundings as well as the surface of unseen
planets. We can share our innermost thoughts, our plans for the future, and debate the
value of a college education. We can provide detailed instructions for cooking a meal, fixing
a car, or building a fire. The flexibility that language provides to relay vastly different types
of information is a property that makes language so distinct as a mode of communication
among humans.
LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT
Given the remarkable complexity of a language, one might expect that mastering a
language would be an especially arduous task; indeed, for those of us trying to learn a
second language as adults, this might seem to be true. However, young children master
language very quickly with relative ease. BF Skinner (1957) proposed that language is
learned through reinforcement. Noam Chomsky (1965) criticised this behaviourist
approach, asserting instead that the mechanisms underlying language acquisition are
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biologically determined. The use of language develops in the absence of formal instruction
and appears to follow a very similar pattern in children from vastly different cultures and
backgrounds. It would seem, therefore, that we are born with a biological predisposition to
acquire a language (Chomsky, 1965; Fernández & Cairns, 2011). Moreover, it appears that
there is a critical period for language acquisition, such that this proficiency at acquiring
language is maximal early in life; generally, as people age, the ease with which they acquire
and master new languages diminishes (Johnson & Newport, 1989; Lenneberg,1967;
Singleton, 1995).
Children begin to learn about language from a very early age. In fact, it appears that this is
occurring even before we are born. New-borns show preference for their mother’s voice and
appear to be able to discriminate between the language spoken by their mother and other
languages. Babies are also attuned to the languages being used around them and show
preferences for videos of faces that are moving in synchrony with the audio of spoken
language, versus videos that do not synchronise with the audio (Blossom & Morgan, 2006;
Pickens, 1994; Spelke & Cortelyou, 1981).
You may recall that each language has its own set of phonemes that are used to generate
morphemes, words, and so on. Babies can discriminate between the sounds that make up
a language (e.g., they can tell the difference between the “s” in vision and the “ss” in fission);
early on, they can differentiate between the sounds of all human languages, even those that
do not occur in the languages that are used in their environments. However, by the time
that they are about one year old, they can only discriminate among those phonemes that
are used in the language or languages in their environments (Jensen, 2011; Werker
Lalonde, 1988; Werker & Tees, 1984).
After the first few months of life, babies enter what is known as the babbling stage, during
which time they tend to produce single syllables that are repeated over and over. As time
passes, more variations appear in the syllables that they produce. During this time, it is
unlikely that the babies are trying to communicate; they are just as likely to babble when
they are alone as when they are with their caregivers (Fernández & Cairns, 2011).
Interestingly, babies who are raised in environments in which sign language is used will also
begin to show babbling in the gestures of their hands during this stage (Petitto, Holowka,
Sergio, Levy, & Ostry, 2004).
Generally, a child’s first word is uttered sometime between the ages of one year to 18
months, and for the next few months, the child will remain in the “one-word” stage of
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language development. During this time, children know a number of words, but they only
produce one-word utterances. The child’s early vocabulary is limited to familiar objects or
events, often nouns. Although children in this stage only make one-word utterances, these
words often carry larger meaning (Fernández & Cairns, 2011). So, for example, a child
saying “cookie” could be identifying a cookie or asking for a cookie.
As a child’s lexicon grows, he or she begins to utter simple sentences and to acquire new
vocabulary at a very rapid pace. In addition, children begin to demonstrate a clear
understanding of the specific rules that apply to their language(s). Even the mistakes that
children sometimes make, provide evidence of just how much they understand about those
rules. This is sometimes seen in the form of overgeneralisation. In this context,
overgeneralisation refers to an extension of a language rule to an exception to the rule. For
example, in English, it is usually the case that an “s” is added to the end of a word to indicate
plurality. For example, we speak of one dog versus two dogs. Young children will
overgeneralise this rule to cases that are exceptions to the “add an s to the end of the word”
rule and say things like “those two gooses” or “three mouses.” Clearly, the rules of the
language are understood, even if the exceptions to the rules are still being learned
(Moskowitz, 1978).
LANGUAGE AND THOUGHT
When we speak one language, we agree that words are representations of ideas, people,
places, and events. The given language that children learn is connected to their culture and
surroundings. But can words themselves shape the way we think about things?
Psychologists have long investigated the question of whether language shapes thoughts
and actions, or whether our thoughts and beliefs shape our language. Two researchers,
Edward Sapir and Benjamin Lee Whorf, began this investigation in the 1940s. They wanted
to understand how the language habits of a community encourage members of that
community to interpret language in a particular manner (Sapir, 1941/1964). Think about
what you know of other languages; perhaps you even speak multiple languages. Perhaps
you know people who fluently speak more than one language. Do you think that they
think differently, depending on which language is being spoken? You may know a few words
that are not translatable from their original language.
Sapir and Whorf proposed that language determines thought, suggesting, for example, that
a person whose community language did not have past-tense verbs would be challenged
to think about the past (Whorf, 1956). Researchers have since identified this view as too
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absolute, pointing out a lack of empiricism behind what Sapir and Whorf proposed (Abler,
2013; Boroditsky, 2011; van Troyer, 1994). Today, psychologists continue to study and
debate the relationship between language and thought.
Language may indeed influence the way that we think; an idea known as linguistic
determinism. One recent demonstration of this phenomenon involved differences in the way
that English and Mandarin Chinese speakers talk and think about time. English speakers
tend to talk about time using terms that describe changes along a horizontal dimension, for
example, saying something like “I’m running behind schedule” or “Don’t get ahead of
yourself.” While Mandarin Chinese speakers also describe time in horizontal terms, it is not
uncommon to also use terms associated with a vertical arrangement. For example, the past
might be described as being “up” and the future as being “down.” It turns out that these
differences in language translate into differences in performance on cognitive tests
designed to measure how quickly an individual can recognise temporal relationships.
Specifically, when given a series of tasks with vertical priming, Mandarin Chinese speakers
were faster at recognising temporal relationships between months. Indeed, Boroditsky
(2001) sees these results as suggesting that “habits in language encourage habits in
thought”.
A recent review of research aimed at determining how language might affect something like
colour perception suggests that language can influence perceptual phenomena, especially
in the left hemisphere of the brain. The left hemisphere is associated with language for most
people. However, the right (less linguistic hemisphere) of the brain is less affected by
linguistic influences on perception (Regier & Kay, 2009).
5.3 Problem Solving
People face problems every day — usually, multiple problems throughout the day.
Sometimes these problems are straightforward: To double a recipe for pizza dough, for
example, all that is required is that each ingredient in the recipe be doubled. Sometimes,
however, the problems we encounter are more complex. For example, say you have a work
deadline, and you must mail a printed copy of a report to your supervisor by the end of the
business day. The report is time-sensitive and must be sent overnight. You finished the
report last night, but your printer will not work today. Except panicking, what should you do?
First, you need to identify the problem with the printer and then apply a strategy for solving
the problem.
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PROBLEM-SOLVING STRATEGIES
When you are presented with a problem — whether it is a complex mathematical problem
or a broken printer – how do you solve it? Before finding a solution to the problem, the
problem must first be clearly identified. After that, one of many problem-solving strategies
can be applied, hopefully resulting in a solution.
A problem-solving strategy is a plan of action used to find a solution. Different strategies

have different action plans associated with them (Table 5.2).
Table 5.2
Problem-Solving strategies
For example, a well-known strategy is trial and error. The old adage, “If at first you don’t
succeed, try, try again” describes trial and error. In terms of your broken printer, you could
try checking the ink levels, and if that doesn’t work, you could check to make sure the paper
tray isn’t jammed. Or maybe the printer isn’t actually connected to your laptop. When using
trial and error, you would continue to try different solutions until you have solved your
problem. Although trial and error are not typically one of the most time-efficient strategies,
it is a commonly used one.
Another type of strategy is an algorithm. An algorithm is a problem-solving formula that

provides you with step-by-step instructions used to achieve a desired outcome (Kahneman,
2011). You can think of an algorithm as a recipe with highly detailed instructions that
produce the same result every time they are performed. Algorithms are used frequently in
our everyday lives, especially in computer science. When you run a search on the internet,
search engines like Google use algorithms to decide which entries will appear first in your
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list of results. Facebook also uses algorithms to decide which posts to display on your
newsfeed. Can you identify other situations in which algorithms are used?
A heuristic is another type of problem-solving strategy. While an algorithm must be followed

exactly to produce a correct result, a heuristic is a general problem-solving framework
(Tversky & Kahneman,1974). You can think of these as mental shortcuts that are used to
solve problems. A “rule of thumb” is an example of a heuristic. Such a rule saves the person
time and energy when deciding, but despite its time-saving characteristics, it is not always
the best method for making a rational decision. Different types of heuristics are used in
different types of situations, but the impulse to use a heuristic occurs when one of five
conditions is met (Pratkanis, 1989):
• When one is faced with too much information
• When the time to decide is limited
• When the decision to be made is unimportant
• When there is access to very little information to use in making the decision
• When an appropriate heuristic happens to come to mind in the same moment
Working backwards is a useful heuristic in which you begin solving the problem by
focusing on the end result. Consider this example: You live in Johannesburg. and have been
invited to a wedding at 16:00 on Friday in Pretoria. Knowing that N1 tends to back up any
day of the week, you need to plan your route and time your departure accordingly. If you
want to be at the wedding service by 15:30, and it takes one hour to get to Pretoria without
traffic, what time should you leave your house? You use the working backwards heuristic to
plan the events of your day on a regular basis, probably without even thinking about it.
Another useful heuristic is the practice of accomplishing a large goal or task by breaking it
down into a series of smaller steps. Students often use this common method to complete a
large research project. For example, students typically brainstorm, develop a thesis or main
topic, research the chosen topic, organise their information into an outline, write a rough
draft, revise, and edit the rough draft, develop a final draft, organise the reference list, and
proofread their work before turning in the project. The large task becomes less
overwhelming when it is broken down into a series of small steps.
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ACTIVITY
Solving puzzles
Problem-solving abilities can improve with practice. Many people challenge themselves
every day with puzzles and other mental exercises to sharpen their problem-solving skills.
Sudoku puzzles appear daily in most newspapers. Typically, a sudoku puzzle is a 9×9 grid.
The simple sudoku below (Figure 5.6) is a 4×4 grid. To solve the puzzle, fill in the empty
boxes with a single digit, either 1, 2, 3, or 4. Here are the rules: The numbers must total 10
in each bolded box, each row, and each column; however, each digit can only appear once
in a bolded box, row, and column. Time yourself as you solve this puzzle and compare your
time with that of a classmate.
Figure 5.6
Puzzles
Below the Sudoku puzzle in Figure 5.6 there is another popular type of puzzle that
challenges your spatial reasoning skills. Connect all nine dots with four connecting straight
lines without lifting your pencil from the paper: How long did it take you to solve these
puzzles? Once you understand how to crack this puzzle, you won’t forget (You can see the
answer at the end of this section).
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Take a look at the “Puzzling Scales” logic puzzle below (Figure 5.7). Sam Loyd, a well-
known puzzle master, created and refined countless puzzles throughout his lifetime
(Cyclopedia of Puzzles, n.d.).
Figure 5.7
Figure 5.7 What steps did you take to solve this puzzle? You can read the solution at the
end of this section.
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PITFALLS TO PROBLEM SOLVING
Not all problems are successfully solved. What challenges and stops us from successfully
solving a problem? Albert Einstein once said, “Insanity is doing the same thing over and
over again and expecting a different result.” Imagine a person in a room that has four
doorways. One doorway that has always been open in the past is now locked. The person,
accustomed to exiting the room by that particular doorway, keeps trying to get out through
the same doorway even though the other three doorways are open. The person is stuck—
but she/he/they just needs to go to another doorway, instead of trying to get out through the
locked doorway. A mental set is where you persist in approaching a problem in a way that
has worked in the past but is clearly not working now.
Functional fixedness is a type of mental set where you cannot perceive an object being
used for something other than what it was designed for. During the Apollo 13 mission to the
moon, NASA engineers at Mission Control had to overcome functional fixedness to save
the lives of the astronauts aboard the spacecraft. An explosion in a module of the spacecraft
damaged multiple systems. The astronauts were in danger of being poisoned by rising
levels of carbon dioxide because of problems with the carbon dioxide filters. The engineers
found a way for the astronauts to use spare plastic bags, tape, and air hoses to create a
makeshift air filter, which saved the lives of the astronauts.
Researchers have investigated whether functional fixedness is affected by culture. In one

experiment, individuals from the Shuar group in Ecuador were asked to use an object for a
purpose other than that for which the object was originally intended. For example, the
participants were told a story about a bear and a rabbit that were separated by a river and
asked to select among various objects, including a spoon, a cup, erasers, and so on, to help
the animals. The spoon was the only object long enough to span the imaginary river, but if
the spoon was presented in a way that reflected its normal usage, it took participants longer
to choose the spoon to solve the problem. (German & Barrett, 2005). The researchers
wanted to know if exposure to highly specialised tools, as occurs with individuals in
industrialised nations, affects their ability to transcend functional fixedness. It was
determined that functional fixedness is experienced in both industrialised and non-
industrialised cultures (German & Barrett, 2005).
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In order to make good decisions, we use our knowledge and our reasoning. Often, this
knowledge and reasoning are sound and solid. Sometimes, however, we are swayed by
biases or by others manipulating a situation. For example, let’s say you want to rent a house
with a budget of R4 500.00. The realtor shows you only very run-down houses for R2 000.00
and then shows you a very nice house for R5 000.00. Would you pay more in rent to get
the R5 000.00 home? Why would the realtor show you the run-down houses and then the
nice house? The realtor may be challenging your anchoring bias. An anchoring bias occurs
when you focus on one piece of information when deciding or solving a problem. In this
case, you are so focused on the amount of money you are willing to spend that you may
not recognise what kinds of houses are available at your budgeted amount.
The confirmation bias is the tendency to focus on information that confirms your existing
beliefs. For example, if you think that your professor is not very nice, you notice all of the
instances of rude behaviour exhibited by the professor, while ignoring the countless
pleasant interactions he is involved in on a daily basis. Hindsight bias leads you to believe
that the event you just experienced was predictable, even though it really wasn’t. In other
words, you knew all along those things would turn out the way they did. Representative
bias describes a faulty way of thinking, in which you unintentionally stereotype someone or
something; for example, you may assume that your professors spend their free time reading
books and engaging in intellectual conversation, because the idea of them spending their
time playing soccer or visiting clubs does not fit in with your stereotypes of professors.
Finally, the availability heuristic is a heuristic in which you make a decision based on an
example, information, or recent experience that is that readily available to you, even though
it may not be the best example to inform your decision. Biases tend to “preserve that which
is already established — to maintain our pre-existing knowledge, beliefs, attitudes, and
hypotheses” (Aronson, 1995; Kahneman, 2011). These biases are summarised in Table
5.3.
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Table 5.3
Summary of decision biases
Were you able to determine how many marbles are needed to balance the scales in Figure
5.7? You need nine. Were you able to solve the problems in Figure 5.6?
5.4 What are Intelligence and Creativity?
A four-and-a-half-year-old boy sits at the kitchen table with his father, who is reading a new
story aloud to him. He turns the page to continue reading, but before he can begin, the boy
says, “Wait, Daddy!” He points to the words on the new page and reads aloud, “Go, Pig!
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Go!” The father stops and looks at his son. “Can you read that?” he asks. “Yes, Daddy!”
And he points to the words and reads again, “Go, Pig! Go!”
This father was not actively teaching his son to read, even though the child constantly asked
questions about letters, words, and symbols that they saw everywhere: in the car, in the
store, on the television. The dad wondered about what else his son might understand and
decided to try an experiment. Grabbing a sheet of blank paper, he wrote several simple
words in a list: mom, dad, dog, bird, bed, truck, car, tree. He put the list down in front of the
boy and asked him to read the words. “Mom, dad, dog, bird, bed, truck, car, tree,” he read,
slowing down to carefully pronounce bird and truck. Then, “Did I do it, Daddy?” “You sure
did! That is very good.” The father gave his little boy a warm hug and continued reading the
story about the pig, all the while wondering if his son’s abilities were an indication of
exceptional intelligence or simply a normal pattern of linguistic development. Like the father
in this example, psychologists have also wondered what constitutes intelligence and how it
can be measured.
CLASSIFYING INTELLIGENCE
What exactly is intelligence? The way in which researchers have defined the concept of
intelligence has been modified many times since the birth of psychology. British
psychologist Charles Spearman believed intelligence consisted of one general factor, called
g, which could be measured and compared among individuals. Spearman focused on the
commonalities among various intellectual abilities and emphasised what made each unique.
Long before modern psychology developed, however, ancient philosophers, such as
Aristotle, held a similar view (Cianciolo & Sternberg, 2004).
Some psychologists believe that instead of a single factor, intelligence is a collection of

distinct abilities. In the 1940s, Raymond Cattell proposed a theory of intelligence that divided
general intelligence into two components: crystallised intelligence and fluid intelligence
(Cattell, 1963). Crystallised intelligence is characterised as acquired knowledge and the
ability to retrieve it. When you learn, remember and recall information, you are using
crystallised intelligence. You use crystallised intelligence all the time in your coursework by
demonstrating that you have mastered the information covered in the course. Fluid
intelligence encompasses the ability to see complex relationships and solve problems.
Navigating your way home after being detoured onto an unfamiliar route because of road
construction would draw upon your fluid intelligence. Fluid intelligence helps you tackle
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complex, abstract challenges in your daily life, whereas crystallised intelligence helps you
overcome concrete, straightforward problems (Cattell, 1963).
Other theorists and psychologists believe that intelligence should be defined in more
practical terms. For example, what types of behaviour help you get ahead in life? Which
skills promote success? Think about this for a moment. Being able to recall word for word
all the words of a book that you recently read is an excellent party trick, but will doing this
make you a better person?
Robert Sternberg developed another theory of intelligence, which he titled the triarchic
theory of intelligence because it sees intelligence as comprised of three parts (Sternberg,
1988): practical, creative, and analytical intelligence (Figure 5.10).
Figure 5.10 Sternberg’s theory identifies three types of intelligence: practical, creative, and
analytical.
Practical intelligence, as proposed by Sternberg, is sometimes compared to “street

smarts.” Being practical means that you find solutions that work in your everyday life by
applying knowledge based on your experiences. This type of intelligence appears to be
separate from the traditional understanding of IQ; individuals who score high in practical
intelligence may or may not have comparable scores in creative and analytical intelligence
(Sternberg, 1988).
Analytical intelligence is closely aligned with academic problem solving and computations.
Sternberg says that analytical intelligence is demonstrated by an ability to analyse, evaluate,
judge, compare, and contrast. When reading a classic novel for literature class, for example,
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it is usually necessary to compare the motives of the main characters of the book or analyse
the historical context of the story. In a science course such as anatomy, you must study the
processes by which the body uses various minerals in different human systems. In
developing an understanding of this topic, you are using analytical intelligence. When
solving a challenging math problem, you would apply analytical intelligence to analyse
different aspects of the problem and then solve it section by section.
Creative intelligence is marked by inventing or imagining a solution to a problem or

situation. Creativity in this realm can include finding a novel solution to an unexpected
problem or producing a beautiful work of art or a well-developed short story. Imagine for a
moment that you are camping in the woods with some friends and realise that you’ve
forgotten your camp coffee pot. The person in your group who figures out a way to
successfully brew coffee for everyone would be credited as having higher creative
intelligence.
Multiple Intelligences Theory was developed by Howard Gardner, a Harvard psychologist

and former student of Erik Erikson. Gardner’s theory, which has been refined for more than
30 years, is a more recent development among theories of intelligence. In Gardner’s theory,
each person possesses at least eight intelligences. Among these eight intelligences, a
person typically excels in some and falters in others.
Table 5.4 describes each type of intelligence. (Gardner, 1983)
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Gardner’s theory is relatively new and needs additional research to better establish
empirical support. At the same time, his ideas challenge the traditional idea of intelligence
to include a wider variety of abilities, although it has been suggested that Gardner simply
re-labelled what other theorists called “cognitive styles” as “intelligences” (Morgan, 1996).
Furthermore, developing traditional measures of Gardner’s intelligences is extremely
difficult (Furnham, 2009; Gardner & Moran, 2006; Klein, 1997).
Gardner’s inter- and intrapersonal intelligences are often combined into a single type:
emotional intelligence. Emotional intelligence encompasses the ability to understand the
emotions of yourself and others, show empathy, understand social relationships and cues,
and regulate your own emotions and respond in culturally appropriate ways (Parker,
Saklofske, & Stough, 2009). People with high emotional intelligence typically have well-
developed social skills. Some researchers, including Daniel Goleman, the author of
Emotional Intelligence: Why It Can Matter More than IQ, argue that emotional intelligence
is a better predictor of success than traditional intelligence (Goleman, 1995). However,
emotional intelligence has been widely debated, with researchers pointing out
inconsistencies in how it is defined and described, as well as questioning results of studies
on a subject that is difficulty to measure and study empirically (Locke, 2005; Mayer, Salovey,
& Caruso, 2004).
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Intelligence can also have different meanings and values in different cultures. If you live on
a small island where most people get their food by fishing from boats, it would be important
to know how to fish and how to repair a boat. If you were an exceptional angler, your peers
would probably consider you to be intelligent. If you were also skilled at repairing boats,
your intelligence might be known across the whole island. Think about your own family’s
culture. What values are important for your culture and how would these differ for other
cultures?
Some cultures place a high value on working together as a collective. In these cultures, the
importance of the group supersedes the importance of individual achievement. Suppose
you come from a more individualistic culture: how well you relate to the values of that culture
exemplifies your cultural intelligence, sometimes referred to as cultural competence.
CREATIVITY
Creativity is the ability to generate, create, or discover new ideas, solutions, and
possibilities. Very creative people often have intense knowledge about something, work on
it for years, look at novel solutions, seek out the advice and help of other experts, and take
risks. Although creativity is often associated with the arts, it is actually a vital form of
intelligence that drives people in many disciplines to discover something new. Creativity can
be found in every area of life; from the way you decorate your residence to a new way of
understanding how a cell works.
Creativity is often assessed as a function of one’s ability to engage in divergent thinking.

Divergent thinking can be described as thinking “outside the box;” it allows an individual to
arrive at unique, multiple solutions to a given problem. In contrast, convergent thinking
describes the ability to provide a correct or well-established answer or solution to a problem
(Cropley, 2006; Gilford, 1967).
5.5 The Source of Intelligence
A young girl, born of teenage parents, lives with her grandmother in rural Mississippi. They
are poor — living in serious poverty — but they do their best to get by with what they have.
She learns to read when she is just three years old. As she grows older, she longs to live
with her mother, who now resides in Wisconsin. She moves there at the age of six years.
At nine years of age, she is raped. During the next several years, several different male
relatives repeatedly molest her. Her life unravels. She turns to drugs and sex to fill the deep,
lonely void inside her. Her mother then sends her to Nashville to live with her father, who
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imposes strict behavioural expectations upon her, and over time, her wildlife settles down
once again. She begins to experience success in school, and at 19 years old, becomes the
youngest and first African American female news anchor (“Dates and Events,” n.d.). The
woman — Oprah Winfrey — goes on to become a media giant known for both her
intelligence and her empathy.
HIGH INTELLIGENCE: NATURE OR NURTURE
Where does high intelligence come from? Some researchers believe that intelligence is a
trait inherited from a person’s parents. Scientists who research this topic, typically use twin
studies to determine the heritability of intelligence. The Minnesota Study of Twins Reared
Apart is one of the most well-known twin studies. In this investigation, researchers found
that identical twins raised together, and identical twins raised apart exhibit a higher
correlation between their IQ scores than siblings or fraternal twins raised together
(Bouchard, Lykken, McGue, Segal, & Tellegen, 1990). The findings from this study reveal
a genetic component to intelligence (Figure 5.11). At the same time, other psychologists
believe that intelligence is shaped by a child’s developmental environment. If parents were
to provide their children with intellectual stimuli from before they are born, it is likely that
they would absorb the benefits of that stimulation, and it would be reflected in intelligence
levels.
Figure 5.11 The correlations of IQs of unrelated versus related persons reared apart or
together suggest a genetic component to intelligence.
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The reality is that aspects of each idea are probably correct. In fact, one study suggests that
although genetics seem to be in control of the level of intelligence, the environmental
influences provide both stability and change to trigger manifestation of cognitive abilities
(Bartels, Rietveld, Van Baal, & Boomsma,2002). Certainly, there are behaviours that
support the development of intelligence, but the genetic component of high intelligence
should not be ignored. As with all heritable traits, however, it is not always possible to isolate
how and when high intelligence is passed on to the next generation.
Range of Reaction is the theory that each person responds to the environment in a unique
way based on his or her genetic makeup. According to this idea, your genetic potential is a
fixed quantity, but whether or not you reach your full intellectual potential is dependent upon
the environmental stimulation you experience, especially in childhood. Think about this
scenario: A couple adopts a child who has average genetic intellectual potential. They raise
her in an extremely stimulating environment. What will happen to this couple’s new
daughter? It is likely that the stimulating environment will improve her intellectual outcomes
over the course of her life. But what happens if this experiment is reversed? If a child with
an extremely strong genetic background is placed in an environment that does not stimulate
him or her, what happens? Interestingly, according to a longitudinal study of highly gifted
individuals, it was found that “the two extremes of optimal and pathological experience are
both represented disproportionately in the backgrounds of creative individuals”; however,
those who experienced supportive family environments were more likely to report being
happy (Csikszentmihalyi & Csikszentmihalyi, 1993, p. 187).
Another challenge to determining the origins of high intelligence is the confounding nature
of our human social structures. It is troubling to note that some ethnic groups perform better
on IQ tests than others — and it is likely that the results do not have much to do with the
quality of each ethnic group’s intellect. The same is true for socioeconomic status. Children
who live in poverty experience more pervasive, daily stress than children who do not worry
about the basic needs of safety, shelter, and food. These worries can negatively affect how
the brain functions and develops, causing a dip in IQ scores. Mark Kishiyama and his
colleagues determined that children living in poverty demonstrated reduced prefrontal brain
functioning, comparable to children with damage to the lateral prefrontal cortex (Kishyama,
Boyce, Jimenez, Perry, & Knight, 2009).
The debate around the foundations and influences on intelligence exploded in 1969, when
an educational psychologist named Arthur Jensen published the article “How Much Can We
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Boost I.Q. and Achievement” in the Harvard Educational Review. Jensen had administered
IQ tests to diverse groups of students, and his results led him to the conclusion that IQ is
determined by genetics. He also posited that intelligence was made up of two types of
abilities: Level I and Level II. In his theory, Level I is responsible for rote memorisation,
whereas Level II is responsible for conceptual and analytical abilities. According to his
findings, Level I remained consistent among the human race. Level II, however, exhibited
differences among ethnic groups (Modgil & Routledge, 1987). Jensen’s most controversial
conclusion was that Level II intelligence is prevalent among Asians, then Caucasians, then
African Americans. Robert Williams was among those who called out racial bias in Jensen’s
results (Williams, 1970).
Obviously, Jensen’s interpretation of his own data caused an intense response in a nation
that continued to grapple with the effects of racism (Fox, 2012). However, Jensen’s ideas
were not solitary or unique; rather, they represented one of many examples of psychologists
asserting racial differences in IQ and cognitive ability. In fact, Rushton, and Jensen (2005)
reviewed three decades worth of research on the relationship between race and cognitive
ability. Jensen’s belief in the inherited nature of intelligence and the validity of the IQ test to
be the truest measure of intelligence are at the core of his conclusions. If, however, you
believe that intelligence is more than Levels I and II, or that IQ tests do not control for
socioeconomic and cultural differences among people, then perhaps you can dismiss
Jensen’s conclusions as a single window that looks out on the complicated and varied
landscape of human intelligence.
In a related story, parents of African American students filed a case against the State of
California in 1979, because they believed that the testing method used to identify students
with learning disabilities was culturally unfair as the tests were normed and standardised
using white children (Larry P v Riles). The testing method used by the state
disproportionately identified African American children as mentally retarded, which resulted
in many students being incorrectly classified as “mentally retarded.” According to a
summary of the case, Larry P. v. Riles:
In violation of Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, the Rehabilitation Act of 1973, and
the Education for All Handicapped Children Act of 1975, defendants have utilized
standardized intelligence tests that are racially and culturally biased, have a discriminatory
impact against black children, and have not been validated for the purpose of essentially
permanent placements of black children into educationally dead-end, isolated, and
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stigmatizing classes for the so- called educable mentally retarded. Further, these federal
laws have been violated by defendants' general use of placement mechanisms that, taken
together, have not been validated and result in a large over-representation of black children
in the special E.M.R. classes. (Larry P. v. Riles, par.6). The limitations of intelligence testing
were once more revealed.
PSYCHOMETRIC TESTING IN SOUTH AFRICA
Within the South African context with its history of discrimination, psychological assessment
is a controversial issue. South African tests were developed in a context of unequal
distribution of resources as a result of the apartheid policies (Laher & Cockcroft, 2013).
Assessment practices were used to justify exploitation of black labour and to deny black
people access to education and economic resources and educational opportunities. After
the first democratic election in 1994, South Africa experienced a rapid transformation in all
spheres of society (Laher & Cockcroft, 2013). It became vital that the past inequalities be
redressed, and a way forward be found. At the turn of the millennium, South African
psychologists were more aware than ever of the need to create tests or use pre-existing
tests in a fair and unbiased manner. This shift was legislated in Section 8 of the Employment
Equity Act No 55 of 1998 (Laher & Cockcroft, 2013).
According to the Employment Equity Act as originally passed, limitations were placed on
the use of psychometric testing in occupational settings in South Africa. The Act specified
in section 8 that psychometric tests and related techniques need to have certain properties
before they can be used legally to assess persons for jobs in South Africa. These are:
• Tests must be reliable.
• Tests must be valid.
• Tests may not discriminate unfairly against any individual or group.
• It must be possible to use them fairly.
A test which is on the list of classified tests developed with South African norms is the
Learning Potential Computerised Adaptive Test (LPCAT). This test was developed in South
Africa with a view to providing information on the present and potential future level of general
non-verbal reasoning ability of persons from different backgrounds in a way that is fair to all
concerned. Multicultural samples were used in its development and standardisation,
addressing many of the earlier measurement problems in the assessment of learning
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potential. This made possible the construction of a psychometrically sound, yet time-efficient
and practically useful tool for the measurement of learning potential in multicultural contexts.
WHAT ARE LEARNING DISABILITIES
Learning disabilities are cognitive disorders that affect different areas of cognition,
particularly language or reading. It should be pointed out that learning disabilities are not
the same thing as intellectual disabilities. Learning disabilities are considered specific
neurological impairments rather than global intellectual or developmental disabilities. A
person with a language disability has difficulty understanding or using spoken language,
whereas someone with a reading disability, such as dyslexia, has difficulty processing what
he or she is reading.
Often, learning disabilities are not recognised until a child reaches school age. One
confounding aspect of learning disabilities is that they often affect children with average to
above-average intelligence. At the same time, learning disabilities tend to exhibit
comorbidity with other disorders, like attention- deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).
Anywhere between 30–70% of individuals with diagnosed cases of ADHD also have some
sort of learning disability (Riccio, Gonzales, & Hynd, 1994). Let’s take a look at two
examples of common learning disabilities: dysgraphia and dyslexia.
Dysgraphia
Children with dysgraphia have a learning disability that results in a struggle to write legibly.
The physical task of writing with a pen and paper is extremely challenging for the person.
These children often have extreme difficulty putting their thoughts down on paper (Smits-
Engelsman & Van Galen, 1997). This difficulty is inconsistent with a person’s IQ. That is,
based on the child’s IQ and/or abilities in other areas, a child with dysgraphia should be able
to write, but can’t. Children with dysgraphia may also have problems with spatial abilities.
Students with dysgraphia need academic accommodations to help them succeed in

school. These accommodations can provide students with alternative assessment
opportunities to demonstrate what they know (Barton, 2003). For example, a student with
dysgraphia might be permitted to take an oral exam rather than a traditional paper-and-
pencil test. Treatment is usually provided by an occupational therapist, although there is
some question as to how effective such treatment is (Zwicker, 2005).
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Dyslexia
Dyslexia is the most common learning disability in children. An individual with dyslexia
exhibits an inability to correctly process letters. The neurological mechanism for sound
processing does not work properly in someone with dyslexia. As a result, dyslexic children
may not understand sound-letter correspondence. A child with dyslexia may mix up letters
within words and sentences — letter reversals, such as those shown in Figure 5.12, are a
hallmark of this learning disability — or skip whole words while reading.
Figure 5.12 These written words show variations of the word “teapot” as written by
individuals with dyslexia.
A dyslexic child may have difficulty spelling words correctly while writing. Because of the
disordered way that the brain processes letters and sound, learning to read is a frustrating
experience. Some dyslexic individuals cope by memorising the shapes of most words, but
they never actually learn to read (Berninger, 2008).
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Memory
Figure 5.13 Photographs can trigger our memories and bring past experiences back to life.
(Credit: modification of work by Cory Zanker)
Lesson Outline
5.6 How memory functions
5.7 Parts of the brain involved with memory
5.8 Problems with memory
5.9 Ways to enhance memory
Introduction
We may be top-notch learners, but if we don’t have a way to store what we’ve learned, what
good is the knowledge we’ve gained? Take a few minutes to imagine what your day might
be like if you could not remember anything you had learned. You would have to figure out
how to get dressed. What clothing should you wear, and how do buttons and zippers work?
You would need someone to teach you how to brush your teeth and tie your shoes.
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Who would you ask for help with these tasks, since you wouldn’t recognise the faces of
these people in your house? Wait . . . is this even your house? Uh oh, your stomach begins
to rumble, and you feel hungry. You’d like something to eat, but you don’t know where the
food is kept or even how to prepare it. Oh dear, this is getting confusing. Maybe it would be
best to just go back to bed. A bed . . . what is a bed?
We have an amazing capacity for memory, but how, exactly, do we process and store
information? Are there different kinds of memory, and if so, what characterises the different
types? How, exactly, do we retrieve our memories? And why do we forget? This lesson will
explore these questions as we learn about memory.
5.6 How Memory Functions
Memory is an information processing system; therefore, we often compare it to a computer.

Memory is the set of processes used to encode, store, and retrieve information over
different periods of time (Figure 5.14).
Figure 5.14 Encoding involves the input of information into the memory system. Storage is
the retention of the encoded information. Retrieval, or getting the information out of memory
and back into awareness, is the third function.
ENCODING
We get information into our brains through a process called encoding, which is the input of
information into the memory system. Once we receive sensory information from the
environment, our brains label or code it. We organise the information with other similar
information and connect new concepts to existing concepts. Encoding information occurs
through automatic processing and effortful processing.
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If someone asks you what you ate for lunch today, more than likely you could recall this
information quite easily. This is known as automatic processing, or the encoding of details
like time, space, frequency, and the meaning of words. Automatic processing is usually
done without any conscious awareness. Recalling the last time, you studied for a test is
another example of automatic processing. But what about the actual test material you
studied? It probably required a lot of work and attention on your part in order to encode that
information. This is known as effortful processing (Figure 5.15).
Figure 5.15 When you first learn new skills such as driving a car, you have to put forth effort
and attention to encode information about how to start a car, how to brake, how to handle
a turn, and so on. Once you know how to drive, you can encode additional information about
this skill automatically. (Credit: Robert Couse-Baker)
There are three types of encoding. The encoding of words and their meaning is known as
semantic encoding. It was first demonstrated by William Bousfield (1935) in an experiment
in which he asked people to memorise words. The 60 words were actually divided into four
categories of meaning, although the participants did not know this because the words were
randomly presented. When they were asked to remember the words, they tended to recall
them in categories, showing that they paid attention to the meanings of the words as they
learned them.
Visual encoding is the encoding of images, and acoustic encoding is the encoding of
sounds, words in particular. To see how visual encoding works, read over this list of words:
car, level, dog, truth, book, value. If you were asked later to recall the words from this list,
which ones do you think you’d most likely remember? You would probably have an easier
time recalling the words car, dog, and book, and a more difficult time recalling the words
level, truth, and value. Why is this? Because you can recall images (mental pictures) more
easily than words alone. When you read the words car, dog, and book you created images
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of these things in your mind. These are concrete, high-imagery words. On the other hand,
abstract words like level, truth, and value are low-imagery words. High-imagery words are
encoded both visually and semantically (Paivio, 1986), thus building a stronger memory.
Now let’s turn our attention to acoustic encoding. You are driving in your car or making use
of public transport and a song comes on the radio that you haven’t heard in at least 10
years, but you sing along, recalling every word. In South Africa, children at crèche often
learn the alphabet through song. These lessons are easy to remember because of acoustic
encoding. We encode the sounds the words make. This is one of the reasons why much of
what we teach young children is done through song, rhyme, and rhythm.
Which of the three types of encoding do you think would give you the best memory of verbal
information? Some years ago, psychologists Fergus Craik and Endel Tulving (1975)
conducted a series of experiments to find out. Participants were given words along with
questions about them. The questions required the participants to process the words at one
of the three levels. The visual processing questions included such things as asking the
participants about the font of the letters. The acoustic processing questions asked the
participants about the sound or rhyming of the words, and the semantic processing
questions asked the participants about the meaning of the words. After participants were
presented with the words and questions, they were given an unexpected recall or
recognition task.
Words that had been encoded semantically were better remembered than those encoded
visually or acoustically. Semantic encoding involves a deeper level of processing than the
shallower visual or acoustic encoding. Craik and Tulving concluded that we process verbal
information best through semantic encoding, especially if we apply what is called the self-
reference effect. The self-reference effect is the tendency for an individual to have better
memory for information that relates to oneself in comparison to material that has less
personal relevance (Rogers, Kuiper & Kirker, 1977). Could semantic encoding be beneficial
to you as you attempt to memorise the concepts in this lesson?
STORAGE
Once the information has been encoded, we have to somehow have to retain it. Our brains
take the encoded information and place it in storage. Storage is the creation of a permanent
record of information.
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In order for a memory to go into storage (i.e., long-term memory), it has to pass through
three distinct stages: Sensory Memory, Short-Term Memory, and finally Long-Term
Memory. These stages were first proposed by Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin (1968).
Their model of human memory (Figure 5.16), called Atkinson-Shiffrin (A-S), is based on the
belief that we process memories in the same way that a computer processes information.
Figure 5.16 According to the Atkinson-Shiffrin model of memory, information passes

through three distinct stages in order for it to be stored in long-term memory.
But A-S is just one model of memory. Others, such as Baddeley and Hitch (1974), have
proposed a model where short-term memory itself has different forms. In this model, storing
memories in short-term memory is like opening different files on a computer and adding
information. The type of short-term memory (or computer file) depends on the type of
information received. There are memories in visual- spatial form, as well as memories of
spoken or written material, and they are stored in three short-term systems: a visuospatial
sketchpad, an episodic buffer, and a phonological loop. According to Baddeley and Hitch,
a central executive part of memory supervises or controls the flow of information to and from
the three short-term systems.
Sensory Memory
In the Atkinson-Shiffrin model, stimuli from the environment are processed first in sensory
memory: storage of brief sensory events, such as sights, sounds, and tastes. It is very brief
storage — up to a couple of seconds. We are constantly bombarded with sensory
information. We cannot absorb all of it, or even most of it. And most of it has no impact on
our lives. For example, what was your colleague wearing at the last meeting you attended
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together? As long as the colleague was dressed appropriately, it does not really matter what
they were was wearing. Sensory information about sights, sounds, smells, and even
textures, which we do not view as valuable information, we discard. If we view something
as valuable, the information will move into our short-term memory system.
Short-Term Memory
Short-term memory (STM) is a temporary storage system that processes incoming

sensory memory; sometimes it is called working memory. Short-term memory takes
information from sensory memory and sometimes connects that memory to something
already in long-term memory. Short-term memory storage lasts about 20 seconds. George
Miller (1956), in his research on the capacity of memory, found that most people can retain
about 7 items in STM. Some remember 5, some 9, so he called the capacity of STM 7 plus
or minus 2.
Think of short-term memory as the information you have displayed on your computer
screen — a document, a spreadsheet, or a web page. Then, information in short-term
memory goes to long-term memory (you save it to your hard drive), or it is discarded (you
delete a document or close a web browser). This step of rehearsal, the conscious repetition
of information to be remembered, to move STM into long-term memory is called memory
consolidation.
Activity
You may find yourself asking, “How much information can our memory handle at once?” To
explore the capacity and duration of your short-term memory, have a partner read the strings
of random numbers (Figure 5.17) out loud to you, beginning each string by saying, “ready?”
and ending each by saying, “recall,” at which point you should try to write down the string of
numbers from memory.
Figure 5.17 Work through this series of numbers using the recall exercise explained above
to determine the longest string of digits that you can store.
Note the longest string at which you got the series correct. For most people, this will be
close to 7, Miller’s famous 7 plus or minus 2. Recall is somewhat better for random numbers
36
than for random letters (Jacobs,1887), and also often slightly better for information we hear
(acoustic encoding) rather than see (visual encoding) (Anderson, 1969).
Long-term memory
Long-term memory (LTM) is the continuous storage of information. Unlike short-term

memory, the storage capacity of LTM has no limits. It encompasses all the things you can
remember that happened more than just a few minutes ago to all of the things that you can
remember that happened days, weeks, and years ago. In keeping with the computer
analogy, the information in your LTM would be like the information you have saved on the
hard drive. It isn’t there on your desktop (your short-term memory), but you can pull up this
information when you want it, at least most of the time. Not all long-term memories are
strong memories. Some memories can only be recalled through prompts. For example, you
might easily recall a fact — “What is the due date for Assignment 01?”—or a procedure —
“How do you ride a bike?” — but you might struggle to recall the name of the restaurant you
had dinner at when you were on vacation last year. A prompt, such as that the restaurant
was named after its owner, who spoke to you about your shared interest, may help you
recall the name of the restaurant. Long-term memory is divided into two types: explicit and
implicit (Figure 5.18).
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Figure 5.18 There are two components of long-term memory: explicit and implicit. Explicit
memory includes episodic and semantic memory. Implicit memory includes procedural
memory and things learned through conditioning.
Understanding the different types is important because a person’s age or particular types
of brain trauma or disorders can leave certain types of LTM intact while having disastrous
consequences for other types. Explicit memories are those we consciously try to
remember and recall. For example, if you are studying for your exam in Psychological
Processes in the Work Context, the material you are learning will be part of your explicit
memory. (Note: Sometimes, but not always, the terms explicit memory and declarative
memory are used interchangeably.)
Implicit memories are memories that are not part of our consciousness. They are
memories formed from behaviours. Implicit memory is also called non-declarative memory.
Procedural memory is a type of implicit memory: it stores information about how to do

things. It is the memory for skilled actions, such as how to brush your teeth, how to drive a
car, or how to swim the crawl (freestyle) stroke. If you are learning how to swim freestyle,
you practise the stroke: how to move your arms, how to turn your head to alternate breathing
from side to side, and how to kick your legs. You would practise this many times until you
become good at it. Once you learn how to swim freestyle and your body knows how to move
through the water, you will never forget how to swim freestyle, even if you do not swim for
a couple of decades. Similarly, if you present an accomplished guitarist with a guitar, even
if he has not played in a long time, he will still be able to play quite well.
Declarative memory has to do with the storage of facts and events we personally
experienced. Explicit (declarative) memory has two parts: semantic memory and episodic
memory. Semantic means having to do with language and knowledge about language. An
example would be the question “what does argumentative mean?” Stored in our semantic
memory is knowledge about words, concepts, and language- based knowledge and facts.
For example, answers to the following questions are stored in your semantic memory:
• Who was the first democratically elected president of South Africa?
• What is democracy?
• What is the longest river in the world?
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Episodic memory is information about events we have personally experienced. The

concept of episodic memory was first proposed about 40 years ago (Tulving, 1972). Since
then, Tulving and others have looked at scientific evidence and reformulated the theory.
Currently, scientists believe that episodic memory is memory about happenings in particular
places at particular times, what, where, and when of an event (Tulving, 2002). It involves
recollection of visual imagery as well as the feeling of familiarity (Hassabis & Maguire, 2007).
ACTIVITY: EVERYDAY CONNECTION
Can You Remember Everything You Ever Did or Said?
Episodic memories are also called autobiographical memories. Let’s quickly test your
autobiographical memory. What were you wearing exactly five years ago today? What did
you eat for lunch on 10 April 2009? You probably find it difficult, if not impossible, to answer
these questions. Can you remember every event you have experienced over the course of
your life — meals, conversations, clothing choices, weather conditions, and so on? Most
likely none of us could even come close to answering these questions; however, American
actress Marilu Henner, best known for the television show Taxi, can remember. She has an
amazing and highly superior autobiographical memory. Very few people can recall events
in this way and only a few have been studied (Parker, Cahill & McGaugh 2006).
If you want to read about more people living with this condition, copy the following link into
your browser: https://www.theguardian.com/science/2017/feb/08/total-recall-the-people-
who-never-forget
RETRIEVAL
So, you have worked hard to encode (via effortful processing) and store some important
information for your upcoming final exam. How do you get that information back out of
storage when you need it? The act of getting information out of memory storage and back
into conscious awareness is known as retrieval. This would be similar to finding and
opening a document you have previously saved on your computer’s hard drive. Now it’s
back on your desktop, and you can work with it again. Our ability to retrieve information from
long-term memory is vital to our everyday functioning. You must be able to retrieve
information from memory in order to do everything: from knowing how to brush your hair
and teeth, to driving to work, to knowing how to perform your job once you get there.
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There are three ways in which you can retrieve information out of your long-term memory
storage system: recall, recognition, and relearning. Recall is what we most often think about
when we talk about memory retrieval: it means you can access information without cues.
For example, you would use recall for an essay test. Recognition happens when you
identify information that you have previously learned after encountering it again. It involves
a process of comparison. When you take a multiple-choice test, you are relying on
recognition to help you choose the correct answer. Here is another example. Let’s say you
graduated from high school ten years ago, and you have returned to your hometown for
your 10-year reunion. You may not be able to recall all of your classmates, but you recognise
many of them based on their yearbook photos.
The third form of retrieval is relearning, and it is exactly what it sounds like. It involves
learning information that you previously learned. An example would be if you had learnt to
speak French at one point in your life but lived in a country where French was not spoken
and had not spoken it for some time. If you then got a position in an organisation in the
Democratic Republic of the Congo you might find yourself relearning French, as it is a
spoken language of that country.
5.7 Problems with Memory
You may pride yourself on your amazing ability to remember the birthdates and ages of all
of your friends and family members, or you may be able recall vivid details of your fifth
birthday party. However, all of us have at times felt frustrated, and even embarrassed, when
our memories have failed us. There are several reasons why this happens.
Retrograde Amnesia
Retrograde amnesia is loss of memory of events that occurred prior to a trauma. People
with recalling remembering episodic memories. What if you woke up in the hospital one day
and there were people surrounding your bed claiming to be your spouse, your children, and
your parents? The trouble is you don’t recognise any of them. You were in a car accident,
suffered a head injury, and now have retrograde amnesia. You don’t remember anything
about your life prior to waking up in the hospital. This may sound like the stuff of Hollywood
movies, and Hollywood has been fascinated with the amnesia plot for nearly a century.
If you are a South African, you may remember the case of Marli van Breda whose family
was axed to death in 2015, leaving her and her brother surviving the attack. Despite
recovering from her injuries, she has no recollection of the attack and suffers from
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retrograde amnesia. There may be other examples in other countries or perhaps you know
a person with retrograde amnesia.
MEMORY CONSTRUCTION AND RECONSTRUCTION
The formulation of new memories is sometimes called construction, and the process of
bringing up old memories is called reconstruction. Yet as we retrieve our memories, we
also tend to alter and modify them. A memory pulled from long-term storage into short-term
memory is flexible. New events can be added, and we can change what we think we
remember about past events, resulting in inaccuracies and distortions. People may not
intend to distort facts, but it can happen in the process of retrieving old memories and
combining them with new memories (Roediger & DeSoto, in press).
Suggestibility
When someone witnesses a crime, that person’s memory of the details of the crime is very
important in catching the suspect. Because memory is so fragile, witnesses can be easily
(and often accidentally) misled due to the problem of suggestibility. Suggestibility
describes the effects of misinformation from external sources that leads to the creation of
false memories. In 2002, a sniper in the USA shot people at a gas station, leaving Home
Depot, and walking down the street. These attacks went on in a variety of places for over
three weeks and resulted in the deaths of ten people. During this time, as you can imagine,
people were terrified to leave their homes, go shopping, or even walk through their
neighbourhoods. Police officers and the FBI worked frantically to solve the crimes, and a
hotline for tip-offs was set up. Law enforcement agencies received over 140 000 tips, which
resulted in approximately 35 000 possible suspects (Newseum, n.d.).
Most of the tips were dead ends, until a white van was spotted at the site of one of the
shootings. The police chief went on national television with a picture of the white van. After
the news conference, several other eyewitnesses called to say that they too had seen a
white van fleeing from the scene of the shooting. At the time, there were more than 70 000
white vans in the area. Police officers, as well as the general public, focused almost
exclusively on white vans because they believed the eyewitnesses. Other tips were ignored.
When the suspects were finally caught, they were driving a blue sedan.
From an organisational perspective, think how organisations promoting vaccination need to

respond to the suggestion of anti-vaccine activists on social media that vaccination is
41
harmful, which increases public fear and loss in vaccine confidence (Steffens, Dunn, Wiley
& Leask, 2019)
As illustrated by these examples, we are vulnerable to the power of suggestion, simply

based on something we see on the news. Or we can claim to remember something that in
fact is only a suggestion someone made. It is the suggestion that is the cause of the false
memory.
The Misinformation Effect
Cognitive psychologist Elizabeth Loftus has conducted extensive research on memory. She
studied false memories as well as recovered memories of childhood sexual abuse. Loftus
also developed the misinformation effect paradigm, which holds that after exposure to
incorrect information, a person may misremember the original event. According to Loftus,
an eyewitness’s memory of an event is very flexible due to the misinformation effect. To test
this theory, Loftus and John Palmer (1974) asked 45 American. college students to estimate
the speed of cars using different forms of questions (Figure 5.20).
Figure 5.20 When people are asked leading questions about an event, their memory of the
event may be altered. (Credit: a modification of work by Rob Young)
The participants were shown films of car accidents and were asked to play the role of the
eyewitness and describe what happened. They were asked, “About how fast were the cars
going when they (smashed, collided, bumped, hit, contacted) each other?” The participants
estimated the speed of the cars based on the verb used.
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Participants who heard the word “smashed” estimated that the cars were traveling at a much
higher speed than participants who heard the word “contacted.” The implied information
about speed, based on the verb they heard, had an effect on the participants’ memory of
the accident. In a follow-up one week later, participants were asked if they saw any broken
glass (none was shown in the accident pictures). Participants who had been in the
“smashed” group were more than twice as likely to indicate that they did remember seeing
glass. Loftus and Palmer demonstrated that a leading question encouraged them to not only
remember the cars were going faster, but to also falsely remember that they saw broken
glass.
Controversies over represses and recovered memories.
Other researchers have described how whole events, not just words, can be falsely recalled,
even when they did not happen. The idea that memories of traumatic events could be
repressed has been a theme in the field of psychology, beginning with Sigmund Freud, and
the controversy surrounding the idea continues today.
Recall of false autobiographical memories is called false memory syndrome. This

syndrome has received a lot of publicity, particularly as it relates to memories of events that
do not have independent witnesses — often the only witnesses to the abuse are the
perpetrator and the victim (e.g., sexual abuse).
On one side of the debate are those who have recovered memories of childhood abuse
years after it occurred. These researchers argue that some children’s experiences have
been so traumatising and distressing that they must lock those memories away in order to
lead some semblance of a normal life. They believe that repressed memories can be locked
away for decades and later be recalled intact through hypnosis and guided imagery
techniques (Devilly, 2007).
Research suggests that having no memory of childhood sexual abuse is quite common in
adults. For instance, one large-scale study conducted by John Briere and Jon Conte (1993)
revealed that 59% of 450 men and women who were receiving treatment for sexual abuse
that had occurred before age 18 had forgotten their experiences. Ross Cheit (2007)
suggested that repressing these memories created psychological distress in adulthood.
The Recovered Memory Project was created so that victims of childhood sexual abuse can
recall these memories and allow the healing process to begin (Cheit, 2007; Devilly, 2007).
43
On the other side, Loftus has challenged the idea that individuals can repress memories of
traumatic events from childhood, including sexual abuse, and then recover those memories
years later through therapeutic techniques such as hypnosis, guided visualisation, and age
regression.
Loftus is not saying that childhood sexual abuse doesn’t happen, but she does question
whether or not those memories are accurate, and she is sceptical of the questioning process
used to access these memories, given that even the slightest suggestion from the therapist
can lead to misinformation effects. For example, researchers Stephen Ceci and Maggie
Brucks (1993, 1995) asked three-year-old children to use an anatomically correct doll to
show where their paediatricians had touched them during an exam. Fifty-five percent of the
children pointed to the genital/anal area on the dolls, even when they had not received any
form of genital exam.
Ever since Loftus published her first studies on the suggestibility of eyewitness testimony in
the 1970s, social scientists, police officers, therapists, and legal practitioners have been
aware of the flaws in interview practices. Consequently, steps have been taken to decrease
suggestibility of witnesses. One way is to modify how witnesses are questioned. When
interviewers use neutral and less leading language, children more accurately recall what
happened and who was involved (Goodman, 2006; Pipe, 1996; Pipe, Lamb, Orbach, &
Esplin, 2004). Another change is in how police line-ups are conducted. It’s recommended
that a blind photo line-up be used. This way the person administering the line-up does not
know which photo belongs to the suspect, thereby minimising the possibility of giving
leading cues. Additionally, judges in some states now inform jurors about the possibility of
misidentification. Judges can also suppress eyewitness testimony if they deem it unreliable.
FORGETTING
“I’ve a grand memory for forgetting,” quipped Robert Louis Stevenson. Forgetting refers
to loss of information from long-term memory. We all forget things, like a loved one’s
birthday, someone’s name, or where we put our car keys. As you’ve come to see, memory
is fragile, and forgetting can be frustrating and even embarrassing. But why do we forget?
To answer this question, we will look at several perspectives on forgetting.
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Encoding Failure
Sometimes memory loss happens before the actual memory process begins, which is
encoding failure. We can’t remember something if we never stored it in our memory in the
first place. This would be like trying to find a book on your e-reader that you never actually
purchased and downloaded. Often, in order to remember something, we must pay attention
to the details and actively work to process the information (effortful encoding). Lots of times
we don’t do this. For instance, think of how many times in your life you’ve seen a R5 coin.
Can you accurately recall what the front of the coin looks like? The reason is most likely
encoding failure. Most of us never encode the details of a R5 coin. We only encode enough
information to be able to distinguish it from other coins. If we don’t encode the information,
then it is not in our long-term memory, so we will not be able to remember it.
Memory Errors
Psychologist Daniel Schacter (2001), a well-known memory researcher, offers seven ways
in which our memories fail us. He calls them the seven sins of memory and categorises
them into three groups: forgetting, distortion, and intrusion (Table 5.5).
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Let’s look at the first sin of the forgetting errors: transience, which means that memories
can fade over time. Here’s an example of how this happens: Think of the title of a book you
read as a child. If you are able to recall the title but not the content, then you are experiencing
storage decay: unused information tends to fade with the passage of time.
In 1885, German psychologist Hermann Ebbinghaus analysed the process of memorisation.

First, he memorised lists of nonsense syllables. Then he measured how much he learned
(retained) when he attempted to relearn each list. He tested himself over different periods
of time, from 20 minutes later to 30 days later. The result is his famous forgetting curve
(Figure 5.21).
Figure 5.21 The Ebbinghaus forgetting curve shows how quickly memory for new
information decays.
Due to storage decay, an average person will lose 50% of the memorised information after
20 minutes and 70% of the information after 24 hours (Ebbinghaus, 1885/1964). Your
memory for new information decays quickly and then eventually levels out.
Are you constantly losing your cell phone? Have you ever left home and wondered if you
had closed the windows? Have you ever walked into a room to do or fetch something, but
forgotten what it was? You probably answered yes to at least one, if not all, of these
examples — but don’t worry, you are not alone. We are all prone to committing the memory
error known as absentmindedness. These lapses in memory are caused by breaks in
attention or our focus being somewhere else.
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Now let’s take a look at the three errors of distortion: misattribution, suggestibility, and bias.
Misattribution happens when you confuse the source of your information. Let’s say Frans
was dating Patience and they went to a movie together. Then they broke up and Frans saw
the sequel of the movie with someone else. Later that year, Frans and Patience get back
together. One day, they are discussing how the movies are different and Frans says to
Patience, “I loved watching the second movie with you and seeing you jump out of your seat
during that super scary part.” When Patience responded with a puzzled and then angry
look, Frans realised he had committed the error of misattribution.
The second distortion error is suggestibility. Suggestibility is similar to misattribution, since

it also involves false memories, but it is different. With misattribution you create the false
memory entirely on your own. With suggestibility, it comes from someone else, such as a
therapist or police interviewer asking leading questions of a witness during an interview.
Memories can also be affected by bias, which is the final distortion error. Schacter (2001)
says that your feelings and view of the world can actually distort your memory of past events.
There are several types of bias:
• Stereotypical bias involves racial and gender biases.
• Egocentric bias involves enhancing our memories of the past (Payne et al, 2004). Did
you really manage the project at work, or did you just assist?
• Hindsight bias happens when we think an outcome was inevitable after the fact. This is
the “I knew it all along” phenomenon. The reconstructive nature of memory contributes to
hindsight bias (Carli,1999). We remember untrue events that seem to confirm that we knew
the outcome all along.
Have you ever had a song play over and over in your head? How about a memory of a
traumatic event, something you really do not want to think about? When you keep
remembering something, to the point where you can’t “get it out of your head” and it
interferes with your ability to concentrate on other things, it is called persistence. It’s
Schacter’s seventh and last memory error. It’s actually a failure of our memory system
because we involuntarily recall unwanted memories, particularly unpleasant ones.
For instance, you witness a horrific car accident on the way to work one morning, and you
can’t concentrate on work because you keep remembering the scene.
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Interference
Sometimes information is stored in our memory, but for some reason it is inaccessible. This
is known as interference, and there are two types: proactive interference and retroactive
interference. Have you ever gotten a new phone number or moved to a new address, but
right after you tell people the old (and wrong) phone number or address? When the new
year starts, do you find you accidentally write the previous year? These are examples of
proactive interference: when old information hinders the recall of newly learned
information. Retroactive interference happens when information learned more recently
hinders the recall of older information. For example, this week you are studying cognition.
Next week you study emotion and motivation. Thereafter, you have trouble remembering
what cognition is because you can only remember the psychological processes of emotion
and motivation.
5.8 Ways to Enhance Memory
Most of us suffer from memory failures of one kind or another, and most of us would like to
improve our memories so that we don’t forget where we put the car keys or, more
importantly, the material we need to know for an exam. In this section, we’ll look at some
ways to help you remember better, and at some strategies for more effective studying.
MEMORY-ENHANCING STRATEGIES
What are some everyday ways in which we can improve our memory, including recall? To
help make sure information goes from short-term memory to long-term memory, you can
use memory-enhancing strategies. One strategy is rehearsal, or the conscious repetition
of information to be remembered (Craik & Watkins, 1973). Think about how you learned
your multiplication tables as a child. You may recall that 6 x 6 = 36, 6 x 7 = 42, and 6 x 8 =
48. Memorising these facts is called rehearsal.
Another strategy is chunking you organise information into manageable bits or chunks
(Bodie, Powers, & Fitch-Hauser, 2006). Chunking is useful when trying to remember
information like dates and phone numbers. Instead of trying to remember 094525721, you
remember the number as 09 452 5721. So, if you met an interesting person at a party and
you wanted to remember his phone number, you would naturally chunk it, and you could
repeat the number over and over, which is the rehearsal strategy. You could also enhance
memory by using elaborative rehearsal: a technique in which you think about the meaning
48
of the new information and its relation to knowledge already stored in your memory (Tigner,
1999).
Mnemonic devices are memory aids that help us organise information for encoding. They
are especially useful when we want to recall larger bits of information such as steps, stages,
phases, and parts of a system (Bellezza, 1981). It seems the more vivid or unusual the
mnemonic, the easier it is to remember. The key to using any mnemonic successfully is to
find a strategy that works for you.
Some other strategies that are used to improve memory include expressive writing and
saying words aloud. Expressive writing helps boost your short-term memory, particularly if
you write about a traumatic experience in your life. Masao Yogo and Shuji Fujihara (2008)
had participants write for 20-minute intervals several times per month. The participants were
instructed to write about a traumatic experience, their best possible future selves, or a trivial
topic. The researchers found that this simple writing task increased short-term memory
capacity after five weeks, but only for the participants who wrote about traumatic
experiences. Psychologists cannot explain why this writing task works, but it does.
HOW TO STUDY EFFECTIVELY
Based on the information presented in this lesson, here are some strategies and
suggestions to help you hone your study techniques. The key with any of these strategies
is to figure out what works best for you.
• Use elaborative rehearsal: In a famous article, Craik and Lockhart (1972) discussed
their belief that information we process more deeply goes into long-term memory. Their
theory is called levels of processing. If we want to remember a piece of information, we
should think about it more deeply and link it to other information and memories to make it
more meaningful.
• Apply the self-reference effect: As you go through the process of elaborative rehearsal,
it would be even more beneficial to make the material you are trying to memorise personally
meaningful to you. In other words, make use of the self-reference effect. Write notes in your
own words. Write definitions from the text, and then rewrite them in your own words. Relate
the material to something you have already learned for another class or think how you can
apply the concepts to your own life. When you do this, you are building a web of retrieval
cues that will help you access the material when you want to remember it.
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• Don’t forget the forgetting curve: As you know, the information you learn drops off
rapidly with time. Even if you think you know the material, study it again right before the test
to increase the likelihood the information will remain in your memory. Overlearning can help
prevent storage decay.
• Rehearse, rehearse, rehearse: Review the material over time, in spaced and organised
study sessions. Organise and study your notes and take practice quizzes/exams. Link the
new information to other information you already know well.
• Be aware of interference: To reduce the likelihood of interference, study during a quiet

time without interruptions or distractions (like television or music).
• Keep moving: Of course, you already know that exercise is good for your body, but did
you know it is also good for your mind? Research suggests that regular aerobic exercise
(anything that gets your heart rate elevated) is beneficial for memory (Van Praag, 2008).
Aerobic exercise promotes neurogenesis: the growth of new brain cells in the hippocampus,
an area of the brain known to play a role in memory and learning.
• Get enough sleep: While you are sleeping, your brain is still at work. During sleep the
brain organises and consolidates information to be stored in long-term memory (Abel &
Bäuml, 2013).
• Make use of mnemonic devices: As you learned earlier in this chapter, mnemonic
devices often help us to remember and recall information. There are different types of
mnemonic devices, such as the acronym. An acronym is a word formed by the first letter of
each of the words you want to remember.
Conclusion
This concludes your learning material for Lesson 5 you need to study. See the study guide
on myUnisa to guide you through the material.
Attribution
Psychology by OpenStax is licensed under Creative Commons Attribution License v4.0
50
Reference
Carla (2019, December 1). How do people around the world greet each other?
https://www.opodo.co.uk/blog/greetings-around-the-world/
Steffens, MS, Dunn, AG, Wiley, KE & Leask, J. 2019. How organisations promoting
vaccination respond to misinformation on social media: a qualitative investigation.
BMC Public Health (Vol. 19: 1348).
https://bmcpublichealth.biomedcentral.com/track/pdf/10.1186/s12889-019-7659-3
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5 FAMOUS SERVANT LEADERS
Servant leaders are categorized as those individuals who can lead with a primary focus, putting
the needs of other people before their own. This type of leadership usually extends beyond an
organization’s environment to reach everyone who is associated with it, such as stakeholders and
customers, with “serving others” being its typical leadership trait. Here are some of the most
famous servant leaders who provided the best examples to follow:
Martin Luther King, Jr.

King did not always want to be the leader of the Civil Rights
Movement in the US, but he just knew that there was a need for
equality. By putting other people’s needs first, he was able to
leave a legacy, which proves that anyone can make a difference
through a humble and serving perspective. Until today, some of
King’s speeches are still listened to regularly, as people see
them as having a ring of truth.
Image source: Pixabay
Nelson Mandela
Standing before his people, Mandela said that he was a humble
servant with a passion for his people and the desire to see them
enjoy equality. Sometimes, he would take his speeches to the
streets, putting his personal well-being at risk, and at other
times, he endured harsh conditions in prison just to make his
statements heard.

Mahatma Gandhi
Gandhi was bound to be dangerous when he opposed the
British ruling officials during his time, but he strongly believed
that serving others would be the best way to lose oneself. His
protests were peaceful, where he often did it through logical
discourse and fasting. Eventually, his ideas won out, freeing
India from colonialism. Even if his goal was not to become
famous, he was then widely regarded for his work.
Mother Teresa
Through her faith, Mother Teresa dedicated her life to
serving other people. Like other servant leaders, she had
her critics from time to time, but there was no one who
could question her motives behind her desire to help
others. Also, she never sought personal recognition,
though she insisted on significant changes and was not
afraid to express opinions that others would hesitate to
say. Eventually, many call her to become a saint, with a
life that many people consider as a miracle.
Albert Schweitzer
Taking his faith very literally, Schweitzer took the words of
Christ seriously and was determined to love other people as
best as he could to a point where he served in numerous ways.
At one point in his life, he and his wife catered to thousands of
patients in Africa, even having to travel hundreds of miles
sometimes just to get to one patient.
Image source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Schweitzer
SOURCE: https://futureofworking.com/5-famous-servant-leaders/
IOP1501 PSYCHOLOGICAL PROCESSES IN THE WORK AND SELF-EMPLOYMENT CONTEXT
LESSON 5: COGNITION AND MEMORY
In this section you will find:
• Introduction
• Learning outcomes
• Learning material
• Key concepts
• Sub-sections
• References
1. Introduction
Thinking is an important part of our human experience, and one that has captivated
people for centuries. Today, it is one area of psychological study.
African thinking man: Handmade metal art card by Injete
1
2. Learning outcomes
After you have studied section 5.1 of your learning material, you will be able to:
• describe cognition
• distinguish concepts and prototypes
• explain the difference between natural and artificial concepts
After you have studied section 5.2 of your learning material, you will be able to:
• define language and demonstrate familiarity with the components of language

• understand how the use of language develops
• explain the relationship between language and thinking
After you had studied section 5.3 of your learning material, you will be able to:
• describe problem-solving strategies

• define algorithm and heuristics
• explain some common roadblocks to effective problem solving
After studying section 5.4 of your learning material, you will be able to:
• define intelligence
• explain the triarchic theory of intelligence
• identify the difference between intelligence theories
• explain emotional intelligence
• describe how genetics and environment affect intelligence

• explain the relationship between IQ scores and socioeconomic status
• comment on psychometric testing in South Africa
• describe the difference between a learning disability and a developmental disorder
After studying section 5.6, of your learning material you will be able to:
• discuss the three basic functions of memory

• describe the three stages of memory storage
2
• describe and distinguish between procedural and declarative memory and

semantic and episodic memory
• describe retrograde amnesia

• discuss suggestibility
• discuss encoding failure
• discuss the various memory errors
• compare and contrast two types of interference
• recognise and apply memory-enhancing strategies

• recognise and apply effective study techniques
3. Learning material
Open the PDF document (OER), on the myUnisa site under Section 2, Individual
Psychological Processes @ work. Lesson 5 Cognition and Memory, which is the
learning material for Lesson 5. You need to study this document, and the content of
Lesson 5 in detail, to reach the learning outcomes this Lesson.
4. Key concepts
Find the key concepts on the myUnisa site under Section 2, Individual Psychological
Processes @ work. Lesson 5 Cognition and Memory. As the key concepts are
translated into the different South African languages, they will be made available
5. Sub sections of Lesson 5
5.1 Cognition
5.1.1 What is cognition?

5.1.2 Language – a communication system
5.1.3 Strategies for solving problems
3
5.1.4 What are intelligence and creativity?
5.1.5 The source of intelligence
5.1.1 What is cognition?
Section 5.1 of your learning material introduces you to cognitive psychology, which is
the study of cognition, or the brain’s ability to think, perceive, plan, analyse and
remember. Concepts and their corresponding prototypes help us quickly organise our
thinking by creating categories into which we can sort new information. We also
develop schemata, which are clusters of related concepts. Some schemata involve
routines of thought and behaviour, and these help us function properly in various
situations without having to “think twice” about them. Schemata show up in social
situations and routines of daily behaviour.
5.1.2 Language – a communication system
In section 5.2 of the learning material, you will learn that language is a
communication system that has both a lexicon and a system of grammar.
Language acquisition occurs naturally and effortlessly during the early stages of
life, and this acquisition occurs in a predictable sequence for individuals around the
world. Language has a strong influence on thought, and the concept of how
language may influence cognition remains an area of study and debate in
psychology.
5.1.3 Strategies for solving problems
In section 5.3 of your learning material, you will learn that many different strategies
exist for solving problems. Typical strategies include trial and error, applying
algorithms, and using heuristics. To solve a large, complicated problem, it often helps
to break down the problem into smaller steps that can be accomplished individually,
leading to an overall solution. Roadblocks to problem solving include a mental set,
functional fixedness, and various biases that can cloud decision making skills.
5.1.4 What are intelligence and creativity?
Section 5.4 of your learning material describes intelligence as a complex

characteristic of cognition. Many theories have been developed to explain what
4
intelligence is and how it works. Sternberg generated his triarchic theory of

intelligence, whereas Gardner posits that intelligence is comprised of many factors.
Still others focus on the importance of emotional intelligence. Finally, creativity seems
to be a facet of intelligence, but it is extremely difficult to measure objectively.
5.1.5 The source of intelligence
In section 5.5 of your learning material, you will learn that genetics and the
environment affect intelligence and also look at the challenges of certain learning
disabilities. The intelligence levels of all individuals seem to benefit from rich
stimulation in their early environments. Highly intelligent individuals, however, may
have a built-in resiliency that allows them to overcome difficult obstacles in their
upbringing. Learning disabilities can cause major challenges for children who are
learning to read and write. Unlike developmental disabilities, learning disabilities are
strictly neurological in nature and are not related to intelligence levels. Students with
dyslexia, for example, may have extreme difficulty learning to read, but their
intelligence levels are typically average or above average.
5.2 Memory
5.2.1 How memory functions

5.2.2: Problems with memory
5.2.3 Ways to enhance memory
5.2.1 How memory functions
Memory is a system or process that stores what we learn for future use. In section
5.6 of your learning material, you will learn that our memory has three basic functions:
encoding, storing, and retrieving information. Encoding is the act of getting information
into our memory system through automatic or effortful processing. Storage is retention
of the information, and retrieval is the act of getting information out of storage and into
conscious awareness through recall, recognition, and relearning. The idea that
information is processed through three memory systems is called the Atkinson-Shiffrin
(A-S) model of memory. First, environmental stimuli enter our sensory memory for a
5
period of between less than a second and a few seconds. Those stimuli that we notice
and pay attention to then move into short-term memory (also called working memory).
According to the A-S model, if we rehearse this information, then it moves into long-
term memory for permanent storage. Other models like that of Baddeley and Hitch
suggest there is more of a feedback loop between short-term memory and long-term
memory. Long-term memory has a practically limitless storage capacity and is divided
into implicit and explicit memory. Finally, retrieval is the act of getting memories out of
storage and back into conscious awareness. This is done through recall, recognition,
and relearning.
Activity: Sensory memory and the Stroop effect
This is not a compulsory activity. JR Stroop discovered a memory phenomenon in the

1930s: you will name a colour more easily if it appears printed in that colour – this is
called the Stroop effect. In other words, the word “red” will be named more quickly,
regardless of the colour the word appears in, than any word that is coloured red.
Try an experiment: name the colours of the words you are given in the figure
below. Do not read the words, but say the colour the word is printed in. For example,
upon seeing the word “yellow” in green print, you should say “green,” not “yellow.” This
experiment is fun, but it’s not as easy as it seems.
6
5.2.2 Problems with memory
All of us at times have felt dismayed, frustrated, and even embarrassed when our
memories have failed us. In section 5.8 you will learn that our memory is flexible and
prone to many errors, which is why eyewitness testimony has been found to be largely
unreliable. There are several reasons why forgetting occurs. In cases of brain trauma
or disease, forgetting may be due to amnesia. Another reason we forget is due to
encoding failure. We can’t remember something if we never stored it in our memory in
the first place. Schacter presents seven memory errors that also contribute to
forgetting. Sometimes, information is actually stored in our memory, but we cannot
access it due to interference. Proactive interference happens when old information
hinders the recall of newly learned information. Retroactive interference happens
when information learned more recently hinders the recall of older information.
5.2.3 Ways to enhance memory
Section 5.9 of your learning material will show that there are many ways to combat
the inevitable failures of our memory system. Some common strategies that can be
used in everyday situations include mnemonic devices, rehearsal, self-referencing,
and adequate sleep. These same strategies also can help you to study more
effectively.
The link below is to Unisa's Directorate of Counselling and Career Development

(DCCD), which provides students with material to manage their studies. You will not
be assessed on the information in this site; however, you may find it a useful resource
to use as you progress with your studies at Unisa.
https://www.unisa.ac.za/sites/myunisa/default/Learner-support-&-
regions/Counselling-and-career-development
How to Study: The Unisa Directorate: Counselling and Career Development supports
students before, during and after their Unisa studies. They provide career, academic
and personal guidance, and counselling to prospective and registered students in
person, by telephone, e-mail, letter or fax or printed publications. The resources
provided on their website and in print provide students with the opportunity to develop
the skills needed to manage their studies, career, and life.
7
References
Psychology by OpenStax is licensed under Creative Commons Attribution License

v4.0
Art by Injete (n.d.). Beware the thinking man. https://poetry-and-art-by-injete-

chesoni.blogspot.com/2010/11/handmade-metal-cards-miniature-art.html
8
Lesson 5 Key Concepts Memory_English
absentmindedness lapses in memory that are caused by breaks in

attention or our focus being somewhere else
acoustic encoding input of sounds, words, and music

automatic processing the encoding of informational details like time,
space, frequency, and the meaning of words
bias how feelings and views of the world distort our

memory of past events
blocking a memory error in which you cannot access
stored information
chunking organising information into manageable bits or
chunks
construction the formulation of new memories
declarative memory a type of long-term memory of facts and events

we personally experience
episodic memory the type of declarative memory that contains

information about events we have personally
experienced; also known as autobiographical
memory
explicit memory memories we consciously try to remember and
recall
implicit memory memories that are not part of our
consciousness
forgetting the loss of information from long-term memory
long-term memory (LTM) storage of information
memory consolidation an active rehearsal to move information from
short-term memory to long-term memory
memory-enhancing strategy technique that helps to ensure that information

goes from short-term memory to long-term
memory
mnemonic device memory aids that help organise information for

encoding
procedural memory a type of long-term memory for creating skilled
actions, such as how to brush your teeth, how
to drive a car, and how to swim
recall accessing information without cues
recognition identifying previously learned information after
encountering it again, usually in response to a
cue
reconstruction the process of bringing up old memories that

might be distorted by new information
1
Lesson 5 Key Concepts Memory_English
rehearsal the conscious repetition of information to be

remembered
relearning learning information that was previously

learned
semantic memory a type of declarative memory about words,
concepts, and language-based knowledge and
facts
sensory memory a type of declarative memory about words,

concepts, and language-based knowledge and
facts
short-term memory (STM) (also, working memory) holds about seven bits
of information before it is forgotten or stored,
as well as information that has been retrieved
and is being used
suggestibility the effects of misinformation from external
sources that leads to the creation of false
memories
2
SYMPOSIUM
UBUNTU: A TRANSFORMATIVE LEADERSHIP

PHILOSOPHY
LISA B. NCUBE
Most African countries gained independence in the 1960s. are hobbled by economic policies and new regulations
Countries in southern Africa gained independence still that favor the chosen few. The citizenry are paralyzed or
later: Zimbabwe in 1980, Namibia in 1990, and South derailed by corporate governance indecision as they try to
Africa in 1994. Postindependence governments set about lead in a volatile global environment. Lack of enforce-
removing distinct legal injustices and societal attitudes in ment of existing laws and regulations and disregard by
order to bring all citizens into the mainstream of devel- those who are well connected is commonplace, making it
opment and social transformation. This was to ensure very difficult if not impossible for citizens who wish to be
equality, regardless of race, color, creed, political affilia- productive and ethical members of society.
tion, or gender. The success of this transformation has, In all of this, lack of good leadership is apparent.
however, been limited. Africa wrestles with a number of A pressing need for Africa is transformative leadership.
problems that appear to be insurmountable. This article argues that Ubuntu as a worldview per-
First, the majority of women continue to live under spective or guiding philosophy holds promise for pro-
the same conditions that existed before independence. gressive and ethical change for Africa. It may be a
Their lives have not changed in spite of significant legal calming option for social relations in contemporary
changes put in place. In many African countries, barri- Southern African society, when little else seems to work
ers imposed by colonialism, Christianity, capitalism, (van Binsbergen, 2001). Van Binsbergen points out that
cultural traditions, and the colonial and postcolonial Ubuntu helps to overcome insurmountable contradic-
states continue to curtail the rights of women severely tions, producing some degree of conviviality and in so
(Jolly, 1994; Schmidt, 1991). doing alleviating tensions and hostilities.
Second, the new millennium ushered in a wave of Leadership philosophies have been around for many
African government conflicts, failures, and scandals. years. Few, if any, incorporate indigenous perspectives.
The complexity, turbulence, and extraordinary changes Bekker (2007) argues that “there is a desperate need for
of the 21st century have contributed to rapid disinte- an indigenous, innovative, values-based leadership ap-
gration of good governance on the African continent. proach in Africa that will mobilize a wide variety of par-
Increasingly unpredictable and discontinuous change ticipants around a common goal” (p. 1). One such
has become the norm (Suarez & Oliva, 2005). A total approach is the concept of Ubuntu, a cultural value sys-
breakdown of ethics, and the uncertainty, ambiguity, tem or worldview of the Bantu people of Southern
and discontinuity resulting from revolutionary changes, Africa and a word that emerges from the Nguni lan-
challenge many African countries (Kessler & guages of Southern Africa.
Chakrabarti, 1996). This article seeks to do two things. First, it examines
Third, in many African countries corruption is rife and the concept of Ubuntu as an emerging indigenous lead-
organizational ethics almost nonexistent. Organizations ership philosophy and offers it as a legitimate alternative
JOURNAL OF LEADERSHIP STUDIES, Volume. 4, Number 3, 2010

©2010 University of Phoenix
View this journal online at wileyonlinelibrary.com • DOI:1.1002/jls.20182 77
SYMPOSIUM
to Western leadership philosophies. Exploring Ubuntu nonetheless recognize the important role of relation-
as a leadership philosophy diversifies the leadership dis- ships with subordinates or followers. At the heart of
course. Knowledge is not a one-way street. Not all Ubuntu is the relationship with others. Ubuntu en-
knowledge resides in the north, to be transferred to the courages humanness and recognizes the sanctity of
south as necessary; there is richness in cross-cultural fer- human life. No individual is more sacred than an-
tilization. Second, it presents an “Ubuntu as leadership other. The respect of another’s basic humanity is ab-
philosophy” framework that shows how Ubuntu can be solute.
applied practically as a leadership model. It concludes Developmental leadership philosophies focus on lead-
with some summarizing comments. ers, behaviors, values, and traits. Ubuntu is about the na-
ture of the individual in a leadership role. Even though
Ubuntu as a Leadership Philosophy traits of Ubuntu may appear at face value to be innate,
Ubuntu is a term derived from the Bantu Nguni lan- they can be cultivated and developed. Leadership philoso-
guages of Zulu, Xhosa, Swati, and Ndebele. It is the phies are contextualized in terms of organizations.
equivalent of the Shona hunhu and can be described as Although Ubuntu shares characteristics that “qual-
a social philosophy (van Binsbergen, 2001). Over the ify” it as a leadership philosophy, it is distinct on a num-
past three decades, Ubuntu has been explored by a host ber of levels from the Western philosophies that have
of scholars as a viable philosophical perspective, partic- been in existence for many decades. First, Ubuntu is
ularly in the context of postcolonialism in Southern basically a cultural value system or worldview and is still
Africa (Asante, 1987; Ntibagirirwa, 2009; Prinsloo, in its emergent and exploratory stages as an articulated
2000; Ramose, 1999; Shutte, 1993; Tracy, 1990; Van der philosophy. Second, Western leadership philosophies
Merwe, 1996). A number of scholars (among them were developed from a Eurocentric perspective; Ubuntu
Karsten & Illa, 2001, 2005; and Mangaliso, 2001) have is indigenous and Afrocentric. It offers a different ap-
recognized its merits as an approach to management, but proach to understanding leadership. Third, Ubuntu in-
its application to leadership has not been fully appreciated. vokes traditional cultures. Scholars of leadership now
Ubuntu forms the core of most traditional African recognize the importance of including traditional cul-
cultures. It embraces a spirit of caring and community, tural perspectives of leadership. Although Ubuntu is
harmony and hospitality, respect and responsiveness more than a cultural practice of the Bantu people, as a
(Mangaliso, 2001). It is further described as the capac- leadership philosophy it balances the past (by learning
ity for compassion, reciprocity, and dignity (Bekker, from it), the present (by examining immediate and
2008). The hallmarks of Ubuntu are harmony and con- pressing concerns), and the future (by providing a vi-
tinuity. It is about understanding what it means to be sion). Lastly, as a postcolonial paradigm of leadership,
connected to one another. According to Karsten and Illa Ubuntu holds promise for a more inclusive discourse
(2005, p. 613). “Ubuntu expresses an African view of that embraces historically misinterpreted and margin-
the world anchored in its own person, culture, and so- alized non-Western traditions (van Hensbroek, 2001).
ciety which is difficult to define in a Western context.” As van Hensbroek (2001, p. 3) eloquently points out,
Karsten and Illa (2005) describe how management “The idea of a universal ‘modernity,’ as the predefined
philosophies have certain characteristics in common. Like- horizon for all of humanity, has lost most of its self-ev-
wise, leadership philosophies share certain characteristics. idence over the past decades.”
As with management concepts, leadership philosophies Although Ubuntu is the core of African culture, most
come in various forms, each with its own appealing name African leaders have chosen to deny or ignore it. No-
(for instance, transformational and situational, among table exceptions are Nelson Mandela, the first president
others). Ubuntu certainly fits that mold. As a new term, of independent South Africa; and Sir Seretse Khama,
it has captivated the imagination of many scholars, as is the first president of independent Botswana. These two
seen by the sudden appearance of articles on the subject. statesmen are embodiments of the principle of Ubuntu,
Although most leadership philosophies tend to be and their leadership fully demonstrated their traditional
conceptualized from the leader’s perspective, they values.
78 JOURNAL OF LEADERSHIP STUDIES • Volume 4 • Number 3 • DOI:10.1002/jls

SYMPOSIUM
A Framework for Ubuntu as a MODELING THE WAY

Leadership Philosophy From a leadership perspective, Ubuntu requires that
Based partly on Mbigi’s African Tree concept (1996, leaders model the way for others. As a role model, the
1997), a framework for Ubuntu as leadership philoso- leader legitimizes his or her leadership by a commit-
phy emerges. Leadership in the African context has been ment to such African values as honesty, sincerity, truth-
traditionally built on strong relationships, participation, fulness, compassion, empathy, dignity, and respect for
responsibility, and spiritual authority (van der Colff, others (Malunga, 2009). Values reflect the most basic
2003). Ubuntu inspires individuals to expose themselves characteristic of adaptations that guide individuals in
to others and to encounter the difference of their hu- deciding into which situations they should enter and
manness to inform and enrich their own (Sidane, what they should do in them (Nonis & Swift, 2001).
1995). A typifying phrase is umuntu ngumuntu nga- By committing to ethical behavior, the leader models
banye, meaning that through others one is a person. Van ethical values and characteristics for others. One should
der Merwe (1996, p. 1) translates the phrase as “To be not expect others to exhibit ethical behavior if one
human is to affirm one’s humanity by recognizing the cannot oneself demonstrate it. Ethical values are critical
humanity of others in its infinite variety of content and to the success of an enterprise, because they serve to
form.” Louw (2001) argues that this translation of guide an entrepreneur on ethical issues.
Ubuntu recognizes a respect for particularity, individu-
ality, and historicity, without which postcolonialism is COMMUNAL ENTERPRISE AND A
not possible. SHARED VISION
The Ubuntu respect for the particularities of the be- The Ubuntu leadership framework requires that lead-
liefs and practices of others is well illustrated by another ership not only inspire a shared vision but also have a vi-
common expression, ungumuntu. It translates as “he or sion for the future that offers direction for others.
she is person,” implying that the person has humane- Enterprise is communal, with the derived benefits
ness. Here the collective is more important than the in- shared rather than accruing to the individual. Outcomes
dividual. For postcolonial southern Africans of all races, for the group are more important than individual goals.
ethnicities, and cultures, Ubuntu recognizes the gen- At the same time, decision making under the principle
uine otherness of all people (Louw, 2001). In other of Ubuntu is circular and inclusive. Polyocular vision, as
words, the diversity of people, languages, histories, and opposed to monocular vision, allows for multiple view-
cultures must be recognized and acknowledged. points, and diversity of perspectives. Differences in what
Another critical aspect of Ubuntu as a social philos- is normal and acceptable are allowable (Maruyama, 2004).
ophy is the important role that agreement or consen-
sus plays. Louw (2001, p. 15) argues, “Without a
common scale, i.e., without an agreement or consensus CHANGE AND TRANSFORMATION
on criteria, the beliefs and practices of the other simply Change and transformation are not strong components
cannot be judged without violating them.” Ubuntu em- of traditional societies. Ironically, however, applying
phasizes the importance of agreement or consensus. Ubuntu to leadership contributes to changing and trans-
Malunga (2009) points out that principles of Ubuntu forming the world. Leaders search for opportunities to
as leadership philosophy emphasize collectivism and re- initiate change through people. Rather than being forced
lationships over material things, including ownership of on people, change comes through a process of openness
opportunities, responsibilities, and challenges. At the and transparency; people come to accept change. Deci-
core is consideration of the importance of human be- sions to change come by consensus rather than polling,
ings regardless of background. Leadership and decision and there is circularity in the decision-making process.
making are participatory, transparent, and democratic. The process is iterative, and decisions are revised as many
From these principles, a framework for Ubuntu as lead- times as necessary before the final one is made. The or-
ership philosophy framework emerges, as illustrated in ganization is gradually transformed to meet the chal-
Figure 1. lenges of a changing global environment.
JOURNAL OF LEADERSHIP STUDIES • Volume 4 • Number 3 • DOI:10.1002/jls 79

SYMPOSIUM
Figure 1. Ubuntu Leadership Framework
Leadership legitimacy
Modeling the way
Set the example
Communal enterprise Envision the future

and shared vision
inspire a shared vision Enlist others
Polyocular vision
Change and Search for opportunities

transformation
Lead change through people
Decisions by consensus and
circularity
Interconnectedness, Build relationships

interdependency, and
empowerment Build trust
Foster collaboration and
reciprocity
Strengthen others
Think globally, act locally

Collectivism and solidarity
Environmental consciousness
Social responsibility
Democratic legacy
Recognize contributions
Continuous integrated
development
Celebrate accomplishments
Solidarity and social harmony
Shared rewards
Source: Modified from SAFEmap International (2009).
INTERCONNECTEDNESS, relationships with others is a hallmark of good leader-

INTERDEPENDENCY, AND ship in general, but an absolute necessity for Ubuntu. In
EMPOWERMENT building relationships one builds trust, thereby fostering
An important organizing element of Ubuntu is inter- collaboration and reciprocity. By accepting our inter-
connectedness and interdependency. No man or woman connectedness, a leader operating from the principles
is an island, and as such it is important for people of Ubuntu will also have the desire to empower others.
in leadership to recognize this aspect. Building Empowerment of others means strengthening others,

SYMPOSIUM
allowing them to act on their own initiative and believe model. First and foremost, it is necessary that leader-
in themselves. ship models the way, leading by example and doing the
right things. Enterprise is communal, and vision is
COLLECTIVISM AND SOLIDARIT Y shared. Group outcomes trump those of the individual.
Another leadership principle derived from the concept Change and transformation are important leadership
of Ubuntu is the notion of collectivism and solidarity. traits of Ubuntu as they allow organizations to adjust
The African social culture is generally collectivist, in to meet the challenges of a changing global environ-
which the needs of the community or society trump the ment. Collectivism encourages teamwork and a non-
needs of the individual. We can also think of it by way competitive environment, building solidarity and
of the gestalt principle of organization whereby the loyalty within the organization. Through continuous
whole is greater than the sum of its parts. A collectivist integrated development, Ubuntu empowers others to
mentality encourages teamwork and a noncompetitive develop and grow. Ubuntu will help put in place lead-
environment. Such an environment promotes solidarity ership structures that are appropriate and relevant to
and a spirit of working together toward common goals the African context and that may offer a different ap-
and the good of the organization. proach in other contexts: “Ubuntu will show a way to
work together and will create a rainbow mentality in
CONTINUOUS INTEGRATED our organizations characterized by a high degree of cul-
DEVELOPMENT tural, racial, religious, tribal, and political tolerance”
Ubuntu requires that leaders develop the capability and (Mbigi, 1997, p. 8).
capacity of an organization by cultivating innovation
and obtaining the best from everyone: the development
of human potential. Everyone grows from experience. References
Ubuntu challenges the process by searching for oppor- Asante, M. K. (1987). The Afrocentric idea. Philadelphia: Temple
University Press.
tunities and innovation. The leader who demonstrates
Ubuntu will empower others to act and nurture their Bekker, C. J. (2007). Dreaming with open eyes: Reflections on leader-
growth and creativity through mentoring and building ship and spirituality. Regent University, School of Global Leader-
relationships. Ubuntu recognizes the contribution of ship and Entrepreneurship. Retrieved from http://www.regent.edu/
acad/global/publications/working/Dreaming%20with%20Open%20
others, further empowering them.
Eyes%20-%20Reflections%20on%20Leadership%20and%20Spir
ituality%20-%20Bekker%202007.pdf
Conclusions
Bekker, C. J. (2008). Towards an indigenous, values-based approach
Many scholars have shown that there is a desperate need to leadership in Southern Africa. International Leadership Associa-
for indigenous and innovative leadership approaches. tion Conference, Los Angeles, CA.
Ubuntu is a social philosophy of humanness. It pro-
Hanson, K. O. (2001). A good start. Issues in Ethics, 12(1). Re-
motes communicative action that can express itself,
trieved May 25, 2009, from http://www.scu.edu/ethics/publica
whether in entrepreneurship, a business, or other or- tions/iie/v12n1/goodstart.html
ganizations. Ubuntu’s purpose is to redefine social re-
lations so they become more egalitarian, transparent, Jolly, M. (1994). Introduction. Australian Journal of Anthropology, 5,
1–9.
and democratic. The emergence of Ubuntu as a leader-
ship philosophy is not meant to replace Western lead- Karsten, L., & Illa, H. (2001). Ubuntu as a management concept.
ership philosophies but to add to the diversity and Quest: An African Journal of Philosophy, 15(1–2), 91–110.
richness of the discourse. As a postcolonial paradigm of Karsten L., & Illa, H. (2005). Ubuntu as a key African management
leadership, Ubuntu allows for more inclusive discourse concept: Contextual background and practical insights for knowl-
on leadership, incorporating other traditions that have edge application. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 20, 607–620.
been marginalized. Kessler, E. H., & Chakrabarti, A. K. (1991). Innovation speed: A
The Ubuntu leadership philosophy framework shows conceptual model of context, antecedents, and outcomes. The Acad-
how Ubuntu can be applied practically as a leadership emy of Management Review, 21, 1143–1191.
JOURNAL OF LEADERSHIP STUDIES • Volume 4 • Number 3 • DOI:10.1002/jls 81

SYMPOSIUM
Louw, D. J. (2001). Ubuntu and the challenges of multicultural- Shutte, A. (1993). Philosophy for Africa. Rondebosch, South Africa:
ism in post-apartheid South Africa. Quest: An African Journal of UCT Press.
Philosophy, 15(1–2). Retrieved from http://www.quest-journal
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Verbum et Ecclesia
ISSN: (Online) 2074-7705, (Print) 1609-9982
Page 1 of 9 Original Research
Servant leadership: An urgent style for the current

political leadership in South Africa
Author: The aspects of the political leadership in South Africa discussed in this article include, among
Mookgo S. Kgatle1
others, abuse of power, corruption and lack of public accountability. In response to these
Affiliation: aspects, the article demonstrates that servant leadership is an urgent style for the current state
1
Department of Christian of political leadership in South Africa. The article discusses key aspects of the current political
Spirituality, Church History leadership in South Africa as a point of departure. The article also discusses the theological
and Missiology, University of
foundation and key principles of servant leadership in order to apply them to the current state
South Africa, South Africa
of political leadership in South Africa
Corresponding author:
Mookgo Kgatle, Intradisciplinary and/or interdisciplinary implications: Servant leadership principles as
kgatles@yahoo.com outlined from a theological point of view are applied to the aspects of political leadership in
South Africa.
Dates:
Received: 17 Oct. 2017
Accepted: 01 Feb. 2018
Published: 15 May 2018
Introduction
How to cite this article: When one follows the current affairs in the politics of South Africa, one can observe that there is
Kgatle, M.S., 2018, ‘Servant
leadership: An urgent style
fear among many South Africans that South Africa may become another failed African state.
for the current political Another fear among those in the liberation movement, African National Congress (ANC), is that
leadership in South Africa’, ANC might become another failed African liberation movement. These fears are caused by the
Verbum et Ecclesia 39(1), current abuse of power, corruption and lack of accountability by the executive in the South African
a1815. https://doi.org/
10.4102/ve.v39i1.1815
government.
Copyright: There has been an attempt through, for example, the doctrine of separation of powers to limit the
© 2018. The Authors. abuse of power by the executive in the South African government. However, power continues to
Licensee: AOSIS. This work
is licensed under the
be abused at all government levels. State institutions are being used to favour one faction of the
Creative Commons ANC over the other. Equally so there have been so many attempts to try and deal with corruption
Attribution License. at government level, but corruption remains enemy number one to service delivery in government.
Corruption manifests itself in different forms at different spheres of government. In all these
predicaments, most government officials fail to account to the public. This happens when
corruption and abuse of power is in the limelight for everyone to see. It is amazing that officials
still have the courage to deny the truth even when that truth has already been proven in the court
of law. At the end, the main problem becomes lack of accountability and responsibility for the
executive’s actions.
The abuse of power, corruption and lack of public accountability call for a unique approach to
public governance, management and leadership. They call for a different system that can turn
governance around to make it more trustworthy and accountable. In response to these aspects,
the article demonstrates that servant leadership is an urgent style for the current state of
political leadership in South Africa. The article discusses key aspects of the current political
leadership in South Africa as a point of departure. The article also discusses the theology and
principles of servant leadership in order to apply them to the current state of political leadership
in South Africa.
The aspects of the current political leadership

Abuse of power
When the interim constitution1 came into force in 1994, it reversed decades of colonial and
Read online:
apartheid policies of racial fragmentation and marked the beginning of a new legal order in
Scan this QR
code with your
smart phone or 1.The constitution protects and promotes the system of separation of powers although it does not refer to it explicitly. In South African
mobile device Association of Personal Injury Lawyers v Heath, the Constitutional Court held that there ‘can be no doubt that our Constitution
to read online. provides for such a separation [of powers] and that laws inconsistent with what the Constitution requires in that regard, are invalid’
(Langa 2006:4).
http://www.ve.org.za Open Access

South Africa. Whereas previously the combination of the happened outside the alliance and ANC is a problem and an
executive and parliament had exercised a virtual monopoly abuse of power. The prerogative does not belong to the
of power, this was replaced with a system where the president as an individual, but it belongs to the movement.
constitution became the supreme law of the land and any law Nzimande continued to say that ‘[w]e are serving our
or conduct inconsistent with it was invalid. The separation of government because we are serving our people, not because
powers doctrine was employed to ensure that the new system we’re serving individuals’ (EWN 2017:1).
of government contained within it the necessary ‘checks and
balances’ to uphold the values which must now be part of Corruption
our lives (Langa 2006:4).
The second aspect of the current political leadership is
The government uses the doctrine of separation of powers to corruption6 and the failure to combat it. One of the reasons
prevent the abuse of power by the executive. The main objective the government is failing to fight corruption is that corruption
of the doctrine of separation of powers2 is to prevent the is partly a symptom of weak management and operations
abuse of power within different spheres of government. systems, which create the space for corruption to thrive.
In our constitutional democracy, public power is subject to Corruption is evolutionary. Habtemichael (2009:3) suggests
constitutional control. Different spheres of government should that new forms of mechanisms need to emerge in response to
act within their boundaries. The courts are the ultimate guardian various anti-corruption programmes. Corruption is a
of our constitution, and they are duty bound to protect it complex problem in which its agents are like viruses that
whenever it is violated (Mojapelo 2013:37). However, the mutate and adapt to new environments. Given its changing
political leadership under President Jacob Zuma3 did not meanings, manifestations, proliferations and perceived
believe in that separation of power and did not act within their causes and impacts, corruption is seen as a dynamic and
boundaries but continued to overlap into other institutions. complex social phenomenon.
The other problem is that the mechanisms put in place to In the South African context, a number of mechanisms
prevent abuse of power are sometimes inadequate. As a have been put in place to limit the scope for conflicts of
result, this offers fertile ground for misconduct and abuse of interest since 1994. Among these mechanisms is the
power. Irrespective of the legal requirements, many South compulsion for all senior managers, as well as officials
African government officials abuse their power. The present working in procurement, to declare any financial and
government’s democratisation and restructuring processes business interests. Recently, there has been an improvement
that took place without adequate control mechanisms have in timeous submission of disclosure forms by senior
opened new avenues for abuse of power, mainly in the managers to the Public Service Commission (PSC), from
regional administrations that embody a legacy from the 47% in 2009/2010 to 84% in 2013/2014 (PSC report 2014).
‘homeland’ civil services (Habtemichael 2009:3). The way that South Africa has responded to the issue of
corruption is evidence that the country exists as a
The abuse of power in the current political leadership, for functioning democracy. South Africa has successfully
example, is seen by lack of consultation when making developed laws and institutions that have formulated a
key decisions like cabinet reshuffles. The South African response to instances of corruption at the national level.
Communist Party’s4 (SACP) General Secretary, Blade It is not a fundamentally corrupt state, nor does it use
Nzimande,5 said that the fact that the recent cabinet reshuffles heavy-handed means to fight corruption. The rule of law
generally prevails (Van Vuuren 2014:3).
2.The idea behind the doctrine of separation of powers is that a concentration of too
much power in a single entity will lead to the abuse of power. The doctrine embodies However, corruption continues to thrive even in the midst
a number of principles, the first of which is the formal distinction between the
legislative, executive and judicial branches of government. The second is of the of these mechanisms. Global Financial Integrity said in a
separation of functions which entails that each branch of government exercises report that South Africa had suffered an illegal outflow of
distinct powers and functions. The third is that of separation of personnel, which
requires that each of the different branches be staffed with different officials. Lastly, R185 billion owing to corruption in the public sector between
the separation of powers doctrine importantly entails the principle of checks and
balances where each branch of government is entrusted with special powers 1994 and 2008 (News24 2012). It has been estimated that
designed to keep a check on the exercise of the functions of others (Sang 2013:95).
R30 billion per year, which is 20% of the overall government
3.Jacob Gedleyihlekisa Zuma (born 12 April 1942) is a South African politician. He has procurement budget of R150 billion, is being lost or is
served as the President of South Africa since 2009. Zuma was the President of the
African National Congress (ANC) from 2007 to 2017, the governing political party, disappearing because of corruption (Africa check 2015). This
and was Deputy President of South Africa from 1999–2005. He was first elected by
parliament following his party’s victory in the 2009 general election. He was re- means that South Africa could have lost more than R700 billion
elected in the 2014 election (Wikipedia). in the last 23 years. Money lost because of government
4.The South African Communist Party was founded in 1921 and has always been in the corruption could have been used to better the lives of all
forefront of the struggle against imperialism and racist domination. The SACP is a
partner in the Tripartite Alliance consisting of the ANC and the Congress of South African citizens, especially the poor (Kgatle 2017:4).
South African Trade Union (COSATU). The Youth Wing of the SACP is the Young
Communist League (YCL).
6.Corruption is an abuse of public resources and public power for private gain.
5.Dr Bonginkosi Emmanuel ‘Blade’ Nzimande (born 14 April 1958) is a South However, this does not mean that it does not exist in the private sector. A lot of
African politician who has been Minister for Higher Education and Training since corruption involves a collusive relationship between the private sector and the
2009. He has been the SACP since 1998. He has a doctorate degree in philosophy, public sector and indeed between private citizens and public officials, particularly in
specialising in sociology. He came out strongly against proposals for the area of petty corruption – traffic-cop bribery, bribery to get into housing
nationalisation at the COSATU conference in June 2011, stating that it is not allocation queues, et cetera. The truth remains, however, that it is not very often
‘inherently progressive’ as it depended on which class interests were being possible to abuse public resources and public power without the participation of
advanced (Wikipedia). members of the public sector (Lewis 2017:8).

There is evidence of corruption in the current political accountability of municipal politicians, service providers,
leadership as contained in the state capture report. The report and citizens (PSC 2006:17).
confirms South Africa’s worst fears about corruption: that the
state has been captured. In 355 pages, former public protector When the former president, Jacob Zuma, was summoned to
Thuli Madonsela and her team of investigators outline in the parliament of the republic to account to the public on
detail just how much control the Gupta family, a wealthy urgent matters like the Nkandla and state capture reports, he
Indian immigrant family, has over South Africa’s resources. did not give precise answers that demonstrate accountability.
President Jacob Zuma, the Guptas’ close friend, and his son These relate to Zuma’s alleged role in awarding contracts
Duduzane as well as two ministers are implicated in the and jobs to his family members and close associates. The
report (Quartz media 2016). president has become a master at evading questions,
specifically ones that cause any sense of discomfort. All he
The same former public protector issued the report on an would say on these matters is that he was taking legal advice
investigation into allegations of impropriety and unethical about setting up a commission of inquiry into allegations of
conduct relating to the installation and implementation of state capture to ‘see how far it goes’ (EWN 2016).
security measures by the Department of Public Works at and
in respect of the private residence of President Jacob Zuma at
Nkandla in KwaZulu-Natal. She found that Zuma had
The theology of servant leadership
unduly benefited from the upgrades. She therefore The primary biblical texts that talk about servant leadership
recommended that Zuma must pay for the non-security are Matthew 20:20–28 and Mark 10:35–45, both of which
upgrades at his home, which include a visitors’ centre, an include comments by Jesus regarding leadership and
amphitheatre, a swimming pool, a cattle kraal, a culvert, servanthood. There are various other scriptures that
a chicken run and extensive paving (The citizen 2014). illustrate the quintessential servant leadership of Jesus.
Among the important supplementary scriptures are the
Servant Songs of Isaiah, Luke 22:25–30 (additional
Lack of public accountability comments by Jesus about leadership), and John 13:1–17 (the
The bigger problem of the current political leadership is story of Jesus washing his disciples’ feet). All these
that there is no public accountability. Public accountability scriptures provide a meaningful theological foundation
pertains to the obligations of persons or entities entrusted from which to substantiate and advance the servant
with public resources to be answerable for the fiscal, leadership concept (Russell 2003:1).
managerial and programme responsibilities that have been
conferred on them, and to report to those that have conferred Gene Wilkes’ book on servant leadership also developed
these responsibilities. From this definition of public the seven principles of servant leadership by using the text
accountability, it is clear that the public entities that utilise in Mark 10:45, Luke 22:25–30, Matthew 20:20–28 and
public resources have an obligation to account for the way John 13:1–17. Jesus humbled himself and allowed God to
these resources are allocated, used and the outcomes this
exalt him. Jesus followed his father’s will rather than seeking
spending has achieved. In other words, the main objectives
a position. Jesus defined greatness as being a servant first.
of all public accountability initiatives are to ensure that
Jesus risked serving others because he trusted that he was
public money is spent most economically and efficiently,
God’s son. Jesus left his place at the head of the table to serve
that there is a minimum of wastage or theft and finally
the needs of others. Jesus shared responsibility and authority
that public actually benefits from public finance (Khan &
with those he called to lead. Jesus built a team to carry out a
Chowdhury 2007:1).
worldwide vision (Wilkes 1998:12).
Securing accountability7 in South Africa is made more
Philippians 2:5–11, also known as the hymn of Christ, has
difficult by the fact that we have a very powerful governing
according to Collange (1979:19) a theological foundation for
party which controls almost two-thirds of national power,
and all but one of the provinces. Such excessive power servant leadership. The incarnation, the birth, the death and
always breeds contempt for the public, impunity, and lack the ascension of the Lord Jesus Christ are the main features of
of accountability. It also breeds a culture of doling out the passage. Jesus’ incarnation signifies humility and
patronage: in order to get anywhere your path is through suffering, resulting in his exaltation. Yarbro (2003:367) sees
the ANC branch, and the ANC branch becomes a corrupt the hymn as consisting of a recital of the saving work of God
enterprise in the hands of various people (Makhanya in Christ (self-humiliation followed by exaltation). Vincent
2017:7). Service difficulties are exacerbated by the weak (1985:78) points out that the supreme illustration of humility
in the ‘hymn’ is Jesus Christ in his voluntary renunciation of
7.Accountability is a concept in ethics and governance with several meanings. It is his pre-incarnate majesty, and his identification with the
often used synonymously with such concepts as responsibility, answerability,
blameworthiness, liability and other terms associated with the expectation of conditions of humanity.
account-giving. As an aspect of governance, it has been central to discussions
related to problems in the public sector, the non-profit sector and the private
(corporate) world. In leadership roles, accountability is the acknowledgment and
assumption of responsibility for actions, products, decisions and policies, including Geisler (2007:205) says that Philippians 2:5–11 paints a picture
administration, governance and implementation within the scope of the role or of humility. Christ did not just humble himself; he takes both
employment position and encompassing the obligation to report, explain and be
answerable for the resulting consequences (Maloba 2015:55). the form of a slave and Lord. The hymn thus alludes to one

particular aspect, the imperial economic structures of slavery. A servant leader does not simply serve but makes followers
Grieb (2007:263) refers to the hymn as a creed that describes independent and capable and desirous of serving other
the pattern of the Messiah, Jesus ‘generous self-donation people. They embrace the spirit of servant leadership, the
for the sake of others’. In a more recent study, Powell spirit of moral authority (Covey 2002:31). A servant leader
(2009:348) singles out the doxology on self-abasement and serves from a base of love – the fruit of the Holy Spirit
the ensuing exaltation of Christ as the head in interpreting (Zohar 2002:111). Servant leadership is an integrated way
Philippians 2:6–11. of serving all people involved within an organisation
(Ruschman 2002:123). The power of the concept of servant
Nebreda (2008:322) supports the opinion of several scholars leadership remains embedded in one’s ability to combine the
that the text presents a double movement in three stages: best of being a leader with the best of being a servant (De
upwards–downwards–upwards. Jesus as the Christ is graaf, Tilley & Neal 2004:133). Servant leadership is about a
presented sharing in God’s glory in his pre-existence as he rediscovery of an individual and to connect with the highest
was already equal to God. He abases himself to the lowest aspirations of the organisation (Kim 2004:201).
possible level when he humbled himself and became obedient
to death, even the death on the cross to be then lifted up to There are four roles of servant leadership. The leader must
the highest position by God-the-Father. This was illustrated first be a model of credibility, diligence, and the spirit of
when God-the-Father raised him up from the dead and gave servant leadership. The second role of leadership is path
Him a name which is above every name, a name before which finding, wherein a vision is discerned. The third role is that of
every knee should bow and every tongue should confess that alignment; unless you institutionalise your values, they will
Jesus Christ is Lord. not happen. The fourth role is to empower people; the fruit of
the three other roles (Walls 2004:113). The idea of a leader as
Moessner (2009:124) sees Philippians 2:6–11 as a hymn that a servant is rooted in the far-reaching ideal that people have
redefines status and power by re-conceiving the power and inherent worth, a dignity not only to be strived for, but
status of ‘the death of the cross’ of Christ Jesus (Phlp 2:5, 8c); beneath this striving a dignity irrevocably connected to the
it is the most sublime public disclosure of the character of reality of being human (Ferch 2004:226).
‘God’. Lastly, Hellerman (2010:91) is of the opinion that the
passage shows us a Christ who is in control through his Servant leadership has the potential for maximising
public humiliation. This means that the humility of Christ empowerment participation because it supremely values the
was not something hidden; it was a public spectacle that importance of each individual. Servant leadership is the
everybody saw and appreciated. New Testament translations antithesis of marginalisation (Echols 2009:85). Greatness
give this passage the same heading which includes humility therefore is not the goal. Service is the goal, and greatness is
and submission. They also speak of the ascension and the defined by Christ in his lifelong exercise of service. For the
exaltation of the Lord Jesus Christ. life of Christ to be reproduced in the disciples, it must be
through serving others (Elmer 2006:24). Service is not
Key principles of servant leadership weakness and it is not to make everyone happy. It is not a
mindless assent to compromise in order to keep peace. It is
Servant leadership is service not artificial harmony and people-pleasing (Ortberg 2009:131;
The rationale behind this teaching on service is that ‘the cf. Kgatle 2016b:121). Service is willing, working and living
authoritative one is the one who serves, and the proof of the life of purpose (Augsburger 2009:99).
that authority is in the service rendered on behalf of others’.
Thus, the ‘greatness’ of a disciple is directly proportional to Servant leader does not avoid leadership. Instead, it is a
the degree of service he or she renders unto others. That is different kind of leadership, one committed to meeting the
the heart of the paradox, which the disciples fail to needs of others. Similar to the 1st century slaves, true servant
comprehend. It is the reason that they find it difficult to leaders give up their rights for the sake of others. True
accept this paradoxical nature to discipleship. They cannot greatness and true leadership is achieved not by reducing
conceive that true greatness is measured according to one’s men to one’s service, but in giving oneself in selfless service
servility. They must undergo a change of mindset to to them (Hutchison 2009:69). True servants with a servant’s
understand discipleship as service and not in positions of heart make themselves available to serve and pay attention
ruling power (Cox 2009:93). to the needs of others. They do their best with what they have
and with equal dedication. True servants are faithful to their
Jesus is asking his disciples to be different from the worldly ministry and maintain a low profile (Tan 2009:78).
system of leadership. ‘It shall not be so among you’, in other
words, the disciples should not lead like Gentile rulers. They Furthermore, they think more about others than themselves;
should not lead by exercising authority or by exercising they think like stewards, not owners; and they think about
lordship over others. Jesus introduces a style different from their work, not what others are doing. True servants base
what the disciples already know as the norm. In contrast, to their identity on Christ, and they think of ministry as an
exercising authority and exercising lordship, they should opportunity, not an obligation. The true spiritual leader is
minister and serve others. concerned infinitely more with the service to God and fellow

men than with the benefits and pleasures of life. A servant down they blame everybody around them. Humility requires
leader aims to put more into life than taking out of it. A true that a leader affords followers an opportunity to express
servant leader is a spirit-led leader. themselves. A good example in this context is ‘marriage’ –
which is not an institution where one partner should feel
The servant leader is tough in love and in spirit. The servant intimidated by the other. Both partners should humble
leader is willing to walk that extra mile, give and engage themselves and submit to one another. The correct method is
fully in the well-being of the organisation and followers. This not 50/50 or 100/0 but humility towards one another (see
will sometimes mean having to face the idea of loving the Eph 5:21–33). Both husband and wife must remain humble
unlovable, and yet, for the servant leader, this concept is a towards each other regardless of who is right or wrong.
misnomer in that all people are worthy human beings,
deserving of love and respect (Tan 2009:78). Contentment, An element of humility is the willingness to stand back,
grace and ease, gratitude and humour, love, wisdom, putting the interest of others first and facilitating their
inspiration, forgiveness and appropriate power, all of these performance. It is also about modesty. The servant leader
are the hallmarks of true personhood, true consciousness and retreats into the background when a task has been successfully
true leadership (Ferch 2004:88). accomplished (Dierendonck & Patterson 2010:159).
Selflessness is inherent to humility. It reflects a willingness to
Servant leaders demand to serve and acquire a position later. put the interests of the organisation and of its people ahead
They seek to minister first and become great because of hearts of the leader’s own interests. It involves the ability to
to serve. Take, for example, a waiter in a restaurant; he or she recognise the worth of others and reinforce and strengthen
directs the customers to the table first (e.g. table for two or that worth which is the essence of servant leadership. At the
three), serves the customer and gets ‘benefits’ later. Another very best, the great leaders’ success does not come at the
good example is that of a petrol station attendant who normally expense of their people’s success (Bell 2006:74).
asks the motorists what type of fuel they use, performs other
duties like checking oil levels and pouring water into the Humble servants do not see themselves as experts and
engine, washes the windscreen and asks for the payment later. leaders who cannot be substituted. They are not afraid to
This is putting service first and position and money later. give glory to others, even when they have done the work
themselves. Servant leaders always believe in the ability of
Servant leadership is humility their followers. They never want to do everything but always
create an opportunity for others to serve. The followers feel
It is a challenge and a warning to all that the path that leads
that they are needed and participate without fear of failure or
to true discipleship is a path that leads to servility. For only
prejudice. Humble servants believe in the team and they do
when one has enough faith and love to humbly serve others
not personalise victory. Thus, humble servants take
is one truly following the example set by Christ himself
responsibility for failures but never take the glory of the
(Cox 2009:89). Humility has been defined by looking at the
victory. They are not self-centred but team-oriented.
outward actions of the person other than the heart. Therefore,
people will normally perceive a ‘quiet or meek person’ as
Personal humility is characterised by a compelling modesty,
humble or someone with ‘holy’ apparel. In black (African)
shunning of public adulation and never being boastful.
culture, for example, a person cannot claim to be humble
It enables to act with quiet, calm determination, and
until there is an act of humility. If a person observes the rules
and regulations of that culture, they are seen as humble. Any relies principally on inspired standards than charisma
violation of such an act can be seen as ‘pride’. On the contrary, (Collins 2005:115). It is the ability to put one’s own
it is possible for a person to perform and act on all the rules, accomplishments and talents into proper perspective. Servant
but only to find out that they are rebellious, stubborn and leaders dare to admit that they can benefit from the expertise
prideful in the heart. of others. An element of humility is the willingness to stand
back, putting the interest of others first and facilitating their
Humility is when people humble themselves towards God performance (Dierendonck & Rook 2010:155).
and his purpose. Humility, like slavery, is to take the lowest
place in the Kingdom of God. Humility is not thinking less of In action movies, most of the time when a fight arises, one
oneself. It is more than about thinking less of oneself. It is hears words of warning like ‘get down’. When the fighters
about stimulating conversations that allow people to confront hear this word and ignore it or play smart by remaining
the truth rather than skirting diplomatically around it. standing, a person gets shot. The one that takes advice and
Humility is a modest view of one’s own importance. Humble stays low will be saved together with other people’s lives.
leaders take a very low social rank. They are very low in It is also practical in a real-life situation, and those in the
dignity or importance. Humility is to obey the instruction of defence or police force can tell the story in a better way. Thus,
God at a given time or place. Humility is a positive attitude the way for a servant leader to go up is to go down.
towards the life of other people.
Characteristics of humble leaders are:
Humble servants give up to go up. Leaders who normally • when they know they are not right, they concede;
take themselves up end up coming down, and when they are • they are open about their faults to others;

• they are ready to ‘roll up their sleeves’ with the rest; in an organisation. Traditional leadership sees a leader as a
• they do not let their opinion take precedence over others’ boss and commander who functions as an instructor and
opinions;
leaves afterwards. On the contrary, a servant leader is
• they are gracious when others are praised over them;
• they do not equate possessions with worth. (Heath 2010:42) always present with the followers. The work of a steward is
to make sure that everyone has been taken care of before
the leader.
Servant leadership is stewardship
The steward is an overseer, a manager, a trustee, a caretaker; There are three women in the gospels who were stewards for
the steward is not the owner; Stewards are entrusted with Jesus (Mary Magdalene, Mary the mother of James and Jesus
money, vineyards, goods, property, which they are to manage and the mother of Zebedee’s children). These women were
for another; Stewards are called upon to be faithful, that is, to the last to leave during Christ’ crucifixion and were the first
be responsible to manage in a way that the money, talents or to arrive at the empty grave after his resurrection (see
pounds generate interest (Fransen 2005:29; cf. Kgatle Mk 16:1). They wanted to make sure that the grave of their
2016a:143). Stewardship is the careful and responsible Master is taken care of before they departed to their houses.
management of something entrusted to one’s care (Saner & On the day of the resurrection they came to inspect only to
Wilson 2003:5). Stewardship theory defines situations in find that he resurrected.
which managers are not motivated by individual goals but
rather are stewards whose motives are aligned with the Servant leadership is to lead by example
objectives of their principals.
Throughout our lives, we have been and continue to be
influenced by the behaviour of others, whether it is the
A steward understands that God is the owner of everything.
example set by parents, teachers, colleagues, friends, sport
As a result, a steward acts as an administrator of God’s
stars, celebrities, politicians or any other person. So, whether
property. A steward is the one who takes care of that which
they like it or not, leaders lead by example. Leaders are role
belongs to God because in the Kingdom of God there are no
models; of course, people can and should make independent
owners. The main function of the steward is to be a caretaker
choices and they should not just be blind followers doing
so that when the owner arrives everything else will be in
whatever the leader does but the leader’s behaviour is a
order. Furthermore, a steward has responsibility to not only
reference point. A leader’s behaviour, good or bad, will affect
take care of the property but also to make sure that it increases
the behaviour of others, and so clearly leaders need to focus
in value.
on setting a good example to encourage positive behaviour
in the people that they lead (Thatcher 2012:7).
Stewardship is about holding something in trust for another
(Wilkes 1998:108). It is ‘giving order to the dispersion of One of the challenges facing leaders is how to get followers to
power’. Stewards, as a result, choose partnership over do something they otherwise would not do. One mechanism
patriarchy, empowerment over dependency and service by which a leader may influence his or her followers is
over self-interest. Service is when a person commits to through leading by example. Recent research has shown that
something outside themselves and it becomes an essential followers respond strongly to the example set by a leader
ingredient in the leading process. Stewards are also expected (Gächter et al. 2008:2). True leadership, unlike management,
to be trustworthy and faithful (Hian 2010:32). For example, is not just a set of skills and learnt behaviour. Regardless
no house owner would leave a family and estate in the hands of the leader’s own perceptions, and those around the
of a manager for a long period of time if the man’s leader in the workplace, namely, colleagues, employees can
trustworthiness is questionable. determine the leader’s personality by observing what the
leader does on a daily basis. They cannot see inside the head
Stewards are intrinsically motivated by higher level needs to of the leader, they cannot know what the leader thinks or
act for the collective good of their organisation. They identify feels and they cannot subliminally detect the compassion or
with the organisation and embrace its objectives; they are pain or goodwill of the leader. In other words, the only way
committed to make it succeed, even at the cost of personal that one can manifest character, personhood and spirit in the
sacrifice (Miller & Breton-Miller 2006:73). Stewardship means workplace is thorough behaviour (Autry 2007:24).
that organisational leaders’ primary motivations are to serve
the organisation’s best interests and mission, as opposed to Leading by example is what the leader needs to do to get
more self-serving, opportunistic motivations proposed by moral authority. Even when the leader has formal authority –
agency theory (Pearson & Marler 2010:1117). the power to coerce (directly or indirectly) – such authority is
rarely absolute. Moreover, the people in an organisation with
Servant leaders are faithful in exercising stewardship. authority are not always, or solely, the leaders. Consider, for
A faithful leader is one who has no credibility gap. When a instance, that in many academic departments, the true
servant leader is a steward in an organisation, they will leaders are often not the department chairs. Leadership is,
make sure that everything is taken care of before leaving. thus, distinct from formal authority; it is, instead, an example
A steward is the first person to arrive and the last to leave of informal authority. The leader does not deduce his or her

authority from codes and statutes, as is the case with the a result. Corruption affects the poorest of the poor because
jurisdiction of office, nor does he deduce his authority from they are not able to receive services. Corruption in the
traditional customs or feudal vows of faith, as is the case with public administration and in political decision-making is a
patrimonial power (Hermalin 1998:1189). The leader deduces major enemy of those who wish to make a genuine effort to
his or her moral authority by leading by example. tackle the challenge of poverty (Kgatle 2017:3). Servant
leadership enables to combat corruption and bring it under
Corporate examples of servant control because servant leaders are aware of others than
themselves.
leadership
There are contemporary examples of servant leadership In servant leadership, there is public accountability. Servant
especially in the corporate world, such as Star bucks. The well- leaders as stewards are able to account to their followers
known company, Starbucks, aimed to make sure that they because they have the knowledge that public money is not
can satisfy every customer’s needs, so that its highest priority their own money. They are only appointed to take care of the
can be served through every cup of coffee. This is a good public purse. They will be able to account for every cent that
application of servant leadership to improve organisational comes in and goes out of the treasury. This is an urgently
performance. From the mission statement of Starbucks we required style in South Africa because South Africa is more
can know that employees are being called partners. It is not likely to become another failed state and the governing party
just a job for them. It is their passion and lives because their is more likely to become another failed liberation movement.
needs are also being served by Starbucks. They respect each South Africa could face more economic downgrades which
other and work tightly to increase the team’s effectiveness. can negatively affect the economy.
Their employees are encouraged and inspired by servant
leaders to contribute to the enhancement of their community. The current political leadership in South Africa should learn
An organisation makes a contribution to its local community. from companies like Starbucks, Southwest Airlines and
As a return, the community helps that organisation thrive by Google that servant leadership can ensure the success of an
supporting it (Li 2014:7). organisation. Starbucks Corporation was able to increase its
profits by forming partnerships with employees, contributing
Another example of servant leadership is Southwest to the enhancement of their community and leading by
Airlines. At Southwest, people are reminded than instructed. example. Similarly, Southwest Airlines was able to increase
The company is in customer service business but just happens the volume of its operations, number of employees and
to fly aeroplanes. They are a company of people not a profits by prioritising customer service rather than just flying
company of aeroplanes. When the company started in 1971, people to different destinations.
they had only three aeroplanes, flying between three cities in
Texas, with only 12 daily flights and 198 employees. The style The current political leadership in South Africa should also
of servant leadership and its principles assisted them to attain learn from their own former leaders such as Nelson Mandela,
700 aeroplanes, 97 cities (U.S. and international), 3600 daily who gained honour and prestige through humility and
flights, 46 000 employees, number 1 domestic market share service to the people of South Africa. His exalted status is
(25%), 42 consecutive years of profitability and no involuntary not limited just to his people, but the whole world salutes
furloughs or layoffs as of 2014 (Southwest Airlines 2017). him for his strength of character. His life story has attracted
the international community and put South Africa on the
Urgent style for the current political global map. For the new generation of South Africans today,
their harvest is plenty because of the sacrifices of the
leadership in South Africa ‘struggle hero’. ‘The born free’ in our land have never
Servant leadership is an urgent style for the current political experienced the brutal and inhumane acts of apartheid. It
leadership in South Africa because in servant leadership took principles of servant leadership to shun retaliation to
there is no abuse of power but only servanthood. Jesus said the nationalist government and retreat from the armed
to his disciples that: struggle (Kgatle 2012:111).
You know that those who are regarded as rulers of the Gentiles
lord it over them, and their high officials exercise authority over The current political leaders should lead by example. The best
them. Not so with you. Instead, whoever wants to become great way to deal with abuse of power, corruption and lack of
among you must be your servant. (Mk 10:42–43) accountability at a local level is for the executive to lead by
example. There is no way that the executive can correct
Jesus here is calling for a different system of governance that corruption if they themselves are corrupt to the core. In
gives service to people than to lord over them and exercise Northern Sotho, they say Pinyana ge e re Ping e kwele Ping e
authority over them. kgolo. It simply means that the younger generation take cue
from the older generation. Whatever a local counsillor does
In servant leadership, the leader does not only serve but is on the ground, he or she would have learnt it from the elders
also selfless. One thing about corruption as discussed above in their network. It is therefore imperative that leaders lead
is that it only benefits the leader and the followers suffer as others by example.

Conclusion Geisler, N.L., 2007, A popular survey of the New Testament, Baker Books, Grand
Rapids, MI.
Grieb, A.K., 2007, ‘Philippians and the politics of God’, Interpretation 61(3), 270–282.
The aspects of the current political leadership in South Africa https://doi.org/10.1177/002096430706100303
discussed in this article call for a unique approach to public Habtemichael, F.S., 2009, ‘Anti-corruption strategies in the South African public
governance, management and leadership. They call for a sector: Perspectives on the contributions of complexity thinking and ICTs’,
Doctoral dissertation, University of Stellenbosch, Stellenbosch.
different system that can turn governance around to make it Heath, M., 2010, Leadership secrets, Harper Collins Publishers, London.
more trustworthy and accountable. In response to these Hellerman, J.H., 2010, ‘Vindicating God’s servants in Philippi and in Philippians:
aspects, the article demonstrated that servant leadership is an The influence of Paul’s ministry in Philippi upon the composition of Philippians’,
Bulletin for Biblical Research 20(1), 85–102.
urgent style for the current state of political leadership in
Hermalin, B.E., 1998, ‘Toward an economic theory of leadership: Leading by example’,
South Africa. The article discussed key aspects of the current American Economic Review, 88(5), 1188–1206.
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The article also discussed servant leadership and applied it to
Hutchison, D., 2009, Servant-Hood: Jesus’ countercultural call to Christian Leaders,
the current state of political leadership in South Africa. Servant Bibliotheca Sacra 166(1), 53–69.
leadership is proposed in this article as an urgent style for the Kgatle, M.S., 2012, ‘Servant leadership in Philippians 2: 5-11: Concept and application’,
Master dissertation, University of Pretoria.
current state of political leadership in South Africa.
Kgatle, M.S., 2016a, Servant leadership: The path to success, Lulu Press Inc, Morrisville,
North Carolina.
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Pentecostal Christianity’, Doctoral dissertation, University of Pretoria.
Competing interests Kgatle, M.S., 2017, ‘A practical theological approach to the challenge of poverty in
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IOP 1501 LESSON 1: PSYCHOLOGICAL PROCESSES IN THE WORK AND SELF-EMPLOYED CONTEXT
STUDY GUIDE – Lesson 1: GRADUATENESS
In this Study Guide you will find:
• UNISA expectations of graduates.

• The CEMS framework of graduateness skills and attributes.
• CEMS generic transferable meta-skills and personal attributes.
• CEMS generic transferable meta-skills.
• Critical reading skills.
• A typical graduate.
Lesson 1 is about graduateness in the context of completing your studies at

UNISA. On completion of this lesson, you should be able to:
• understand graduateness and employability in the UNISA study context

• describe the distinctive graduate qualities, that a UNISA graduate is required to
demonstrate
• identify the RARE qualities and the general attributes of graduates in the
College of Economic and Management Sciences
• assess your ability to demonstrate the competencies of a graduate
To reach the learning outcomes of this lesson you need to study this study
guide only. There is no additional learning material for lesson 1.
Key concepts
There are no available key concepts for lesson 1 at this time. These will be uploaded
as and when they come available.
Lesson Content: Study Guide
1
Unisa generally expects its graduates to have distinctive graduate qualities, which
characterise their graduateness. These qualities are included in the following
statement on the graduateness of a Unisa student (Unisa Curriculum Policy 2010:13
& 14).
Unisa graduates:
1. Are independent, resilient, responsible, and caring citizens who are able to fulfil and
serve in multiple roles in their immediate and future local, national, and global
communities.
2. Have a critical understanding of their location on the African continent with its histories,
challenges, and potential in relation to globally diverse contexts.
3. Are able to critically analyse and evaluate the credibility and usefulness of information
and data from multiple sources in a globalised world with its ever-increasing
information and data flows and competing worldviews.
4. Know how to apply their discipline-specific knowledge competently, ethically, and
creatively to solve real-life problems.
5. Are critically aware of their own learning and developmental needs and future
potential.
As a student of the Department of Industrial and Organisational Psychology, you are

part of the College of Economic and Management Sciences (CEMS). CEMS aims to
produce graduates who are responsible, accountable, relevant, and ethical (RARE)
citizens in the community where they live and work. In support of Unisa’s statement
on its students’ graduateness, CEMS focuses on imparting to students – in addition to
the discipline-specific knowledge of a course or module – a specific set of generic
transferable meta-skills and personal attributes (generally referred to as graduateness
skills and attributes) that transcend disciplinary-specific outcomes. These skills and
attributes help students to become competent and professional graduates who have
the potential to make sustained positive contributions to society, their professions, and
their workplaces.
• The CEMS framework of graduateness skills and attributes addresses three

holistic/overarching attributes that are regarded as important transdisciplinary
enabling outcomes of a university education:
2
1. As scholars, graduates should be leaders in the production of new knowledge and

understanding through inquiry, critique, and synthesis. They should be able to apply
their knowledge to solve consequential and complex problems, and they should be
able to communicate their knowledge confidently and effectively.
1. Scholarship (students’ attitude or stance towards knowledge; the way they think and
work, and the tools they use to work effectively).
2. As global citizens, graduates should aspire to contribute to society in a full,
meaningful, ethical, and responsible way through their roles as members of local,
national, and global communities.
o Global citizenship (students’ attitude or stance towards the world and living in the
world).
o As lifelong learners, graduates should be committed to and capable of continuous
learning in order to broaden their understanding of the world and their place in it.
o Lifelong learning (students’ attitude or stance towards themselves and living in the
world).
The CEMS generic transferable meta-skills and personal attributes are an integral
part of the generic critical cross-field outcomes listed by the South African government
as learning outcomes that are relevant throughout life for all South African citizens. As
an integral part of the CEMS framework of graduateness skills and attributes, these
generic learning outcomes enable graduates to continue to be proactive, enterprising
learners – learners who are flexible and able to adapt to change throughout their
careers and professional lives.
Apart from helping you to develop the required applied competences outlined in the
purpose statement, the learning and assessment activities for this module have been
designed to enable you to develop the graduateness skills and attributes expected
from a CEMS graduate. Developing and applying the graduateness skills and
attributes by completing the various learning and assessment activities will help you
to master the disciplinary-specific learning outcomes and applied competences
specified for this module.
When you study, do the assignments, or apply the theory in your work situation, you
should try to be constantly aware of your effectiveness in displaying and using the
3
applied competencies listed above in the module’s purpose statement and the
graduateness skills and attributes summarised in the diagram below. This will give you
a broader understanding of your own skills and acquired effectiveness as a Unisa
graduate.
o Interactive skills. These skills relate to (1) the effective and efficient use of the
English language and technology when communicating with others, and (2) the ability
to effectively and efficiently communicate and interact with people from diverse
cultures, backgrounds, and authority levels.
o Problem-solving and decision-making skills. These skills relate to being creative
and proactive in finding a solution to a recognised, but often ill-defined, problem or a
problematic and complex situation.
o Continuous learning orientation. This involves having a cognitive openness to
lifelong learning and being willing to proactively engage in acquiring new knowledge,
skills and abilities throughout your life and career in reaction to (and in anticipation of)
changing technology and performance criteria.
o Enterprising skills. These skills involve being adventurous and applying critical
thinking and initiative and being proactive when engaging in economic activities or
undertakings either to create and operate an enterprise of your own or to be a
substantial contributor to an enterprise as an employee. Being enterprising also means
that you are able to recognise and be adept at dealing with organisational or team
politics.
o Presenting and applying information skills. These skills refer to the ability to
communicate knowledge, facts, ideas, and opinions (oral and written) clearly and
convincingly in order to offer solutions to problems (either for your personal benefit or
for the benefit of your community or workplace).
o Goal-directed behaviour. This refers to the ability to be proactive and apply initiative
to achieve your goals, accomplish tasks or meet deadlines. Setting realistic goals,
developing plans, and taking action to achieve your goals, accomplish tasks and meet
deadlines are core elements of goal-directed behaviour.
o Ethical and responsible behaviour. This involves accepting full responsibility for and
taking the lead in upholding the code of moral beliefs and values of your profession,
community and/or workplace.
4
o Analytical thinking skills. Analytical thinking implies being able to use logic,
reasoning, and analysis in competently explaining information and data, and being
able to draw insightful conclusions from this data analysis.
As students’ study and work, it will become evident in their day-to-day interactions that
they display CEMS generic transferable meta-skills and personal attributes. Through
the use of language, critical reasoning abilities, self-improvement, consideration of the
consequences of the solutions they provide, presenting these solutions, setting goals,
taking the lead, and giving accurate explanations for information amongst others.
Examples of these kinds of skills are illustrated in Table 1 (Coetzee 2012).
Table 1
CEMS generic skills and attributes
SKILLS EVIDENCE
o Use of language and technology
o Communication style
o Understanding
o Conflict resolution
Interactive skills
o Persuading
o Gaining cooperation
o Expertise sharing
o Critical reasoning
o Considers complexity of a larger cultural,
business, and economic reality
o Initiate changes
Problem solving/decision
o Creative
making skills
o Proactive
o Novel ideas
o Clear decisions
Continuous learning o Reflection on own skills and knowledge

orientation o Self-improvement
5
o Monitor own performance

o Successful completion of goals, tasks and
assignments
o Identify business opportunities

o Financial awareness
o Consider the consequences of solutions
Enterprising skills o Impact on the larger culture of the business
o Adept in dealing with organisational and team
politics
o Present knowledge, facts, ideas, and opinions

o Avoid jargon/complicated language
Presenting and applying o Apply information for making a positive
information skills difference
o Consider a wide range of solutions
o Set realistic goals

o Develop plans
o Take action
Goal-directed behaviour
o Identify necessary resources
o Access information
o Take the lead

o Motivate others
Ethical and responsible
o Accept responsibility for own actions
behaviour
o Considers plagiarism
o Give accurate explanations for information

o Rational judgements
o Breaking information into components
Analytical skills
o Sees relationships/patterns
o Draws insightful conclusions
6
5 Critical reading skill
In academia and other environments critical reading skills are important. In this module
and as you continue with your studies you will come across a number of activities
which require critical reading skills. What this means is that you need to exercise your
judgement about what you are reading - not take everything at face value.
This does not mean being argumentative without substantiating evidence to the
contrary. You should always examine what you are reading critically and look for
limitations, omissions, inconsistencies, oversights, and arguments against what you
are reading. In academic circles, whilst you are a student, you will be expected to
understand different viewpoints and make your own judgements based on what you
have read.
As a critical reader you should reflect on:
o What the text says: after critically reading a piece you should be able to take
notes, paraphrasing - in your own words - the key points.
o What the text describes: you should be confident that you have understood the
text sufficiently to be able to use your own examples and compare and contrast
with other writing on the subject in hand.
o Interpretation of the text: this means that you should be able to fully analyse the
text and state a meaning for the text as a whole.
Critical reading means being able to reflect on what a text says, what it describes
and what it means by scrutinising the style and structure of the writing, the language
used as well as the content.
Read more at: https://www.skillsyouneed.com/learn/critical-reading.html
We encourage students to hone this skill while working on this module and show
evidence of the skill as you engage with the different activities in the module.
6. A typical graduate
The diagram here will give you an excellent idea of the type of graduate we would like
you to be when graduating. In a global knowledge-based economy and society,
7
employers’ perceptions about the quality of graduates from higher education

institutions such as Unisa, their employability and general work readiness increasingly
influence graduates’ transition into employment. Your employability as a graduate is
an important aspect of your overall graduateness. As an aspect of your graduateness,
employability relates to your subjective career – which involves a sense of self-
directedness or personal agency in retaining or securing a job or form of employment
based on a set of personal career-related attributes and dispositions generally
promoted by employers and researchers as an alternative to job security in an
uncertain employment context. In this module, you will learn more about these
employability attributes. As shown in the figure, by developing your graduateness skills
and attributes, you will have the necessary tools to be a valuable employee or
candidate in the 21st century world of work. Research has shown that graduates’
graduateness significantly predicts their employability.
8
Note: errata in the figure RARE = Responsible, Accountable, Relevant, Ethical

Reference
Coetzee, M., Botha, J., & Eccles, N. (Eds.). (2012). Developing student
graduateness & employability. Knowres Publishing.
9
DON’T DRINK THE COOL-AID: THE CASE OF JIM JONES
The parents of James Warren "Jim" Jones was not around much when he grew up. He started
going to church with a neighbour. When he was about 10 years old he visited numerous churches
and started to preach to other children. He was a good public speaker and a religious fanatic. In
1952 he became an apprentice pastor, and quickly developed a reputation as a healer and
evangelist in the state of Indiana. In 1955 he formed his own church, the Peoples Temple,
because he believed in racial equality and ethnic integration. He and his wife were the first white
couple to adopt a black child in 1961.
The People’s Temple grew because of his fiery and passionate preaching in which he promised
utopia and a better life. His sermons demonstrated supposed healings and he was always neatly
and clean in his appearance. Jim became more and more popular, and wealthy off the donations
of his followers. To establish power over them, he sought to destroy their family relationships
and advocated himself as the father of all. He started misusing drugs and became paranoid. As
his following grew, he moved 1,000 members of the Peoples Temple to a compound in Guyana
that he christened Jonestown. He assumed total control over the lives of his followers and ran
the compound like a prison camp. He preached to them over loudspeakers and preventing them
from leaving with armed guards. He became heavily addicted to drugs. In 1977 American
congressman Leo J. Ryan led a visit to Jonestown to attempt a rescue, but he was attacked by
Jones’ gunmen and killed together with four other people in his group. Knowing that he reached
a limit, Jones launched what he called his "revolutionary suicide" campaign. Cyanide and Valium
were mixed into a batch of powdered drink mix. Members of the People’s Temple who refused,
were forced to drink cups of this toxic punch. The first to die were the children. In total, more
than 900 people died at Jonestown of which 276 were children. Whilst this was happening, Jones
surrounded himself with his inner circle and was shot in the head.
SOURCE: Biography.com Editors. (2014). Jim Jones Biography. A&E Television Networks.
Available online at https://www.biography.com/crime-figure/jim-jones (accessed 3 April 2020).
Glossary - Key Psychology Terms
English-Afrikaans- Northern Sotho -Zulu glossary
English-Afrikaans Northern Sotho Zulu

abscissa (x-axis on graphs) – absis (x-as bokopanyo ukuqondana
op grafieke) kwamaphuzu
(inkabamudwa ka-x
kumagrafu)
accommodation – akkommodasie, bodulo indawo yokuhlala
aanpassing by
achievement motive – Lebaka la phihlelelo inhloso yokuzuza
prestasiebehoefte/-motief
acquire – aanleer, verwerf Hwetša, humana thola
acquired immunodeficiency syndrome Seka sa tlhaelelo ye e hweditšwego ya ingculazi
(Aids) – verworwe twantšho ya malwetši mmeleng
immuniteitsgebreksindroom (Vigs)
acrophobia – akrofobie, hoogtevrees Poifo ya bogodimo ukwesaba izindawo
eziphakeme
action potential – aksiepotensiaal, Kgonego ya tiro amandla okwenza
senuwee-impuls
activate – aktiveer diragatša ukwenza isebenze
actualising tendencies – bereiking- Temogo ya bokgoni mothong isejwayezi sokuzazi
/verwesenlikingsneigings
acute stress – akute, intense stres Kgatelelo ye bogale ya monagano ingcindezi
ngokwasengqondweni
ebangwa ukwethuka
adaptation (adjustment) – aanpassing Tlwaetšo, tokišo ukuphendukisela
adaptive learning – aanpassingsleer Tšhumišo ya dikhomphuta thutong ukufunda
okujwayelekayo
adjourning – verdaging Phatlalatšo, tšhutišo ya nako ukuhlehlisa
adjustive behaviours – Boitshwaro bjo lokišwago ukuziphatha
aanpassingsgedrag okunokuguquka
aesthetic – esteties Temogišišo ya bokagbo okuphathelene nobuhle
affective state – affektiewe Seemo sa go amega maikutlong isimo sokuthandeka
toestand/emosies
affiliation – affiliasie, betrokkenheid tswalanyo ukuhlanganyela
affirmative action – regstellende aksie Tiro ya matlafatšo isenzo sokufaka
emsebenzini labo
abebencishwe
amathuba
ngaphambilini
Afrocentric – afrosentries Nepišitšego Afrika/batho ba Afrika okugxile kwabansundu
aggregate – aggregaat, totaliteit Kakaretšo, botlalo inani elihlanganisiwe
agoraphobia – agorafobie, ruimtevrees Poifo ya goba gare ga setšhaba ukwesaba izindawo
ezigcwele
aha-experience – aha-ervaring Motsotso wa temogo ulwazi oluziveza
(insigmoment) ngokushesha
Open Rubric
alertness – waaksaamheid Go ba le mafolofolo, go phafoga ukwexwayisa
algophobia – algofobie, pynvrees Poifo ye e feteletšego ya bohloko uvalo lwezindawo
ezigcwele
algorithm – algoritme (ondubbelsinnige Mokgwa wa kgato ka kgato wa tharollo imithetho yokuxazulula
instruksies vir probleemoplossing) ya bothata izinkinga zokubala
alienation – aliënasie, vervreemding Go fapoša ukwahlukanisa
allele – alleel (gene gesamentlik E tee ya popego ya dikokwane tša ezinye izindlela zofuzo
verantwoordelik vir oorerwing) leabela
ambiguity – dubbelsinnigheid Se gakantšhago, sa tlhalošopedi ukufithiza
amnesia – amnesie, geheueverlies Go lebala, go gakiwa ukungasakwazi
ukukhumbula
anchor – beginpunt, ankerwaarde tshetledi isithekezelo
andragogy – andragogie, volwassene- Tshepetšo ya go thuša batho ba bagolo amasu okufunda
opvoeding go ithuta kwabadala
anima – anima (Jung, vroulike in mans) Moya wa motho ingaphakathi lomuntu
animism – animisme, bonatuurlike Tumelo ya gore dilo tša tlhago ka moka inkolelo kumathongo
di na le bophelo ka gare go tšona
animus – animus (Jung, manlike in lehloyo isizondo
vrouens)
antecedent – antesedent, voorafgaande letlapele andulelayo
anthropocentrism – antroposentrisme, Mokgwa wa batho wa go itšea bjalo ka ukuthola amaqiniso
mensgesentreerdheid ba bohlokwa go fetiša lefaseng ngabantu
anticipatory socialisation – Kamogelo ya melao le boitshwaro tša inhlaliswano
antisiperende, afwagtende sosialisasie maleba maemong ezindlelwayo
anxiety disorder – angsversteuring Tšhašarakanyo monaganong ka lebaka ukufihliza okubangwa
la poifo yimbandezeko
apparent movement – skynbare Ponagalo ya mosepelo dilong tše di umnyakazo osobala
beweging emego
appearance factors – voorkomsfaktore Mabaka a ponagalo izimpawu zokubonakala
applied fields – toegepaste velde Karolo ya tsebo ye e ka dirišwago imikhakha ebonakalayo
applied research – toegepaste navorsing Nyakišišo ye e ka dirišwago ucwaningo
olubonakalayo
aptitude – aanleg Bokgoni bja tlhago isiphiwo
articulated – geartikuleerd, duidelik Kwagaditšwego, tlhabošitšwego phimisela
assessment centre – takseersentrum Senthara ya kelo isikhungo sokuhlola
assessment method – Mokgwa wa kelo indlela yokuhlola
evalueringsmetode
assimilation – assimilasie, inkorporasie Tshwantšho, khuetšano ukufanisa
association – assosiasie, verwantskap Kopano, kwano inhlangano
association neurons – Dinyurone tša go kopanya ukuhlangana kwemizwa
assosiasieneurone, verbindingsneurone
attachment – gehegtheid kgomaganyo ukubambana
attending – aandag skenk aan Go hlokomela ukuba khona
attitude – houding Mokgwa, maitshwaro isimongqondo
attitudinal values – houdingswaardes Mekgwa ya boitshwaro izinkolelo zokuphila
kwabantu
attributes – attribute, kenmerke mokgwa izimpawu
attribution – attribusie, bydraes semelo ukunikeza izimpawu
authentic self – werklike, ware self Seo motho a lego sona ka tlhago wena uqobo
autocratic – outokraties mmušanoši impoqamandla
autonomic nervous system – Tsela ya megalatšhika ye e itaolago uhlelo lwemizwa
outonomiese senuweestelsel oluzimele
autonomy – outonomie, onafhanklikheid Go itaola, go ipuša ukuzimela
avoidant – vermydend Go phefa tsenelelano le bangwe xwayayo
axolemma – aksolemma Letlalwana leo le khupetšago sele ya ulwebu lwangaphandle
mogalatšhika lwe-exoni
axon – akson, geleidingsenuwee aksone i-ekzoni
axoplasm – aksoplasma Saethoplasma ya ka gare ga aksone ya iseli yemizwa
nyurone
behaviour modification – Phetošo ya boitshwaro ukuguqulwa
gedragsmodifikasie, gedragsverandering kokuziphatha
behaviourally anchored rating scale Sekala sa go lekanya boitshwaro isikali sokuhlela
(BARS) – gedragsgeankerde amazinga okuziphatha
beoordelingskaal athekezelayo
behaviourism – behaviourisme, gedrags- Tshekatsheko go ya ka boitshwaro ukuziphatha
, leerbenadering
belief – oortuiging, geloof tumelo inkolelo
benchmark – teikenpunt Boemo bja kelo goba bja kahlolo ukuqhathanisa
ukusebenza
biographical date/biodata – Letšatšikgwedi la taodišophelo umlando wempilo
biografiese/historiese data
bimodal thinking – bimodale denke mekgwapedi ya go nagana indlela yokucabanga
ngokwazi
binocular – binokulêr (beide- Tšhomišo ya mahlo a mabedi ka nako e ingilazi yokubuka kude
oogwaarneming) tee
bodily self – liggaamlike self Wena ka sebele umzimba wakho uqobo
bonding – binding Tlamo, kgwerano ukubambana
borderline personality disorder – Tšhašarakano ya maikutlo le go tekema ukuphazamiseka
grensgeval persoonlikheidsversteuring ga tswalano le batho ba bangwe le engqondweni okuthatha
maikutlo isikhathi
bottom-up – onder-na-bo Tsebo ye o thomago go ithuta go tloga ukusuka phansi ukuya
go yona phezulu
brainstorming – dinkskrum, ideeberaad Mokgwa wa tharollo ya bothata ka ukuxoxisana
sehlopha
broaden-and-build theory – verbreed-en- Teori ya maikutlo a maleba-le-kgodišo umcabango obanzi
bou teorie ya bokgoni nokwakhelwe kuwo
burnout – uitbranding Go lapa nako ye telele le go felelwa ke okusetshenziswe
kgahlego kwaphela
camaraderie – kamaraderie, maatswees Sethaka, bogwera, setswalle ubungani
capability – bekwaamheid, vaardigheid kgonego ikhono
capacity – kapasiteit, vermoë boteng amandla
cardinal trait – kardinale trek Semelo sa maatla seo se laolago okuqondisa ukuziphatha
boitshwaro bja motho komuntu
cardiovascular – kardiovaskulêr, hart-, Tshepelo ya madi imisipha yenhliziyo
bloedvatverwant
career anchor – loopbaananker Bokgoni, ditlhohleletšo le boitshwaro ithonya lokukhetha
tše di tswalanego le mošomo wa motho umsebenzi
career development – Go ithuta bokgoni bjo boswa gore o ukuthuthukiswa
loopbaanontwikkeling kaonefatše mošomo wa gago komsebenzi
career indecision – Go se kgone go tšea sephetho ukungabi nesinqumo
loopbaanonsekerheid, -besluiteloosheid malebana le mošomo ngomesebenzi
career maturity – beroepsrypheid bogolo bja maleba ya go šoma ukukhula
ngokwengqondo
emsebenzini
career psychology – loopbaansielkunde Dikeletšo ka ga boitshwaro mošomong ingqondo yomsebenzi
carpal tunnel syndrome – karpale Bogatšu marapong a seatla ubuhlungu obubangwa
tonnelsindroom (oorgebruik van ukucindezeleka
handgewrigspiere) kwemizwa
carry-over behaviour – oordrag-gedrag Boitshwaro bjo phelago bo le gona ukuziphatha
okundlulisiwe
catatonic schizophrenia – katatoniese Bolwetši bja monagano bjo paledišago ukungaphili kahle
skisofrenie molwetši go šutha goba go bolela engqondweni
causality – oorsaaklikheid Tswalano gare ga tiragalo le imbangela
ditlamorago tša tiragalo
cells – selle disele amaseli
central attitude – sentrale houding Boitshwaro bja motheo umqondosimo
olawulayo
central nervous system – sentrale Tsela ya gare ya tshepelo ya uhlelo lwemizwa
senuweestelsel megalatšhika ebalulekile
central tendency – sentrale geneigdheid Mokgwa wa motheo isejwayezi
central trait – sentrale trek Sebopego/semelo sa motheo isici esilawulayo
central value – sentrale waarde Mohola wa motheo ukwazisa okulawulayo
centralisation – sentralisasie Ditshepetšo tše phethwago lefelong le ukuhlanganisa
itšego ndawonye
cerebellum – serebellum, kleinbrein bjokwana ubuchopho besiphundu
cerebral cortex – serebrale korteks, Legogo la bjoko ungwengwezi
breinskors olwemboze ubuchopho
cerebral hemispheres – serebrale Diripa tše pedi tša bjoko izingxenye zobuchopho
hemisfere
cerebrum – serebrum, grootbrein bjokokgolo ubuchopho
character – karakter Semelo, mokgwa, moanegwa, isici, umlingiswa
sebopego
charisma – charisma, persoonlike impak Semelo sa go tanya kgahlego bathong ubuntu obuwungayo
checklist – merklys, kontrolelys Lenaneo la kgonthišo uhlu lokuzihlola
chromosomes – chromosome dikhromosoume okusazintambo
zemizwa
chronic – chronies, langdurige Gogago, dulago okungapheli
chronological age – chronologiese, Mengwaga ye motho a e phetšego ukulandelana
ouderdom volgens tyd kweminyaka
chunking – stuksgewys (by geheue) Mokgwa sehlopha wa phetolo ukwenza iziqenjana
mošongwaneng wa go gopola dilo ka
hlogo, mokgwa wa go beakanya diyuniti
ka botee go bopa dihlopha
circular interaction – sirkulêre interaksie Tsenelelano gare ga sehlopha ukuxhumana
okujikelezayo
circumspection, pre-emption, control (C- tlhokomelo umjikelezo obikezelayo
P-C) cycle – omsigtige, voorafkontrole
siklus
classical behaviourism – klassieke Boitshwaro go ya ka temogo ya setsoši ukuziphatha
(oorspronklike) behaviourisme seo se hlagišitšego phetogo ye e itšego ngokuvelele
yeo e lemogilwego
client-centred psychotherapy – Keletšo ya go thuša motho go lebana le ukwelapha ingqondo
kliëntgesentreede psigoterapie mathata a gagwe okubhekise kusiguli
clinical picture – kliniese beeld, Tshedimošo ka ga bolwetši goba ukwenekelwa
siekteprofiel seemo sa molwetši ukwelapha
clinical psychology – kliniese sielkunde Phekolo le kalafo ya malwetši a ukwelapha ingqondo
monagano
closure – sluiting tswalelelo ukuvala
coalition – koalisie, bondgenootskap Kopano, tlhakatlhakano ubumbano
cocktail party syndrome – Bothata bja go latela poledišano ukungakwazi
skemerkelkparty-sindroom lefelong la mašata ukwehlukanisa phakathi
(aandagfluktuasie) kwemisindo
coercive power – magsafdwinging, Maatla a moetapele go fa kotlo amandla acindezelwe
oorreding
cognition – kognitief, intellektueel temogo ubuhlakani
cognitive ability – kognitiewe vermoë Bokgoni bja temogo ikhono lobuhlakani
cognitive broadening – kognitiewe Ditlhathollo tše fapanego tša kgopolo ukwenziwa banzi
verbreeding ye e rilego kobuhlakani
cognitive complexity – kognitiewe Ka moo bokgoni bja go lemoga le go ubuhlakani obiphicayo
gekompliseerdheid kwešiša bo raranego ka gona
cognitive control – kognitiewe kontrole Ditshepetšo tša monagano tšeo di ubuhlakani
hlolago peakanyo ya dili, kamogelo ya obulawulwayo
melao le taolo ya ditiro tše lokilego le
tše di sa lokago
cognitive disorder – kognitiewe Tšhašarakano bokgoning bja go ukungahambi kahle
versteuring leomga le go kwešiša kobuhlakani
cognitive disregard – kognitiewe Tlhokomologo ya tsebo ukunganakwa
uitsluiting kobuhlakani
cognitive dissonance – kognitiewe Go tlaila imicabango
dissonansie eguquguqukayo
cognitive learning – kognitiewe leer Thuto ye e hlohleletšago bokgoni bja ukufunda usebenzisa
tharollo ya mathata amakhono obuhlakani
cognitive map – kognitiewe kaart, Kgoboketšo ya ditumelo, maitemogelo ibalazwe lobuhlakani
denkpatroon le tsebo gore o itlwaetše tikologo
cognitive psychology – kognitiewe Thuto ya saekholotši ka ga mokgwa wa umqondo wobuhlakani
sielkunde go nagana le temogo
cognitive representations – kognitiewe Tshwantšhokgopolo ye e emelago okumele ubuhlakani
voorstellings nnete ye e ka bonwago
cognitive style – kognitiewe styl Ka moo batho ba lemogago, naganago ukuhleleka kobuhlakani
le go gopola dilo
coherence – koherensie, samehang Kgomagano, tshwaragano ukunamathelana
cohesion – kohesie, samehorigheid Kgomagano, tshwaragano ukunamathelana
collective – kollektief, gesamentlik Ka sehlopha, ka kfobokanyo into ehlanganyelwe
collective responsibility – gesamentlike Maikarabelo ka sehlopha isibopho
verantwoordelikheid esihlanganyelwe
collective unconscious – kollektiewe Ditiragalo tša monaganong wa motho ukuzwa
onbewuste tšeo a sa lemogego gore di gona okuhlanganyelwe
kgopolong ya gagwe
collectivism – kollektivisme Mokgwa wa thuo ka mmušo goba ukuhlanganyela
setšhaba
combat exhaustion – gevegsuitputting Tlalelo ye theilwego go boitemogelo go ukuqeda ukukhathala
tiragalo ya kgobalo
command group – instruksie-, Sehlophatšhireletšo seo se sepelago le iqembu elikhuzayo
bevelsgroep molaodi wa sešole
command level – bevels- of Boemo bja taolo izinga lokukhuza
betekenisvlak (in boodskappe)
common trait – algemene trek Semelo se se swanago izimpawu ezivamile
commonality – eendersheid Ponagatšo ya semelo sa go swana ukuvama
community psychology – Tswalano ya motho setšhabeng ukusebenza
gemeenskapsielkunde kwengqondo
yomphakathi
compensation – kompensering, pušetšo isinxephezelo
vergoeding
competence – bevoegdheid, bokgoni ikhono
bekwaamheid
complementarity – aanvullend Sa tlaleletšo okugcwalisayo
compliance – inskiklikheid, Ka go ineela ukuvumelana
toegeeflikheid
conceptual grouping – konseptuele Tlhopho go ya ka dikgopolo ukubeka ngamaqembu
groepering emiqondo
conditioned reflex – gekondisioneerde Phetogo ye e hlotšwego ke setsoši imizwa elawulwayo
refleks morago ga go hlahlwa gore o fetoge go
setsoši
conditioning – kondisionering Tlhahlo ya go fetoga go setsoši ukubeka isimiselo
confirmation – bevestiging tiišo ukufakazela
conflict management – konflikbestuur Taolo ya kgakgano/phapano/thulano ukusingatha
ukungezwani
conformity – konformiteit Go swana le ukuvumelana
conformity status – konformiteitstatus Boemo bja tshwantšho isimo sokuvumelana
congenital – kongenitaal (eienskappe Ya tlhago, abetšwego ozelwe nakho
aanwesig vanaf geboorte)
congruence – kongruensie, Kwano, tshwano ukuvumelana
ooreenstemmend
connotation – konnotasie, Kgopolo ye e tlišwago ke lentšu incazelo
dieperliggende (emosionele) betekenis
conscientiousness – konsensieusheid, Tlhokomedišo ye e tseneletšego ukwenza ngokucikelela
nougesetheid
consciousness – bewussyn Temogo, boikutlo, boitsebo ukwazi
consensus – konsensus, eenparigheid kwano ukuvumelana
conservation – bewaring Poloko, paballo ukulondoloza
consistency – konstantheid Tiišo, kgotlelelo, phegelelo ukuhambisana
construct – konstruk (’n abstrakte Bopa, hlomaganya akha
voorstelling), begrip
constructive alternativism – Peakanyo/popego/thulaganyo/ponagalo enye indlela eyakhayo
konstruktiewe alternativisme, ye nngwe gape ye e fapanego
veranderlikheid
constructivistic – konstruktivisties Peakanyo ye e hlolegilego okunokwakha
monaganong wa motho
consultation – konsultasie therišano ukweluleka
consulting psychology – Modiro wa mosaekholotši wa go šomiša ukusebenza
konsultasiesielkunde tsebo ditherišanong tša mathata ao a kwengqondo yabeluleki
amago boitshwaro bja motho mafelong
a a itšego.
consumer psychology – Thuto ka ga boitshwaro bja bareki ba ukusebenza
verbruikersielkunde dithoto kwengqondo yabathengi
contagious violence – aansteeklike Bošoro bjo bo fetelago udlame oluthathelanayo
geweld
containment – inhou, insluiting Tiro ya go swara selo gore se se valelekile
phatlalatšwe
context – konteks, binne verband Tshwaragano, kamano isimo
contingency – gebeurlikheid, Tiragalo ye e ka diregago goba ye e ka okungahle kuvele
moontlikheid se diregego
continuity – aaneenlopendheid Bosafeleng, tšwelelo, go iša pele ukuqhubeka
continuous interaction – voortdurende Tsenelelano ya bosafeleng ukuxhumana
interaksie okuqhubekayo
continuous variable – kontinue Selo sefe goba sefe seo se felago se uphawu olumele
(ongelykmatige) veranderlike tšea bogolo/botelele bjo bo ka fetogago okuguqukayo
continuum – kontinuum Tšwetšopele ya phapano ye nnyane uchungechunge
convenience range – Paka ya tshwanelego ukwehlukahlukana
gerieflikheidsomvang kwezinto
converge – konvergeer, bymekaarkom hlakanela khandana
convergence – konvergering, tlhakanelo ukukhandana
samekoms, samevoeging
convergent thinking – konvergente Mokgwa wa tharollo ya bothata wo ukucabanga
denke (spesifieke wyse van denke) dikakanyo di tlišwago mmogo gore go okukhandanayo
tšewe tharollo e tee
conversion disorders – Ditshwao tša bofofu, bogolofadi le tše ukungalungi kahle
konversieversteurings dingwe tša peakanyo ya megalatšhika okuphendukayo
tše di ka se hlalošwego ke tekolo ya
bongaka
co-operative economics – gesamentlike Lekala la tša ikonomi leo le amago thuo ezomnotho
ekonomie ya kgwebo ka setšhaba ezinokubambisana
coping skills – hanteringsvaardighede Mokgwa wa go laola kgatelelo/mathata amakhono okumelana
nesimo
core constructs – kernkonstrukte Mmotlolo wa motheo wa monaganong izinkontileka
wo o diretšwego go dira kakaretšo ya ezingumnyombo
dintlha tše ntši le go hlama diteori tša
go fa tlhalošo
core pathology – hoofpatologie Thutabolwetši ya motheo okungumnyombo
corporate philosophy – korporatiewe Morero/filosofi wa/ya kgwebo inzululwazi
(bestuurs-) filosofie yokubambisana
corrective actions – korrektiewe-, Ditiro tša tokišo izenzo zokulungisa
regstellende handelinge
correlation – korrelasie, verwantskap Nyalanyo,papišo, tshwantšhanyo ubudlelwane
correlation coefficient – Kelo ya maatla a go nyalanya/swantšha ubudlelwane
korrelasiekoëffisiënt bokusebenzisana
cosmology – kosmologie, wêreldkunde Tlhalošo goba teori ya tlhago ya legohle isifundo sezomhlaba
(lefase, letšatši, ngwedi, diplanete)
coaching groups – afrigtingsgroepe Dihlopha tša tlhahlo amaqembu okuqeqesha
counselling – voorligting Go eletša, go gakolola ukweluleka
creative values – kreatiewe waardes Bokgoni bja go hlola ukwaziswa kokuqamba
creative self – kreatiewe self Semelo sa motho sa tlhago sa go ukuqamba kwakho
kgona go hlola
credibility – geloofwaardigheid Go tshepega ukukholeka
criterion – kriterium, standaard Kelo, selekanyo indlela
critical periods – kritieke periodes Nako kgolong ya motho yeo go yona izikhathi ezinzima
bokgoni bjo bo itšego bo ka fihlelelwago
critical situations – kritiese situasies Seemo sa tlhobaetšo izimo ezinzima
cross-cultural psychology – kruis- Thuto ka ga ka moo ditšo tša batho di umgqondo wamasiko
kulturele sielkunde huetšago boitshwaro bja bona ehlukene
crystallisation – kristallisasie, opklaring Kgahlo/ go kgahla ukuphenduka kube
ngamakristali
cultural diversity – kulturele diversiteit Go fapana ga ditšo tša batho tikologong ukwehlukana
kwamasiko
cultural values – kulturele waardes Dikgopolo, ditumelo, boitshwaro tše di ukwaziswa kwamasiko
latetšwego ke setšhaba go tloga kgale
culture-bound syndromes – Dika tša bolwetši bja isimo sokubambelela
kultuurgebonde sindrome monagano/boitshwaro tše di kumasiko
lemogwago bathong ba itšego
cumulative stress – kumulatiewe-, Dihlolakgatelelo ya monagano tše di ingcindezi eyakhelekayo
aanhoudende stres tlago ka go hlatlamana
cyclothymic depressive – siklotimiese Seemo sa tšharakanyo ya monagano le ukungaphili kahle
(veranderende) depressie medirišo ya motho engqondweni
kwesikhathi eside
death instinct (thanatos) – doodsinstink Tšhušumetšo ya go hwa isazela sokufa
(tanatos)
deceleration – afname, vermindering tiegišo ukunciphisa
decentralisation – desentralisasie phatlalatšo ukwehlukanisa
ukulawula
decision frame – Mokgwa wa go hlaloša goba go uhlaka lwesinqumo
besluitnemingsraamwerk tšweletša bothata bja go dira kahlolo
decision-making – besluitneming Mokgwa wa go fihlelela ukuthathwa
kahlolo/sephetho kwezinqumo
decompensation – dekompensasie, Go šitega go tšweletša mekgwa ya go ukuqeda isinxephezelo
disintegrasie laola kgatelelo
deconstructionism – dekonstruktivisme Teori ya go swaya diphošo ka go isu lokuhlakaza
nyakišišo ka dikgopolo tše di
tlwaelegilego
deduction – deduksie, spesifieke Tlošo, phokotšo ukususa
afleiding
defence mechanism – Boitshwaro bja go leka go katana le indlela yokuzivikela
verdedigingsmeganisme kgatelelo
deficiency need – gebreksbehoefte Dihlokwa / dinyakwa tše bohlokwa isidingo sokwentulwayo
deindividuation – deïndividuasie, Seemo sa fase mo motho a se sa ukungabonwa komuntu
identiteitsverlies tšewago bjalo ka motho njengozimele
delegation – delegering, afwenteling Boromiwa, botseta izithunywa
deliberation – beraadslaging Kgopolo, tlhokomelo, kakanyo izingxoxo
delusion – delusie, waandenkbeeld Thetšo, phoro, tlhalefetšo inkohliso
dendrite – dendriete, dendron Makala ao a phatlalalago a nyurone uhlelo lwemizwa
(neuronvertakkings)
denial – ontkenning Tatolo, kganelo, kganelo, boitatolo ukuphika
denotative meaning – denotatiewe, Tlhalošothwii ya lentšu incazelo yokuthile
saaklike betekenis
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) – Sesepetša tshedimošo ya dikokwane iseli equkethe ulwazi
deoksiribonokleïensuur (DNS) tša leabela lofuzo
departmentalisation – Peakanyo go ya ka dikgoro ukubeka
departementalisasie ngokweminyango
dependent personality – afhanklike Boitshwaro bja go rata go bota batho ukuncika komuntu
persoonlikheid ba bangwe
dependent variable – afhanklike Seo se elwago ge go dirwa diteko ukuncika
veranderlike okuguquguqukayo
depersonalisation – depersonalisasie Go hlokiša motho maikutlo a go ba ukwehlukanisa
motho okuqondene nomuntu
depressive disorder – depressiewe Seemo seo moya wa motho o lego fase ukungalungi kahle
versteuring kudu okunengcindezi
deprivation – deprivasie, ontneming Kamogo, tlhokišo ukwamuka, ukuncisha
depth psychology – dieptesielkunde (bv. Dithekniki tša go alafa tšhašarakanyo okwengqondo okujulile
psigoanalise) ya monagano
descriptive statistics – beskrywende Dipalopalo tše di šomišwago go hlaloša izibalo ezichazayo
statistiek
desensitised – desensitiseer, Go dira motho gore a se tšhoge kudu ukwenza kungazweli
gevoeligheidsafname goba a se kwe kgatelelo ye fetišago kakhulu
design coherence – ontwerpsamehang Tlhamego ya dikarolo tše di ukuhambisana
nyalelanago kwezingxenye
deterministic – determinerend, bepalend Kgopolo ya gore sephetho ke okunokunquma
ditlamorago tša tiragalo ye e bilego
gona mathomong
developed cognitive ability – ontwikkelde Bokgoni bja motheo bjo bo ikhono lobuhlakani
kognitiewe vermoë godišitšwego bjo re bo nyakago go elithuthukile
phethagatša tiro efe goba efe
developmental tasks – ontwikkelingstake Bokgoni bjo motho a swanetšego go bo imisebenzi
fihlelela mengwageng ye e rilego gore ethuthukisayo
a tšwele pele go gola
deviant behaviour – afwykende gedrag Boitshwaro bjo tšwilego tseleng/ bja go ukuziphatha okuphume
hloka tšhomišano endleleni
dexterity – handigheid (bv. Botswiriri, bokgoni, botsebi ingalo
regshandigheid)
diagnosis – diagnose, probleemanalise phekolo ukuhlahlwa kwesifo
Diagnostic Statistical Manual (DSM) – Puku ya Phekolo le dipalopalo i-Diagnostic Statistical
Diagnostiese Statistiese Handleiding Manual
dichotomy – digotomie, tweeledigheid Dikarolo tše pedi tše di fapanego ukunquma kabili
differential reinforcement – differensiële Kgodišo ya boitshwaro bjo nyakegago ukucindezela
versterking mola bjo sa nyakegego bo fokotšwa okwehlukanisayo
differentiation – differensiasie, Phapanyo, phapantšho ukwehlukanisa
onderskeiding
discourse analysis – gespreksontleding Tshekatsheko ya tšhomišo ya polelo ye isifundo sokuhlaziya
e ngwadilwego goba ye e bolelwago okukhulunyiwe
discourse – diskoers, bespreking Kgang, poledišano intshumayelo
discrete variable – diskrete (vaste) Peakanyo ye e ka fetogago yeo e ka se ukuguquguquka
veranderlike tšeego palo efe goba efe okwehlukene
discretionary coalitions – diskresionêre Dikopano go ya ka boikgethelo umbimbi olwakhiwe
koalisies ngokuzibonela
discrimination – diskriminasie Tlhaolo, kgethollo ukubandlulula
disease-prone personality – Motho wa go tšhabelwa /tsenwa ke umuntu othandwa
siektegeneigde persoonlikheid bolwetši gabonolo ukugula
disequilibrium – disekwilibrium, Go hloka tekatekanyo ukungalingani
onewewigtigheid
disintegration – disintegrasie karogano ukwehlukanisa
disorder – versteuring tlhakantswiki ukungasebenzi kahle
kwengqondo
dissimilarity – verskillendheid phapano ukungafani
displacement – verplasing Peo bakeng sa, tloša, kguduša ukususwa
disposition – disposisie, neiging Sebopego, mokgwa, semelo ukulahla
dissociative disorder – disassosiatiewe Karoganyo gare ga monagano, ukwehlukana
versteuring dikgopolo, maikutlo, ditiro tša motho le okungakalungi
gore ke yena mang
dissociative fugue – dissosiatiewe fuga Seemo sa go se sa gopola selo ka ukuziqhelisa kubantu
(verandering a.g.v. geheueverlies) bophelo bja gago bjo bo fetilego okungahleliwe
dissonance – dissonansie, Thulano gare ga ditumelo tša motho le ukubhimba
onversoenbaarheid ditiro tša gagwe
distribution of practice – Kabo ya modiro wa botsebi ukusatshalaliswa
oefeningverspreiding kwenqubo
distributions – verspreidings Kabo, kabelo, phatlalatšo ukusatshalaliswa
divergent thinking – divergente, Mokgwa wa go hlagiša kgopolo yeo e ukucabanga
buigsame denke hlolago dikgopolo tše dingwe go rarolla okwehlukile
bothata.
diversity – diversiteit, verskeidenheid phapogo ukwehlukana
dizygotic – disigoties (nie-identies) Go tšwa maeng a go fapana ao a okuvela kumaqanda
nontšhitšwego amabili avundisiwe
dominance – dominansie Maatla go fetiša tše dingwe ukubusa
drive reduction – dryfveervermindering Phokotšego ya kganyogo ukunciphisa ekwenzeni
okuthile
drives – dryfvere, behoeftes dikganyogo ukulawula, ukushayela
dyad – diade, paar Sehlopha sa bobedi okunezingxenye ezimbili
dynamic muscular activity – dinamiese Tšhomišo ya maatla ao a hlolago ukunyakaza kwemisipha
spieraktiwiteit tšhušumetšo enamandla
dynamic trait – dinamiese trek Dipopego tše di ikgethago uphawu olunamandla
dynamics – dinamiek (ontwikkeling, ditšhušumetšo amandla
motivering)
dysfunctional – disfunksioneel Tšhitišo go phethagatša tiro ka mo go ukungasebenzi kahle
tlwaelegilego
dysthymic depression – distimiese Kgatelelo ye e sego bogale ya ingcindezi yengqondo
depressie monagano ya nako ye telele ye e yesikhathi eside
hlolago go se be le kgahlego ditirong
tša gago
eccentric – eksentries, snaaks Šele, makatšago okungavamile
eclectic approach – eklektiese Mokgwa wa go kgetha dikgopolo tše indlela yokukhetha
(saamgevoegde) benadering kaonekaone/ go se latele peakanyo e kokwehlukene
tee fela
eclecticism – eklektisisme, samevoeging Kgetho go tšwa methopong ye e ukukhetha
fapanego kokwehlukene
ecosystemic – ekosistemies Peakanyo ya nyalelano gare ga diphedi okusohlelweni lwemvelo
le tikologo ya tšona
educational psychology – Thuto ka ga bana dikolong ka go lekola kohlelo lwemvelo
opvoedkundige sielkunde mekgwa ya go ruta, tšweleo pele ya
menagano ya bana le go ba lekola
effectiveness – effektiwiteit phethagatšo okusebenzayo
efficiency – doeltreffendheid, bokgoni ukusebenza kahle
bekwaamheid
ego – ego, bewustelike self bowena ukuzazi, ukuzibona,
ukuziqhayisa
ego-identity – ego-identiteit, persoonlike Seo motho ka boyena a lego sona ukuzazi
identiteit
egodystonic – ego-distonies, ego- Boitshwaro bja motho bjo a sa bo imicabango
onaanvaarbaar amogelego gomme bo mo hlolela nokuziphatha
kgatelelo ya monagano okushayisanayo
eidetic reduction – eidetiese (detail) Mokgwa wa go šupa dikarolo tše isu lokuthola ngezinto
vermindering van ervaringe bohlokwa tša tiragalo goba ezincane
maitemogelo
Eigenwelt – eiewêreld Tswalano ya gago le bowena goba le I-Eigenwelt
lefase la gago
emotion process – emosieproses Go kwešiša maikutlo a khuduego ukuphatheka emoyeni
emotional intelligence – emosionele Bokgoni bja go lemoga maikutlo a gago ubuhlakani
intelligensie le a batho ba bangwe le go šomiša
tshedimošo yeo go hlahla le go laola
mogopolo le maikutlo a gago
empathy – empatie Bokgoni bja go kwešiša maikutlo a uzwelo
batho bangwe
empirical – empiries, bewese (bv. kennis) Seo se theilwego go boitemogelo okuboniwe
employee-assistance programme – Tirelo ya thekgo go thuša bašomedi uhlelo lokusiza
werknemerondersteuningsprogram mathateng ao a amago mošomo wa abasebenzi
bona
employee-centred – Tebelelo go mošomedi okuqondise kumsebenzi
werknemergesentreerd
employee-and organisational well-being Tikologo ye e hlolago seemo se se ukusebenzisana kahle
– wernemer-en organisasiegesondheid kgotsofatšago gore mošomedi a phakathi komsebenzi
phethagatše bokgoni bja gagwe ka nenhlangano
moka gore mokgatlo o hwetše dipoelo
tše di nyakegago
employment relations – Setswalle se se swanetšego gare ga ubudlelwane
werknemingsverhouding bathapi le bašomedi emsebenzini
encoding – enkodering, verwerking Go bopa seswantšho sa tshedimošo ukufaka imfundiso ethile
gore se be mogopolong
encounter group – ontmoetingsgroep Mokgwa wa kalafo mo batho ba iqembu elihlanganela
kopanago go tšweletša maikutlo ao a ukuzuza
fapanego ngokwengqondo
enduring belief – blywende oortuiging Tumelo ye e sa felego inkolelo yesikhathi eside
engagement – intensbetrokkenheid tlemano ukubambeka
entrepereneur – entrepreneur setsebakgwebo usomabhizinisi
enzymes – ensieme ensime ama-enzayimu
epigenetic principle – epigenetiese Teori ya tlhago ya boitshwaro bja ditšini umqondo wokufuza
beginsel le khuetšo ya maatla a tikologong go
tšona
epistemological – epistemologies Tlhalošo ya ka moo tsebo ka ga taba ye inzululwazi yokufunda
(kennisbasis) e rilego e ka hwetšwago ka gona ngemvelaphi
equilibrium – ekwilibrium, balans tekanekano ukulingana
equitable rewards – billike (vergelykbare) Kgahlego ye e sa tšeego lehlakore umklomelo olinganisiwe
belonings
equity – billikheid Toka, go se hlaole ukulingana
equivocality – dubbelsinningheid pelaelo umqondo ongaphezulu
kowodwa
ergonomics – ergonomika Mošomo le tswalano ya motho le ubunjiniyeli bomuntu
mošomo woo
erratic – deurmekaar, gedisorganiseerd fetofetogago okunephutha
escalation commitment – Sephetho sa bošilo ukuqinisa ekwenyukeni
toewydingseskalasie
esteem needs – behoeftes aan agting Dinyakwa go ya ka dilo tše motho a di izidingo ezishodayo
hlokago
ethical codes – etiese kodes Melao ye e laolago boitshwaro bjo bo indlela yokuziphatha
swanetšego emsebenzini
ethnocentric approach – etnosentriese Go tšeela morafe wa gago godimo inkolelo yobukhulu
benadering bohlanga lwakho
ethos – etos, gebruike Ditumelo, ditlwaelo le setšo sa isiko lokuziphatha
setšhaba
etiology – oorsaaklikheid Tlholego goba tlhago ya bolwetši isifundo sembangela
eustress – positief-ervaarde stres Kgatelelo yeo e hlagišitšwego ke ingcindezi enobuhle
ditiragalo tše bose
evolution – evolusie, ordelike tlhagelelo ukusombuluka
ontwikkeling, veranderingsleer
evolutionary psychology – Saense ya go hlaloša ka moo batho ba umqondo
evolusiesielkunde itshwaro ka gona wokusombuluka
exertion of power – magsuitoefening Go šomiša maatla ukwenza ngamandla
exhaustion – uitputting, disintegrasie Tapišo, tapo ukukhathala
existential living – eksistensiële lewe (ten Go phela lefelong le le nakong ya bjale ukugxila empilweni
volle lewe)
existentialism – eksistensialisme Filosofi ya go gatelela boitemogelo le inkolelo yokuphila
boikarabelo tša motho
expectancy – verwagting tetelo intemba
expectancy theory – verwagtingsteorie Mmotlo wa go hlaloša gore gobaneng umqondo wentemba
batho ba kgetha boitshwaro bjo bo
rilego
experiential learning – ervaringsleer Thuto ye e akaretšago boitemogelo ukufunda kulokho
osokubonile
experiential values – ervaringswaardes Mohola wa boitemogelo ukwaziswa kwalokho
okufundile
experimental – eksperimenteel Ya diteko okuzanywayo
expertise – kundigheid botsebi amakhono
explanatory – verklarend Seo se ikemišeditšego go hlaloša okuchazayo
explicit values – eksplisiete, openlike Ditumelo tše di lego molaleng ka ga ukwazisa okucacile
waardes boitshwaro bjo bo lokilego/bohlokwa go
ya ka setšo sa batho
exploitive orientation – ondersoekende Tlwaetšo ye e tlaišago ya tikologo, ukuzuza
instelling maemo, ditumelo,dikgopolo tše mpsha ngokuxhaphaza
external activators – eksterne Dihlohleletšamahlala tša go tšwa ntle inkuthazo yangaphandle
aktiveerders
external stressor – eksterne stressor Methopo ya kgatelelo ya ingcindezi
(spanningsfaktor) monagano/maikutlo ye re e lemogago yangaphandle
tikologong ya rena
extinction – uitwissing Go hwelela ukuphela nya
extrasensory perception (ESP, psi) – Bokgoni bja go lemoga dilo ka tikologo ulwazi olutholakele
ekstrasensoriese waarneming ntle le tšhomišo ya dikwi tša tlhago ngendlela engaphezulu
kwevamile
extraversion – ekstraversie, na- Mokgwa wa go kgotsofatšwa ke dilo tša ukuzidalula,
buitegerigtheid ka ntle ga gago ukuzikhulumela
face validity – gesigsgeldigheid Mokgwa wa nnete go šupa ge eba teko ukuhlola okuhlosiwe
e ela seo e swanetšego go se ela
facilitation – fasilitering, bevordering nolofatšo ukuqhuba uhlelo
facilitator – fasiliteerder monolofatši umqhubi wohlelo
factitious disorders – denkbeeldige, Tšhašarakano ya monagano mo ukungaphili kahle
nagebootste versteurings molwetši itirišago e ke motho o a lwala engqondweni
ngokwenza
okungenanzuzo
factor analysis – faktoranalise Tshekatsheko ya mabaka ukuhlaziya ubudlelwane
fairness – regverdigheid, billikheid bobotse ubuqotho, ukulunga
faulty learning – foutiewe leer Go ithuta go go nago le diphošo ukufunda
okunamaphutha
feedback – terugvoering pego impendulo
feedback-control system – Mokgwa wa go laola dipoelo uhlelo lokulawula
terugvoerkontrolesisteem ukuphendula
femininity – vroulikheid bosadi ubufazane
fight/flight – veg/vlug ntwa impi/indiza
figure-ground – figuur-agtergrond Kgethologanyo gare ga bokapele le ukucacisa kahle izinto
bomorago bja ponagalo
five-factor model – vyffaktormodel Mohlala wa mabaka a mahlano indlela empawunhlanu
fixation – fiksasie Go tiiša, tlhomo ukujiyisa
fixed-ratio schedule – vaste ratio-, Ge phetogo e matlafatšwa fela morago indlela yamazinga
verhoudingskedule ga diphetogo tše mmalwa tše itšego angaguquki
fixedness – vasgesteldheid, rigiedheid Seo se lego monaganong ka go ukuqina kwento
ngangabala gomme se laola boitshwaro
le dikgopolo
flexibility – buigsaamheid Go menega ukuguquguquka
floundering – worstel Ditiro tša go laetša kgakanego ukubhadaza
flourishing – floreer Go atlega ukuchuma
flow (peak) experience – piekervaring, Go fa tiro tsepelelo le šedi tše di ulwazi oluqhilikayo
hoogtepunt feletšego
formal group – formele groep Dihlopha tše hlotšwego ke mekgatlo iqembu elihlelekile
formal leadership – formele leierskap Boetapele go ya ka boemo sehlopheng ubuholi obuhlelekile
formal status – formele (toegekende) Boemo go ya ka dinyakwa tše di isimo esihlelekile
status tlwaelegilego
formative evaluation – vormende-, Mokgwa wa go ahlola boleng bja uhlolo oluhlelekile
prosesevaluering lenaneo ge le le tirišong
forming – vorming Go bopa ukwakheka
fortigenesis – fortigenese, Tlhago ya maatla ukuvela kwamandla
gesondheidsbronne
framing – begrensing popego ukwakha uhlaka
frame of reference – Dikgopolo tšeo go ya ka tšona uhlaka okubhekiswe
verwysingsraamwerk dikgopolo tše dingwe di hlalošwago kulo
free association – vrye assosiasie, - Mokgwa wa tlhagišo ya dikgopolo dife inhlangano ekhululekile
gedagtevloei goba dife tše di lego monaganong ntle
le tšhitišo
free will – eie, vrye wil, selfbesluitneming Go dira dikgetho ka bolokologi ukuzenzela
ngokukhululeka
frequency – frekwensie, hoeveelheid boipoeletšo ukwenzeka kaningi
friendship group – vriendskapsgroep Sehlopha sa go ba le tswalano ya go iqembu labangani
tshepana le go kwelana bohloko
frontal cortex – frontale korteks Karolo ya ka pele ya bjoko izigege zamaxolo
fully functioning person – Go kgotsofatša dinyakwa ka moka tša umuntu osebenza
volfunksionerende go gola ngokugcwele
persoon/volwassenheid
functional autonomy – funksionele Teori ya go hlaloša gore mabaka a ukuzimela
outonomie ditiragalo a ikemetše ka thoko go dilo okusebenzayo
tše di a hlotšego
functional fixedness – funksionele Go palelwa ke go bona mehola ye ukugxila okusebenzayo
rigiditeit mongwe ya selo ntle le mohola wa
sona wa tlwaelo
functional specification – taakverdeling, Tlhalošo ya seo peakanyo e se dirago incasiselo esebenzayo
funksionele spesifikasie goba e swanetšego go se dira
functionalism – funksionalisme Ditshepetšo tša monagano le ka moo di ukusebenza kwento
tswalanego le boitshwaro
fundamental lexical hypothesis – basiese Kgopolo ya mantšu a motheo a tlhalošo umqondo oyisisekelo
woordkennishipotese ya boitshwaro samagama
future state visioning – Ditshepetšo tšeo di šupago seo o indlela yokucabanga
toekomsstandvisualisering ratago go ba sona le fao o nyakago go ngekusasa
ba gona ka moso
gender identity – geslagsrol-identiteit Boitšhupo bja motho bja go ba monna ukuzazi ngokobulili
goba mosadi go ya ka ponagalo le
boitshwaro
gender/sex differences – Phapang go ya ka popego ya bong ukwehluka ngokobulili
geslagsverskille
gene – gene, erflikheid Dikokwana tša leabela okofuzo
general resistance resource – algemene Dithuši tše di kgontšhago boiphemelo umthombo wokwenqaba
weerstandbron ovamile
general well-being – algemene welsyn Boemo ka kakaretšo bja go phela ukuphila kahle
gabotse okuvamile
generalisation – veralgemening Go akaretša inkulumo ehlanganisa
izinto eziningi
generalised anxiety disorder – Go ba tlalelong matšatšing a mantši le ukungasebenzi kahle
veralgemeende angsversteuring ge go se seo se hlohleletšago tlalelo kwembandezeko
yeo evamile
generalised resistance sources – Maikutlo a go nyaka go hlahla baswa le imithombo yokwenqaba
algemene weerstandsbronne go go ba le seabe setšhabeng sa ka okuvamile
moso.
generating – generering, skepping Go tswala, go hlagiša ukwenza
generativity – generatiwiteit, Bokgoni bja go hlagiša goba go ukwenzeka
selfvoortbringing tšweletša
genetic screening – genetiese sifting, - Ditekong setšhabeng go šupa batho ukubuka ngokofuzo
evaluering bao ba ka bago kotsing ya go ka ba le
bolwetši bja tlhago go ba go bo fetetša
go ba bangwe
genetics – genetika, oorerwing Thuto ka ga boitshwaro bja tlhago bjo ufuzo
fetišetšwago dipheding tše dingwe ka
ditšini
genotype – genotipe Tlhomo ya ditšini/dikokwane tša leabela ukufana kwezinto
sepheding
germ cell – moedersel, kiemsel Disele tša ditho tša tswalo iseli yesidoda
Gestalt – Gestalt, geheel Gestalt i-Gestalt
Gestalt psychology – Gestalt-sielkunde Saekholotši ya Gestalt umqondo we-Gestalt
globalisation – globalisasie, geheelheid Mokgwa wa go dira gore dikgwebo, komhlaba
ditheknolotši goba difilosofi di
phatlalatšwe lefaseng.
goal achievement – doelbereiking Phihlelelo ya seo se ukufinyelela enhlosweni
ikemišeditšwego/tebanyo
goal-setting – doelstelling Mokgwa wa go hloma leano go hwetša ukuzibekela inhloso
dipoelo tše o di nyakago
good character/virtue – inbors/goeie Semelo/boitshwaro se se/bjo bo umuntu oziphethe kahle
eienskappe/deugde nyakegago
gradient – gradient, tempo van daling of motheogo ubukhulu bokukhuphuka
styging
gratification – bevrediging kgahlišo ukuthokoziswa
group demography – groepdemografie Thuto ka ga bogolo, popego le tlhomo ukwehlukaniswa
tša sehlopha kwamaqembu
group dynamics – groepsdinamika Thuto go šupa boitshwaro sehlopheng ukuba namandla
kwamaqembu
group identity – groepsidentiteit Diphapantšho tšeo dilego gona ukuzazi kwamaqembu
sehlopheng
group shift – groepdenkeverskuiwing Phetogo ya tshwaro ya sehlopha ukunyakaza kweqembu
group think – groepdink Kgopolo go ya ka sehlopha ukucabanga kweqembu
growth group – groeigroep Sehlopha seo se thušago batho go ukukhula kweqembu
kwešiša bokaone ka moo ba ka
hlomago setswalle seo se kgahlišago le
batho ba bangwe
growth needs – ontwikkelingsbehoeftes Dinyakwa tša kgolo izidingo zokukhula
habituation – gewoontevorming tlwaetšo ukuhlala
hallucination – hallusinasie, onrealistiese Go iphora ukubona izinto
waarneming/voorstelling ezingekho
halo-effect – stralekranseffek Tshekamelo yeo ka yona temogo ya umqondo onethonya
boitshwaro bjo tee e huetšwago ke kokunye
temogo ya boitshwaro bjo bongwe
happiness – gelukkigheid/genot Lethabo, tlhalalo injabulo
harassment – teistering Tshwenyo, tlaišo inkathazo
hostile attributional bias – vyandig- Tshekamelo ya temogo ya bonaba ukuthatha uhlangothi
gesinde vooroordeel bathong ba bangwe le ge bo se gona. ngempi
hassle – hindernis Tshele, ngangišano ukuphazamisa
hebephrenic/disorganised schizophrenia Tšhašarakano ya monagano ya go ukungasebenzi kahle
– hebefreniese/gedisorganiseerde bontšha boitshwaro bjo makatšagao le kwengqondo
skisofrenie ditiro tša bobjana
heredity – oorerflikheid kabelo ufuzo
heterogeneous – heterogenies, matswakatswake ngafaniyo
gemengd
heterostasis – heterostase (groei, Kišopele ya tiišo monaganong ukugcina uzinzo
progressie) mabakeng a go fetoga emzimbeni
heuristics – heuristiek, Mekgwa ya go thuša go rarolla mathata indlela yokuxazulula
oplossingsmoontlikhede izinkinga
hierarchy – hierargie, volgorde Peakanyo ya dihlopha go ya ka ukulandelana
tatelano ya magoro kwezigaba zokuphatha
higher-order conditioning – Tšhomišo ya setsoši sa mathomo go ukulawula
hoërordekondisionering tsoša boitshwaro bjo bongwe kokulandelana
kwezinga eliphezulu
hindsight – nabetragting Temogo ya tlholego ya tiragalo morago ukubuyela emuva
ga gore e diragale.
histrionic – histrionies, histeries Pheteletšo ya tiragatšo ya boitshwaro ukwenza ihaba,
goba polelo ukudlalisa
hoarding orientation – versamelinstelling Semelo sa go nyaka go itšhireletša ka ukuziphatha
go ikageletša ka leboto okumayelana nokuthola
okuthile
holistic perspective – holistiese, Temogo ka botlalo uhlangothi lokuphelele
geheelperspektief
homeostasis – homeostase, balans Tekanyetšo goba kwano isejwayezi sokulingana
horizontal differentiation – horisontale Bogolo bjoo ka bjona botsebi bja ukwehlukanisa
differensiasie mediro bo diregago mokgatlong okuqondile
human-relations approach – Mokgwa wa kamano ya batho indlela yobudlelwane
menseverhoudings-benadering phakathi kwabantu
human-resources management – Taolo ya thušo ya batho ukuphatha abasebenzi
menslike hulpbronbestuur
humanism – humanisme botho ukuba nomhawu
kubantu
hygiene factors – higiënefaktore Mabaka a paballommele izinto eziphathelene
nempilo
hypochondria – hipochondries, Go kgolwa gore o a lwala le ge o ukwesabela ukugula
siektepreokkupasie itekanetše
hypothalamus – hipotalamus Karolo ya bjoko ye e laolago ingxenye elawula
thempheretšhara ya mmele, tlala le imizwa
lenyora
hypothesis – hipotese, tentatiewe Tšhišinyo ye e tšewago bjalo ka umcabango
navorsingstelling motheo wa kgang/nyakišišo
hypothetico-deductive model – Mokgwa woo ka ona tšhišinyo ka indlela yokucabanga
hipoteties-afleidings-model kakaretšo e lekwago ka go tšweletša ngokwesayensi
diprofeto tšeo di ka lekwago
hysteria – histerie mafofonyane ukwesaba, umhayizo
id-impulses – id-impulse, -instinkte karolo ya bomotho ya kgotsofatšo ya ukwenza ngaphambi
dinyakwa tša motheo tša motho kokucabanga
ideal self – ideale self Seo motho a naganago gore o ukuzakhela umqondo
swanetše go ba sona ngawe
identification – identifisering boitšhupo ukuzazisa
identity diffusion/confusion – Kgakanego ya boitšhupo yeo e ukudideka kobuwena
identiteitsverwarring diregago lefelong le itšego
idiographic – ideografies Ye tswalanego le thutelo ka ga motho. okumayelana nesifundo
(individugesentreerdheid) somuntu ngamunye
idiosyncracy – idiosinkrasie, Makatšo, makalo okwahlukile, okomuntu
eienaardigheid yedwa
illumination – opklaring, verheldering ponegelo ubucwazicwazi
illusions – illusies, foutiewe waarneming boiphoro inkohliso
imitation – nabootsing Kekišo, ketšišo ukulingisa
immune system – immuniteitsisteem Tsela ya go souta uhlelo lwamasotsha
omzimba
implicit values – implisiete waardes Ditlhokwa tše di sa hlagišwago ka mo izindleko
go kwagalago ezingakhokhelwa
implied movement – geïmpliseerde Tshepelo ye e šišinywago umnyakazo oqonde
beweging okuthile
impression formation – indrukvorming Tlhamo ya dikgopolo ka batho ba ukwakheka komqondo
bangwe
intervening variable – tussenkomende Seemo seo ditlamorago tša sona di umcabango wokuchaza
veranderlike diregago nakong ya gare ga kalafo ubudlelwane
ditekong tša monagano le dipoelo
impulse-control disorder – impulskontrole Bothata bja go laola tšhušumetšo ukulawulwa ukungaphili
versteuring kahle engqondweni
in-basket technique – in-mandjie tegniek Mokgwa wa go fa bašomedi ba baswa isu lokwejwayeza
tshedimošo ka mohuta wa mošomo wo abasha
ba tlo o dirago
incentives – aansporingsmeganismes tšhušumetšo umhabiso, okuvusayo
incongruence – inkongruensie, Tlhokego ya kwano gare ga motho wa ukungavumelani
verskillendheid sebele le seo a kganyogago go ba sona
incubation – inkubasie Go alama ukuchamuselwa
incumbent – ampsdraer, ampsbekleder mohlankedi ophethe isikhundla
independent variable – onafhanklike Lebaka leo le ka fetolwago ge go dirwa izinto ezizimele
veranderlike teko, mohl, nako, thempheretšhara
indigenous psychology – kultuureie- Thuto ya boitshwaro bja motho bja umqondo wendabuko
sielkunde tlhago
individual differences – individuele Phapanyo ya batho go sehlopha goba ukwehluka komuntu
verskille go batho ba bangwe ngamunye
individualism – individualisme boithato ubunye bomuntu
individuation – individuasie, Go bontšha phapang go ba bangwe komuntu ngamunye
geheelwording
induced movement – geïnduseerde Go bona e ka dilo tše di emego di a umnyakazo
(geskepte) beweging šutha ka lebaka la tšeo di lego kgauswi ogqugquzelwe
le tšona tšeo di šuthago/sepelago
induction – induksie, algemene afleiding Kgakolo, tlhagišo ukumiswa, ukwethulwa
industrial psychology – bedryfsielkunde Thuto ya boitshwaro bja bašomedi ukuphatha izinkinga
lefelong la mošomo zabasebenzi
industry – arbeidsaamheid tšhomo imboni
inertia – traagheid Go tšwafa/ tlhokego ya tiro ubuvila, ubudenga
inferences – gevolgtrekkings Sephetho se se tšerwego go tšwa go okucatshangwayo
bohlatse
inferential statistics – inferensiële Mokgwa wa go tšea sephetho ka ga izibalo ezicatshangiwe
(afleidende) statistiek nepagalo ya dipalopalo tšeo di filwego
information processing – Go fetola tshedimošo ka mokgwa wo ukuhanjiswa kolwazi
inligtingverwerking motho a bonago go swanetše
informed consent – ingeligte Tumelelo yeo e theilwego go tsebo ya ukunikeza imvume
toestemming ditlamorago
inhibition – inhibisie, binne hou thibelo ukuvimbela
innovation – innovasie, vernuwing tšhimollo ukuqamba busha
inputs – insette dikabelo igalelo
instrumental – instrumenteel, Ya diletšo okuwusizo
behulpsaam
instrumentality – instrumentaliteit, Mokgwa wa kgonagalo ya go ka ngokuba wusizo
nuttigheidswaarde šomišega
intellectualisation – intellektualisering Bohlale bja go hlagiša dikgopolo tša go ukuzivikela
itšhireletša ge o lebanwe ke kgatelelo ngokucindezela okuthile
ya monagano
intelligence quotient (IQ) – Palo ya go bontšha bohlale bja motho isilinganiso sobuhlakani
intelligensiekwosient (IK)
intentions – intensies, neigings Maikemišetšo, phegelelo izinhloso
interactionism – interaksionisme, Kgopolo ya gore monagano le mmele, umqondo
wisselwerkingsteorie le ge di arogane, di a tsenelelana wokuxhumana nabantu
interdependence – interafhanklikheid Go botana ukusebenzisana
interest – belangstelling, voorkeur kgahlego intshisekelo, inzalo
interest group – belangegroep sehlophakgahlego iqembu
labanentshisekelo
internal activators – interne aktiveerders Sehlohleletša phetogo/tiro sa gare okuvusayo
kwangaphakathi
internal locus of control – interne lokus Bokgoni bja go laola ditiragalo tše di inkolelo yembangela
van beheer huetšago bophelo bja gago yokuphumelela
nokungaphumeleli
internalised speech – geïnternaliseerde Bokgoni bja go ithuta polelo le go e dira inkulumo
spraak sekgontšhi sa phihlelelo ya tsebo engaphinyiselwa
interpersonal – inter-, tussenpersoonlik Ye amago tswalano gare ga batho ubudlelwane phakathi
kwabantu
interpretative – interpreterende Ye amago goba e tšweletšago okuhumushayo
tlhathollo
interval – interval, klasinterval sekgala umkhawu
intervening variable – tussenkomende Kgopolo ye e hlagišago tlhalošo ye e ukungenelela
veranderlike kwešišegago ya tswalano gare ga ngokwehlukile
dikgopolo tše di sa swanego tše
bonalago di sa tswalane
intervension – intervensie, ingryping Tseno gare ukungenelela
intrapersonal – intrapersoonlik (binne ’n Ya gare ga motho ingaphakathi lomuntu
persoon)
intrapsychic – intra-psigies (binne’ n Ye e lego ka gare go motho izinhlelo zengqondo
persoon) yomuntu
intrinsic values – intrinsieke, inherente Boitshwaro bja tlhago izingxenye zemvelo
waardes ezaziswayo
introspection – introspeksie, Tlhahlobo ya dikgopolo le maikutlo a ukuzihlolisisa
selfbeskouing motho
introversion – introversie, binnegerig Go ba le kgahlego go dikgopolo le ukuzigcina ngaphakathi
maikutlo tša gago go na le tša ba
bangwe
intuitive – intuïtief, aanvoelend Se tšwago go tsebo goba tumelo ye e ukuzicabangela
sa hwetšwago ka go lemogwa ngenhliziyo
irrationality – irrasioneel bošilo okuphambene
nengqondo
job-centred – taakgesentreerd Ye sepelelanago le mošomo okubhekene
nomsebenzi
job characteristics model – Mmotlolo wa dipharologantšho tša ukukhombisa izimpawu
werkeienskappemodel mošomo zomsebenzi
job content – werkinhoud dikagaretšhomo okuqukethwe
umsebenzi
job description – posbeskrywing Tlhalošo ye e ngwadilwego ya umsebenzi owenzayo
tumelelano gare ga mothapi le
mošomedi ka ga mošomo le
boikarabelo
job design – werkontwerp morero wa mošomo ukuma komsebenzi
job dissatisfaction – werkontevredenheid Ngongorego mošomong ukunganelisi
komsebenzi
job enlargement – werkverruiming Katološo ya mošomo ukwandiswa
komsebenzi
job enrichment – werkverryking Koketšo ya dithuši tše mpsha ukwenziwa ngcono
mošomong go thabiša bašomedi komsebenzi
job involvement – werkbetrokkenheid Tikologo yeo go yona bašomedi ba ukuzibandakanya
kgonago go hlagiša maikutlo a go emsebenzini
huetša merero ye e amago mošomo
job rotation – werkrotasie Mokgwa wo bašomedi ba tlošwago ukujikeleziswa
mošomong wo mongwe ba išwa go wo komsebenzi
mongwe ka tsela ye e beakantšwego
job satisfaction – werktevredenheid Kgotsofalo goba go se kgotsofale ukwanelisa komsebenzi
mošomong ka lebaka la boitshwaro bja
bathapi bjo bo botse goba bjo bobe go
mošomedi
just-noticeable difference – net-merkbare Phapano ye nnyanenyane gare ga umehluko onakekayo
(waarneembare) verskil ditsoši tše pedi tše motho a ka di
lemogago
kurtosis – kurtose (skerpheid en Taetšo ya ntlhora goba bopapetla bja ukusatshalaliswa
afplatting) kerafo kwemininingwane
labour relations – arbeidsverhoudinge Tswalano gare ga balaodi le bašomedi ubudlelwane
bezisebenzi
lactic acid – melksuur Esiti ye e hwetšwago maswing a bodila i-asidi engenambala
emuncu
laissez-faire – laat-maar-doen Go se tsenetsene merero ya batho laissez-faire -
(bv. leierskapstyl houding) ba bangwe gare ukuzenzela umathanda
languishing – wegkwyn Go dula ka go fokola fehlenyekayo
latent learning – latente leer Mokgwa wa go ithuta wo o sa hlagišego ukufunda okufihlekile
diphethogo tša go hwtša tsebo ye
mpsha ka pela
Law of Effect – Wet van Effek Molao wa Ditlamorago i-Law of Effect –
umthetho womthelela
Law of Exercise – Wet van Oefening Molao wa Thutišo i-Law of Exercise –
umthetho
wokuzivocavoca
learned helplessness – aangeleerde Mokgwa wa go nyema mooko ka isimo sokungakwazi
hulpeloosheid lebaka la go se fihlelele dikatlego tša ukuzisiza
maleba
learned resourcefulness – aangeleerde Bokgoni bja go ithuša nakong ya ukuziphatha
vindingrykheid mathata ngokuzikhuza
learning organisation – lerende Mokgatlo wa go ithuta inhlangano yokufunda
organisasie
legitimate power – wettige (toegekende) Maatla ao a lego molaong amandla asemthethweni
mag
leniency effect – toegeeflikheidseffek Ditlamorago tša bopelotelele umthelela wokuba
nobubele
lexical approach – leksikale benadering Mokgwa wa go ithuta dipolelo dišele indlela yokubheka
(volgens erkende woorde) amagama
libido – libido, seksuele energie Enetši go tšwa go tlhohleletšo go tša inkanuko yocansi
thobalano
life instinct (eros) – lewensinstink (eros) Setlhago sa tswalo intshisekelo
yokuzilondoloza
life line analysis – lewenslyn ontleding Tshekatsheko methaladi ya ka gare ga ukuhlaziya kokuhamba
seatla kwempilo
life span – lewenspan Lebaka la nako yeo ka yono sephedi se ubude bempilo
ka phelago
limbic system – limbiese stelsel Karolo ya bjoko ye e amago maikutlo, uhlelo lwemizwa
tlala le thobalano. oludidayo
linear – lineêr, reglynig Ye sepelelanego le mothaladi goba kwemidwa
botelele
linguistic relativity – taalkundige Kgopolo ya gore popego ya polelo e okuhambisana nolimi
relatiwiteit huetša ka moo baboledi ba yona ba
bonago lefase ka gona
locus of causality – lokus van Lefelo la maatla a taolo umqondo wembangela
oorsaaklikheid
locus of control – lokus (plek) van Kgopolo ya gore motho o dumela gore umudwa wokulawula
beheer, kontrole boitshwaro bja gagwe bo ka fase ga
taolo ya gagwe goba aowa
longitudinal consistency – langdurige Kgotlelelo go ya ka botelele bja nako ukuvumelana
konstantheid kwemidwa
macro-system – makrostelsel Peakanyo/ bokgoni bjo bogolo uhlelo olukhulu
malingering – siektevoorwendsel Pheteletšo ya bolwetši ukuzigulisa
manic-depressive – manies-depressief Seemo sa monagano mo medirišo ya okucindezela ingqondo
motho e fetogago gare ga bogafa le
kgatelelo ya monagano/maikutlo
margin of error – foutgrens mollwanephošo isu lokwemukela
amaphutha ophenyweni
marketing orientation – Mokgwa wo dinyakwa le dihlokwa tša ukufundisa
anderbevredigende instelling bareki di laolago diphetho tša ngokuthengisa
khamphani
masculinity – manlikheid bongtona kwesilisa
mastery – bemeestering botsebi ulwazi oluphelele
material self – materiële self Motho ka go felelela le bohlokwa bja ukwaziwa ngempahla
gagwe onayo
maturation – ryping, volwassewording Go gola, go butšwa ukuvuthwa
maturity – rypheid, gereedheid Bogolong, ukukhula
maximum performance – maksimale Tiro ka botlalokgolo ukusebenza
prestasie ngokwezinga lokugcina
mean (X) – rekenkundige gemiddelde Bogare (X) ukusho, ukumela,
(X) ukuchaza
meaning systems – betekenis-sisteme Dikarolo/dipeakanyo tše bopago izinhlelo zokumela
(bv. konstrukte) tlhalošo
meaningful wholes – betekenisvolle Bokamoka bjo hlalošegegago yikho konke
gehele okubalulekile
measurement error – metingsfout Phošo ya kelo iphutha lokukala
mechanism – meganisme bomotšhene indlela
mechanistic – meganisties Ye tswalanego le metšhene ukuba nendlela
median – mediaan, middelpunt mothalogare okuphakathi
medulla oblongata – medulla oblongata, mongetsane isisekelo sengqondo
verlengde rugmurg
meiosis – meiose, chromosoomverdeling Karoganyo ya disele dipheding tše di ukwehlukana kwamaseli
kgonago go tswala
mental abilities – verstandsvermoëns Mabokgoni a monagano amakhono engqondo
mental age – verstandsouderdom Bokgoni bja monagano wa ngwana ubudala bengqondo
mental agility – verstandelike Mahlagahlaga a monagano izinga lokusebenza
buigsaamheid kwengqondo
mental alertness – verstandelike Mafolofolo a monagano ukuzilungiselela
helderheid kwengqondo
mental demands – verstandelike eise Dinyakwa tša monagano izimfuno zengqondo
mental (psychological) disorder – Bolwetši bja monagano ukungasebenzi kahle
geestes of sielkundige versteuring kwengqondo
mental imagery – denkbeelding, tshwantšhokgopolo umfanekiso
verbeelding osengqondweni
mental representations – ditshwantšhokgopolo okumelwe engqondweni
geestesvoorstellings
mental retardation – verstandelike Tšhitego ya monagano go lemoga le go ukuphazamiseka
vertraging kwešiša kwengqondo
mentally challenging work – psigies- Modiro wo o hlohlago monagano umsebenzi onenselele
uitdagende werk engqondweni
meso-system – mesostelsel dipeakanyogare ubudlelwane bezinhlelo
(meso = middel) ezincane
meta-analysis – omvattende ontleding Mokgwa wa nyakišišo wa go sekaseka umphumela
dipoelo tša dithutelo tše di šetšego di wocwaningo lwezinto
dirilwe
metacognition – metadenke, Go nagana ka ditshepetšo tša ukwazi ngemicabango
metakognisie (denke oor denke) monagano wa gago yakho
metaneeds – meta-, oorkoepelende Dinyakwa tše bohlokwa tša sephedi izidingo zomuntu
behoeftes
metaphysics – metafisika, realiteitstudie Thuta ka ga nnete ya dilo tše di isifundo sobukhona
hlolegilwego ka tlhago bezinto
metapsychology – metasielkunde Thuto ka ga tswalano gare ga isifundo esiphathelene
monagano le mmele nengqondo
micro-system – mikrostelsel Sedirišwa seo se ka lemogago uhlelo oluncane
tshedimošo tikologong gomme sa dira
ka mo go swanetšego
midcareer crisis – middelloopbaankrisis Nako ya gare mošomong fao motho a ukudideka ngomsebenzi
swanetšego go tšea sephetho sa seo a okumele uwulandele
tlogo se dira ka moso
midlife crisis – middeljarekrisis Kgakanego ye e ka itemogelwago isigaba sezinkinga
mengwageng ya gare ya motho empilweni
mind – psige monagano umqondo
mirage – spieëlbeeld Madibolokwana, madimolokwana okukhohlisa amehlo
misapplied constancy – misrekende Tlhomamego ye e šomišitšwego isimo sokusebenzisa
konstantheid bošaedi ngokungafanele
mitosis – mitose, seldeling Karoganyo ya sele ukwehlukana kabili
kweseli
Mitwelt – medemenswêreld Karolo ya go ba gona lefaseng ya i-Mitwelt
tsenelelano le batho ba bangwe
mnemonics – mnemoniek, assosiasie en Tlwaetšo ya go kaonafatša isifundo sokuthuthukisa
organisering (in geheue) kelelo/kgopolo umqondo
mode – modus (mees frekwente waarde) Mokgwa, tsela indlela
modelling – modellering Malebela, go bontšha ukukhombisa
moderating – modererende Go lekanetša, go fefola ukucubungula
modulation – aanpassing, buiging Phetogo ya segalo ukwehliswa
monitoring – monitering, kontrolering Go lebelediša ukuqapha
monocular – monokulêr Tšhomišo ya leihlo le tee isibonisakude seso
(eenoogwaarneming) elilodwa
monophobia – monofobie, Poifo ya go ba o nnoši ukwesaba ukuba
alleenweesfobie wedwa
monozygotic – monosigoties (identies, Go tšwa leeng le tee leo le amawele avele kuseli
bv. tweeling) nontšhitšwego eyodwa
moral – morele, moraal setho isimilo, ukuziphatha
morality principle – moraliteitsbeginsel Thuto ya boitshwaro umgomo wokuziphatha
moratorium – beperking, oponthoud Phego ya tiro ye go kwanwego ka yona ukumiswa
kwesikhashana
motion parallax – bewegingsparallaks Phetogo ye e bonalago ya nnga ye selo ukuguquka kwento
se sepelelago go yona okubangwa yindlela
ome ngayo
motivators – motiveerders ditlhohleletši abagqugquzeli
motor (efferent) neurons – motoriese Dinyurone tša tshepetšo uhlelo lokuhambisa
(efferente) neurone imizwa
multimodal – multimodale, meervoudige mekgwantši kwezindlela eziningi
faktor
multiple determination – veelvoudige mererontši ukuzimisela
bepaling okuphindaphindekile
multivariate statistics – meerveranderlike Dipalopalo tše di fapanago ukuhlaziya
statistiek imininingwane
eyahlukene
myelin – miëlien Tlhalenama ye e bopago letlalo le le amaphrotheyini asiza
khupetšago megalatšhika imizwa
narcissism – narsisme, selfliefde Go ikgahla/ithata ukuzithanda
narrative analysis – gespreksontleding Tshekatsheko ya dikanegelo tša lapa ukuhlaziya inkulumo
tšeo di ka thušago phekolong
natural science – natuur (-like) Saense ya tlhago isayensi yezemvelo
wetenskap
nature – (menslike) natuur, aangebore tlhago imvelo
negative reinforcement – negatiewe Thušo ya phetogo ka go fa setsoši se ukucindezelwa
versterking se sa ratwego okungekuhle
neo-behaviourism – neo-behaviourisme Boitshwaro bjo boswa ukuziphatha
(nuwe) ngokuholwa yinhliziyo
nervous system – senuweestelsel Tsela ya megalatšhika uhlelo lwemizwa
neuroglial cell – neurogliasel, Sele ya ditlhalenama tša kopanyo tšeo iseli ehambisa imizwa
senuweebindweefsel di thekgago megalatšhika
neuron – neuron, senuweesel nyorone iseli yemizwa
neuroses – neurose, (ou begrip vir Tšhašarakano ya monagano ye e sego isifo semizwa lapho
angsgebaseerde versteurings) bogale ingasezwani
neurotic imposter phenomenon – Kgopolo ya go ikwa bjalo ka motho yo a isimo sokungasebenzi
neurotiese indringer/voordoenverskynsel forago ba bangwe kahle kwemizwa
nodes of Ranvier – knope van Ranvier Kokomogo/thurugo ya Ranvier igebe kumaphrotheyini
(akson-vernouings) asiza imizwa
nominal – nominaal (bv. metingskaal) Ka leina, ye nnyane ukubizwa kokuthile
nomothetic – nomoteties (algemeen, Nyakišišo ya boitshwaro ukutholwa kwemithetho
groepgebaseerd) yesayensi
non-conforming – nie-konformerend Go se amanye ukungavumelani
non-consciousness – nie-bewustheid Go hloka temogo go dilo tše di sa ukungabi nokuzwa
phelego
normal distribution – Mokgwa wa phatlalatšo ya sehlopha sa ukusabalalisa okuvamile
normaalverspreiding data wo o tšeago kgopamo ya
sebopego sa kloko
normative – normatiewe, volgens Go ya ka molao/tlwaelo okuvela kokuvamile
verwagting
norming – normering (’n fase) Mokgwa wa go lekanetša dintlha ukwenza kuvame
nurture (environmental) – Phepo, go fepa ukondla, ukukhulisa
omgewingsbepaald (imvelo)
observable behaviour – waarneembare Boitshwaro bjo lemogwago ukuziphatha
gedrag okubonakalayo
observation – observasie, waarneming temogo ukubheka
observational learning – Go ithuta ka go lemoga ukufunda
waarnemingsleer okubonakalayo
obsessive-compulsive – obsessief- Mokgwa wa go dira ditlwaelo tše di sa ukungaphili kahle
kompulsief hlokagalego engqondweni
okubangwa yingcindezi
obstructionism – verhindering Tšhitišo ya tshepedišo ukuvimbela
occipital cortex – oksipitale korteks Legogo la sekgothi ingxenye yobuchobo
engemuva kwenhloko
occupational mental health – Kwešišo, phekolo le thibelo ya malwetši ukungaphili kahle
beroepsgeestesgesondheid a monagano engqondweni
okubangwe
ngumsebenzi
Oedipal conflict – oedipale konflik Thulano ya oedipus ukushayisana
(teenoor teenoorgestelde geslag) kwemibono ebulilini
obehlukene
oneness – eenwees botee ubunye
ontogenesis – ontogenese Tatelano ya ditiragalo kgodišong ya isigaba sokukhula
sephedi
ontology – ontologie, bestaanswese Thuto ka ga tlhago ya go ba gona ga isifundo esiphathelene
dilo nobunjalo bomuntu
openness to experience – oopheid vir Bokgoni bja go hlola le go nyaka go ukukhuluma
ervaring hwetša tsebo ngokufunde empilweni
operant conditioning – operante Mokgwa wa go ithuta wo o tlago ka go ukuguquka
kondisionering fiwa meputso le go otlwa. kokuziphatha
operational fatigue – operasionele Dika tše di lemogegago tša go lapa ukwehla komsebenzi
vermoeidheid ngenxa yokukhathala
opinions – opinies, beskouings boikgopolelo imibono
oral – orale (met mond te doen) Ya molomo, go bolelwa okukhulunywe
ngomlomo
order effect – volgorde-effek Ditlamorago tša go fa kalafo ka umthelela
mokgwa wo o itšego wokulandelana
ordinal – ordinaal Ye e amago boemo bja selo ukulandelana
molokolokong wa dilo kwezinombolo
ordinate (y-axis) – ordinaat (y-as) Bokgole bja khutlo go tloga go ase ya – okumele ubude
x kerafong (inkabamudwa ka-x)
organisational citizenship behaviour – Boitshwaro bja motho bjo bo sa ukuziphatha kwelunga
organisasie-burgerskapgedrag sepelelanego le peakanyo ya mokgatlo enhlanganweni
ya go putsa bašomedi fela e dira gore
mokgatlo o sepetšwe gabotse
organisational commitment – Maatla a boikutlo bja boikarabelo ao ukuzibophezela
organisasietoewyding, -verbondenheid mošomedi a nago le ona go dikgahlego enhlanganweni
tša mokgatlo
organisational diagnosis – Mokgwa wa kgoboketšo ya datha go ukuhlaziywa
organisasiediagnose tšwa maitemogelong a batho ka ga kwenhlangano
peakanyo go kaonafatša kwešišo ya
batho peakanyong yeo
organisational hierarchy – Peakanyo yeo maloko a yona a ukulandelana
organisasiehierargie beakantšwego go ya ka boemo kwezikhundla
enhlanganweni
organisational integrity – organisasie- Potego ya mokgatlo ubuqotho benhlangano
integriteit
organisational psychology – organisasie- Thuto ka ga popego ya mokgatlo le ka umqondo wenhlangano
sielkunde moo batho bao ba lego ka go ona ba
tsenelelanago
organisational rituals – organisasierituele Ditirelo tša mokgatlo inqubo evamile
yenhlangano
organisational trust – Boitshwaro bja tshepagalo bjo batho ba inkolelo yenhlangano
organisasievertroue bo letetšego go maloko a mokgatlo
outputs – uitsette ditšweletšo umkhiqizo
overcompensation – oorkompensasie Tokišo ya boitshwaro ka go feteletša ukunxephezelisa
boitshwaro bjo bo fapanego ngokweqile
oversight – oorsig tlhokomologo ukuphambeka
ovum – ovum, eiersel Sele ya lee imbewu yowesifazane
pairing – afparing Go bewa ka bobedi ukuhambisa ngakubili
panic disorder – paniekversteuring Seemo seo motho a itemogelago ukwesaba
ditlhaselo tše di ipoeletšago tša okuphazamisa ingqondo
kgakanego/letšhogo
paradigm – paradigma, denkwyse, Paterone goba mmotlolo ihlelo lezimo zonke
raamwerkbasis
paranoia – paranoia, vervolgingswaansin Tšhašarakano ya monagano ye e ukwesaba
bonagalago ka ditiro tša bogafi
paranoid schizophrenia – paranoïse Tšhašarakano ya monagano mo motho inkohliso eyesabisayo
skisofrenie a dirago dilo tša go se ye ka tsela
paraphilia – parafilie (tipe seksuele Boitshwaro bjo sa tlwaelegago go tša inkanuko yocansi
afwykings) thobalano engavamile
parasympathetic nervous system – Karolo ya tshepelo ya megalatšhika ye uhlelo lwemizwa
parasimpatiese senuwee-stelsel e išago lebelo la go rethetha ga pelo olumayelana nezinhlelo
fase zomzimba
parental investment theory – Teori ya nako, maatla le dithuši tšeo umqondo womlando
ouerbeleggingsteorie motswadi a di šomišago go thuša wempilo
ngwana wa gagwe
parenthood probability – Kgonagalo ya botswadi ukwethembeka kokuba
ouerwaarskynlikheidsteorie ngumzali
parietal cortex – pariëtale korteks Legogo la bokagare bja legata ingxenye yobuchopho
engaphansi kwenhloko
part learning – deelleer Mokgwa wa go ithuta fao motho a ukufunda okuyingxenye
arolago mešongwana
Path-Goal Model – Roete-Doelwit Model Mmotlolo wa umqondo wobuholi
bokwemukela
ukuziphatha
pathogenic – patogenies, Seo se hlolago bolwetši igciwane elingabanga
siekteveroorsakend isifo
pathological intoxication – patologiese Tšhašarakano ya monagano fao dika ukwenziwa kwehaba
intoksikasie, bedwelming tša botagwa di sa bonalego fela motho entweni enobuthi
a lahlegelwa ke monagano
peak experience – piekervaring Nako ya bophelong bja motho yeo ka ulwazi olukubeka
yona a ikwago a thabile kudu gape e phezulu
feletše.
peak performance – topprestasie Bokgoni bja go šoma ka maatla gore o ukusebenza okubeka
tšweletše dipoelo tše botse esiqongweni
peer group – portuurgroep Sehlopha sa dithaka iqembu lontanga
peers – gelykes Dithaka, bankane ontanga
percept – waarneming (konstruk) Kgopolo ye e theilwego go temogo ka isimongqondo
dikwi
perceptual distortion – perseptuele Tlhokego ya tshwano gare ga ka moo ukuguqulwa komqondo
distorsie setšoši se lemogwago ka tlwaelo le ka
moo motho a lemogago setsoši ka fase
ga mabaka ao a filwego
performance – prestasie Tiro, tiragatšo umsebenzi
performance ethos – prestasie-etos, - Boitshwaro bja maleba phethagatšong isiko lokusebenza
gedragskode ya mošomo
peripheral attitudes – perifêre houdinge Maikutlo ao a sego bohlokwa isimongqondo
esinomngcele
peripheral constructs – perifêre (tydelike) Dikgopolo/ditemogo tše sego bohlokwa ukwakheka komngcele
konstrukte
peripheral nervous system – perifêre Karolo ya tsela ya tshepelo ya uhlelo lwemizwa
senuweestelsel megalatšhika yeo e lego ka ntle ga olunomngcele
bjoko le mongetsane
perseverative functional autonomy – Ditlwaelo goba boitshwaro tše ukuzimela
perseverende (volgehoue) funksionele nyakegago tšeo di se sa šomago okunokuphindaphindeka
outonomie morero wa tšona wa mathomo eupša di okubonakalayo
sa tšwela pele
personhood – persoonheid Seemo sa go ba motho yo a nago le ukuba nguwe
(persoonlikheid) ditokelo
person-centred – persoongesentreerd Mokgwa wa go theeletša seo batho ba okubhekise kumuntu
se nyakago bophelong bja bona le go
ba thuša go laola bophelo bja bona
person-environment fit – persoon- Mmotlolo wo o begago gore go lapa go umuntu olungele imvelo
omgewingpassing hlolwa ke phapang gare ga dinyakwa
tša mošomo le bokgoni bja motho go
fihlelela dinyakwa tšeo
person-situation interaction – persoon- Boitshwaro bja motho maemong ao a ukuxhumana komuntu
situasie interaksie rilego nesimo
persona – persona, persoonlikheid Mokgwa wa go uta dikgopolo le ubunjalo bomuntu
maikutlo tša nnete tša motho
personal disposition – persoonlike Mokgwa wo motho a itshwarago le go ubunjalo bomuntu
disposisie/trek nagana ka gona
personal hardiness – persoonlike Boitshwaro bja go bay o bogale ukuqina komuntu
gehardheid
personal trait – persoonlike trek Semelo sa motho ka sebele izimpawu zomuntu
personalise – verpersoonlik mothofatša ukwenza kube
okomuntu
personnel psychology – Saekholotši ya batho bao ba thapilwego umqondo wabasebenzi
personeelsielkunde mokgatlong
personnel turnover – personeelomset Palo ya batho bao ba thapilwego imali engeniswa
mokgatlong lebakeng le itšego ngabasebenzi
personologist – Motho yo a sekasekago semelo sa umuntu ofunda
personoloog/persoonlikheidskundige motho ka go lebelela sefahlego le ngobunjalo bomuntu
boitshwaro tša motho
personology – personologie, Thuto ka ga tshekaseka ya semelo sa isifundo sobunjalo
persoonlikheidstudie motho ka go lebelela sefahlego le bomuntu
boitshwaro tša motho
phallic – fallies (met seksuele te doen) Kgato ya kgolo yeo go yona ngwana wa ukudunyiswa
kgahlego ya ngwana wa mošemane e kwesithombe
lego go setho sa gagwe sa bonna somphambili
phantom sensations – spooksensasies, Maikutlo a go bona dilo tše di sego ukuzwa sengathi isitho
verskyningsensasies gona ka nnete, go swana le ditoro esinqanyuliwe
sisekhona
phenomenological field – Mokgwa wo motho a lemogago le go umkhakha wokuphenya
fenomenologiese veld kwešiša lefase ka gona ngezinto noma
izehlakalo
phenomenology – fenomenologie, Saense ka ga dilo tšeo di ka uphenyo lwezinto noma
ervaringsleer lemogwago bjalo ka diponagalo tša izehlakalo
nnete
phenomenon – fenomeen, verskynsel ponagalo isenzeko
phenotype – fenotipe, waarneembare Boitshwaro/diphapantšho tšeo di izimpawu zofuzo
eienskappe lemogwago mothong
phi-phenomenon – phi-verskynsel, Temogo ya tshepelo ye e sego ya umcabango wezinto
stroboskopiese effek (m.b.t. skynbare nnete ya dilo tše emego gomme di osengqondweni
beweging) tšweletšwa ka go latelana
phobia – fobie Poifo ye e sa tlwaelegago ukwesaba
physical attractiveness halo effect – Mokgwa woo ka ona temogo ya ukudonswa ubuhle
fisieke aantreklikheids-halo-effek semelo/boitshwaro bjo bongwe bo bomzimba womuntu
huetšago semelo/boitshwaro bjo
bongwe mothong
physiological needs – fisiologiese Dinyakwa tša mmele izidingo zomzimba
behoeftes
pituitary gland – pituitêre klier Thaka ya sekaboleta ya ka fase ga indlala ekhipha
bjoko amakhovula
placement – plasing Go bewa felong ukubekwa endaweni
ethile
pleasure principle – plesierbeginsel Kgopolo ya gore batho ba nyaka umgomo wokujabula
lethabo le go šikologa manyami gore
ba ikwe ba kgotsofetše moyeng
pointedness – gepuntheid bontlha okunokucijile
polygenetic heredity – poligene Ditšene tša go feta e tee tšeo di ufuzo lwezimpawu
(veelvoudige) erflikheid tšweletšago semelo eziningi
position power – posisiemag Tekolo ya boemo lifelong/tikologong ye amandla esikhundla
e rilego
positive emotions – positiewe emosies Khuduego ya sebele imizwa emihle
positive emotionality – positiewe Boitlhagišo mo motho a nyakago go ukuba nemizwa emihle
emosionaliteit fihlelela dikatlego bophelong
positive psychology – positiewe Saekholotši ya go lebelela go atlega ga umqondo omuhle
sielkunde motho/ kgatelopele ya motho
positive regard – positiewe agting Go amogela le go thekga motho go sa ukubhekela okuhle
šetšwe gore o bjang
positive reinforcement – positiewe Selo seo se tiišago kgonagatšo ya ukucindezela okuhle
versterking phetogo ye e itšego
positivism – positivisme, Tumelo ya gore tsebo e ka beakanywa inkolelo emcabangweni
waarneembaarheidstudie ka tsela ye e kwagalago gape ye e omuhle
amogelegago
postmodernism – postmodernism Dikgopolo tša batho morago ga nako ya imikhuba nemicabango
diphetogo tše kgolo/ morago ga ntwa yesimanje
ya mathomo ya lefase
post-traumatic stress – post- (na-) Tšhašarakano ya monagano ka morago umthelela wesimo
traumatiese stres ga tiragalo ya go gatelela maikutlo esethusayo
esisengqondweni
power distance – magsafstand Mokgwa wa go hlaloša tharollo ya ukwemukela
diphapano gare ga dihlopha ukusatshalaliswa
mekgatlong ya go se be le tekatekano kwamandla
power inhibition – magsinperking Thibelo ya maatla ukuvinjelwa kwamandla
pragmatism – pragmatisme, Tumelo ya gore nnete ga e go dintlha ukubuswa umqondo
verpraktisering tše di kgodišago eupša e go othile
tshwaragano le boitemogelo
pre-conscious – voorbewuste Pele ga temogo ukukhumbula
ngaphandle kobunzima
predictability – voorspelbaarheid Taolelo pele/profeto okunokubikezeleka
prediction – voorspelling porofeto isibikezelo
predisposition – predisposisie, Taolelo pele isejwayezi
voorafmoontlikheid sangaphambili
pre-emptive – vooruitbepaalde Maatla a go thibel/šitiša ditiragalo nokucabangeleka
phambili
prejudice – vooroordeel Kgethollo ukuba nobandlululo
presenteeism – aanwesigisme Tlwaelo ya go šoma diiri tše ntši le go ukuba semsebenzini
(skynaanwesigheid) tšea maikhutšo a mannyane
pressure – druk, spanning, stres kgatelelo ingcindezi
presuppositions – voorveronderstellings kgopolo okucatshangwa
ngaphambili
preverbal – voorverbale Pele ga polelo ngaphambi kwesenzo
primacy effect – voorrangeffek Ditlamorago tša motheo umthelela wokuqala
proactive inhibition – voorafgaande Mokgwa wo ka ona dilo tše di ukuvinjelwa ngaphambili
inhibering ithutilwego pele di šitišago tše di kokwenza
ithutwago morago
probability – waarskynlikheid kgonagalo ukwethembeka
problem-focused coping – Mokgwa wa go katana le bothata bjo bo ukumelana nenkinga
probleemgerigte hantering hlolago kgatelelo ya monagano eqondile
process schizophrenia – Tšhašarakano ya monagano ye e isifo sokubona
prosesskisofrenie tšeago lebaka le letelele ye e sa okungekho
kaonafalego engqondweni
procrastination – uitstellery tiego isejwayezi sokuhlehlisa
progressive relaxation – progressiewe Mokgwa wa go laola kgatelelo ka go ukuphumula
ontspanning dira gore digoba tše dingwe di iketle okuqhubekayo
projection – projeksie, oorplasing sekhutlolo ukukhiphela ngaphandle
proliferation – proliferasie, indringing Kgolo ka potlako ukwandisa
propositional – voorstellende ka tšhišinyo okuphakanyiswayo
propriate functional autonomy – propriale Dikgahlego tše di fihleletšwego tšeo di umqondo wokuzimela
funksionele outonomie sa hlohletšwago ke ditutuetšo tša pele okubonakalayo
go fihlelela seo
propriate striving – propriale (eie) strewe Tlhagišo ya ditetelo tša nako ye telele imizamo yokufeza
go ka fihlelelwa le tšweletšo ya leano la izinhloso
go di fihlelela
proprium – proprium, self Boitshwaro bjo bo sego bohlokwa go isici esivame kuwo
mohuta wa sephedi eupša bo wonke
tlwaelegile go sona
prosocial – prososiaal Go thuša batho ba bangwe o sa letela ukunakekela impilo
go putswa yabanye
proximity – nabyheid bokgauswi ukusondelana
psychoanalysis – psigoanalise Mokgwa wa go ithuta ka ga monagano ukwelashwa
le phekolo ya malwetši a monagano kwengqondo
psychoanalytic school – psigoanalitiese Mokgwa wo o tsepeletšego go seemo isikhungo sokwelashwa
skool sa monagano sa go se lemoge kwengqondo
psychodiagnosis – psigodiagnose Phekolo ya malwetši a monagano indlela yokuthola
ngokuziphatha komuntu
psychodynamics – psigodinamika Thuto ka ga boikutlo isifundo sokuziphatha
psychological contract – sielkundige Ditumelo, boikutlo le ditlemo gare ga izinkolelo nokuzibopha
kontrak mothapi le mošomedi phakathi komqashi
nomsebenzi
psychological optimality – sielkundige Mokgwa wo motho a lemogago bokgoni ingqondo esebenza
optimaliteit bja go katana le kgatelelo bophelong le kahle
go thuša ba bangwe
psychological well-being – sielkundige Boitekanelo monaganong ukusebenza kahle
welsyn, -gesondheid kwengqondo
psychometrics – psigometrika Thuto ka ga tlhamego le tšhomišo ya isayensi ekala amandla
diteko tša monagano engqondo
psychopathology – psigopatologie, Thuto ya saentifiki ka ga malwetši a ukwelashwa kwezifo
abnormale gedrag monagano zengqondo
psychopathy – psigopatie, sosiopatie Tšhašarakano goba bolwetši bofe goba ukugula ngengqondo
bofe bja monagano
psychophysical – psigofisies Tswalano gare ga setsoši sa mmeleng ubudlelwane phakathi
le ditlamorago tšeo di se tšweletšago kwemizwa
monaganong
psychophysics – psigofisika Thuto ya saekholotši ka ga tswalano isifundo sobudlelwane
gare ga setsoši sa mmeleng le phakathi kwemizwa
ditlamorago tšeo di se tšweletšago
monaganong
psychosexual – psigoseksuele Se tswalanego le mabaka a monagano ingqondo egxile
a thobalano kwezocansi
psychosocial crisis – psigo-sosiale krisis Kgakanego ye e tswalanego le batho inkinga yokungakwazi
gape le monagano ukumelana nezinkinga
zezenhlalo
psychosocial evolution – psigo-sosiale imiqondo
evolusie yokusombuluka
kwezenhlalo
psychoticism – psigotisisme Tšhašarakano ye e tseneletšego ya enye yezindlela
monagano zokuziphatha
punctuated-equilibrium model – Mmotlo wa gore mehlobo ya diphedi e umqondo
gepunktueerde ekwilibriummodel tšea mengwagangwaga go fetoga wokuphendukezela
kwezinhlobofanana
ezanda ngokocansi
purposiveness – doelgerigtheid boikemišetšo ukuba nenhloso
pyromania – piromanie, vuurmanie Tlwaelo ye e sa laolegego ya go fiša intshisekelo yokushisa
dilo izinto
pyrophobia – pirofobie, vrees vir vuur Poifo ye e feteletšego ya mollo goba go ukwesaba umlilo
fišwa ke mollo
Q-sort technique – Q-sorteringstegniek Mokgwa wa go hlaola dielemente isu lokuhlola ubunjalo
peakanyong bomuntu
qualitative – kwalitatief Se amago go se swane go theilwego phathelene nesimo
go boleng
quantitative – kwantitatief Se amago bontši goba bogolo phathelene nokubala
radical behaviourism – radikale Kgopolo ya gore boitshwaro bja motho umqondo wokuhlaziya
(klassieke) behaviourisme bo hlalošwa go ya ka tswalano ya bjona ukuziphatha
go ditiragalo tša tikologong
range of convenience – Katologano ya tokelo okwenza kube lula
gerieflikheidsomvang
ratio – ratio, verhouding tekanyo ubukhulu
bokulinganiselwa
rational emotive therapy – rasioneel- Mokgwa wa kalafo woo molwetši a okwenza kube lula
emosionele terapie kgopelwago go beela maikutlo a bošilo
thoko gore a atlege twantšhong ya
kgatelelo ya maikutlo/monagano
rationalisation – rasionalisering Kgopolo ya go bota tlhaloganyo go ena indlela yokuzivikela
le tsebo ka tlhago go tokafatša ditumelo ezenzweni zakho
le ditiro tša gago
raw scores – routellings, onverwerkte Dipalo tše sa fetolwago izibalo ezibekwe
tellings njengoba zinjalo
raw data matrix – Peakanyo ya datha ye e se šego e imininingwane yesimo
roudataverspreidingsdiagram fetolwe njengoba sinjalo
reaction-formation – reaksie-formasie Mokgwa wa go iphemela wo ka ona isejwayezi
(teenoorgestelde) motho a nyatšago takatšo ye e sokucindezela imizwa
ganetšwago
reactive schizophrenia – reaktiewe Tšhašarakano ya monagano ye e ukungaphili kahle
skisofrenie hlotšwego ke mabaka a ka ntle engqondweni
okwenzeka
ngokushesha
readiness – gereedheid boitokišo ukuzimisela
real self – ware self Bowena bja mannete wena uqobo
reality principle – realiteitsbeginsel Taolo ya boitshwaro gore o kgotsofatše umqondo wento
dipeelano tšeo di beilwego ke setšhaba yangempela
receptive orientation – ontvanklike Mokgwa wa go hwetša kgotsofalo go ukuzimisela
instelling tšwa bathong ba bangwe ukwemukela
receptor neurons – reseptorneurone dinyoronekamogedi imizwa eyamukelayo
(ontvangs-)
recessiveness – resessiwiteit poelomorago ukuhlehla
reciprocity – wederkerig Tirano/neano ukubuyiselana
reconstruction of experience – Tlhamoseswa ya boitemogelo ukulungiswa kolwazi
ervaringsrekonstruksie onalo
reduction – vermindering phokotšo ukuncipha
reductionism – reduksionisme, Teori ya gore kgopolo goba peakanyo ukuncipha, ukunciphisa
vermindering ye e raranego e ka kwešišwa gabotse
go ya ka dikarolwana tša yona tše
bonolo
referent power – referente (verwysings-) Maatla ao go lebišwago go ona amandla omuntu
mag ngokwezinga
reframing – herdefiniëring (bv. ’n ander Go bona dikgopolo goba ditumelo ka ukubeka kwesinye isimo
verwysings-raamwerk) tsela ye mpsha goba ye e fapanego
refreezing – herbevriesing Go kgahliša gape ukubanda kakhulu futhi
regression – regressie, terugkeer Mokgwa wa motho yo mogolo yo a ukubuyela emuva
tšeago maitshwaro a sebjana
regression analysis – regressie-ontleding Tshekatsheko ya mokgwa wa motho yo isu lokuthola
mogolo yo a itshwarago bjalo ka ubudlelwane bezinto
ngwana
reinforcement – versterking Matlafatšo, tiišo uhlelo lokuqinisa
relational schema – verhoudingskema Peakanyo go ya ka tswalano indlela yokuthola
inkinga kumininingwane
relationship-oriented – Mokgwa wa go bopa ukwejwayela
verhoudingsgeoriënteerd setswalle/tswalano le batho ka go tseba ubudlelwane
setšo sa bona
reliability – betroubaarheid, konstantheid tshepagalo ukwethembeka
religious – religieus, godsdienstig sedumedi inkolo
remedial – remediërende fodišago ukulungisa
reorganisation of experience – Peakanyoseswa ya boitemogelo ukuhlela kabusha
ervaringsherorganisasie okufundiwe
repertoire – repertoire, versameling Kgoboketšo ya dilo peakanyong ya okuqoqelwe ndawonye
mohuta wo o rilego
repetitive-strain injuries – herhalende Motho yo ka mehla a sa atlegeng ukulimala kwezitho
ooreisingsbeserings medirong ya gagwe okuphindekayo
report level – rapporteringsvlak kgatopego izinga lokubika
(denotasie, saaklike betekenis)
repression – repressie, verdringing thibelo ingcindezelo
repulsion hypothesis – Tlhoyo/kilo umqondo
afstootlikheidshipotese wokwehlukanisa
research design – navorsingsontwerp Tlhamego ya nyakišišo ukuma kocwaningo
research methodology – Mokgwa wa nyakišišo indlela yokwenza
navorsingsmetodiek ucwaningo
resiliency – aanpasbaarheid, herstel of Mokgwa wa go boela sekeng gabonolo ukupeteka
weerstandsvermoë
resources – hulpbronne thušo izinsiza, ingcebo
respondent behaviour – respondente Boitshwaro bja ophendula ngokwenza
gedrag
response set – responsieneiging, Mokgwa wo o itšego wa motho wa go isejwayezi
beantwoordings-, reaksieneiging fetola dipotšišo molekong sokuphendula
response style – reaksiestyl Mokgwa wa phetolo indlela yokuphendula
retention – onthou, retensie Tshwaro ye e sa tlwaelegago ya ukubamba
moroto, mantle mmeleng
reticular activation system (RAS) – Karolo ya bjoko ye e kgathago tema go ingxenye yobuchopho
retikulêre aktiveringstelsel (RAS) boitshwaro le go fa mmele mafolofolo evusa imizwa
retinal disparity – retinale dispariteit Go se swane /lekane ga diretina umehluko ekuboneni
(ongelykheid) izinto ezimbili
retrieval – herwinning pušetšo ukuthola
retroactive inhibition – retroaktiewe Mokgwa wa go lebala tsebo ye e isejwayezi sokwakhela
inhibisie, nakomende inhibering hweditšwego mathomong ka lebaka la phezu kolunye ulwazi
ye mpsha
reward – beloning Moputso umvuzo
role ambiguity – roldubbelsinnigheid, Melao ye e sa hlalošego gabotse ka ukuphindeka kabili
rolonduidelikheid moo bašomedi ba swanetšego go kwezindima
itshwara ka gona
role conflict – rolkonflik Tlhokego ya kwano gare ga ditetelo tša ukushayisana
mošomo goba tša boemo bjo rilego kwendima
role expectation – rolverwagting Boitshwaro bjo bo letetšwego okulindeleke endimeni
role identity – rolidentiteit Mekgwa ya boitshwaro bathing ba ukubonakala kwendima
rilego
role loading – rolbelading Go imetšwa ka ditiro/mešomo ukunikeza omunye
umsebenzi
role perception – rolpersepsie Temogo ya ditema tše di kgathwago le umcabango
ka moo di fetolago boitshwaro bja batho ngomsebenzi
safety needs – veiligheidsbehoeftes Dinyakwa tša polokego izidingo zokuphepha
salutogenesis – salutogenese bronne Mokgwa wa phodiši, kaonafatšo le ukwemukela umuntu
van gesondheid tokišo ngobungani
sampling – monstertrekking Mokgwa wa go no kgetha fela ukwenza isampula
sanctioned aggression – goedgekeurde Tlhaselo ye e lego taolong ulaka oluvunyiwe
aggressie
savant – verstandelike vertraagtheid morutegi isazi
schema – skema, raamwerk Mmotlo wa monaganong wa motho wo uhlelo
o beakantšwego ka mokgwa wo o
nolofatšago ditshepetšo tša temogo
schizoid – skisoïde Boitshwaro bja go ba le dihlong kudu isejwayezi
sokungahlangani
nabanye
schizophrenia – skisofrenie Tšhašarakano ya monagano ukungaphili kahle
engqondweni
schizotypical – skisotipies Boitshwaro bjo makatšago izimpawu zokungaphili
kahle engqondweni
school of thought – denkskool Kgopolo go ya ka sehlopha se itšego sa inkolelo ethathwa
batho njengeyiyo
screening technique – siftingstegniek Thekniki ya go šupa batho bao ba ka isu lokuhlolisisa
hlaselwago ke bolwetši bjo bo itšego
secondary trait – sekondêre trek Boitshwaro bja morago izimpawu zesibili
security needs – sekuriteitsbehoeftes Dinyakwa tša poloko izidingo zokuphepha
selection – keuring Tlhaolo, kgetho ukukhetha
selective orientation – selektiewe Ye e latelago kgahlego go mokgwa wa indlela ekhethwayo
oriëntasie go kgetha
self (ego) – self, ego Ka noši, bonoši ubuwena, ukuzazi
self-actualisation – selfaktualisering, Mokgwa wa go godiša bokgoni bja ukuzazi
potensiaalverwesenliking gago le go ikwešiša
self-concept – selfkonsep, selfbegrip Sehlopha sa maikutlo, dikgopolo le umqondo wokuzazi
ditemogo tše motho a nago le tšona ka
ga gagwe
self-consciousness – selfbewussyn boikgopolo ukuzazi
self-control – self-, persoonlike kontrole Boitshwaro, boipušo ukuzibamba
self-defeating – selfverydelend Go palelwa ke go fihlelela poelo ye e ukwehluleka ukuthola
ikemišeditšwego okuhlosiwe
self-determination – selfbepalend Maatla a go tšea sephetho ka bowena ukuba namandla
o sa huetšwe ke batho ba bangwe ngokwengqondo
self-determination model – self- Mmotlolo wa maatla a go tšea sephetho umqondo wokuba
bepalingsmodel ka bowena o sa huetšwe ke batho ba namandla engqondo
bangwe
self-efficacy – selftoereikendheid, - Tumelo ya motho gore a ka atlega inkolelo yokuthi
doeltreffendheid dikemong tše rilego ungazuza inhloso
self-enhancement – selfbevordering Tutuetšo ya gore batho ba ikwe ugqozi lokuzikhuthaza
gabotse
self-esteem – selfagting boitlhompho ukuzethemba
self-fulfillment – selfvervulling Phethagatšo ya ditoro le ditlhologelo ukuzanelisa
tša gago
self-guides – selfgidse boitlhokomelo ukuzisiza ngokwakho
self-handicapping – selfhindernis Mokgwa wa go tšweletša mabaka a isenzo sokuzivimbela
boitatolo ge motho a sa atlege ekuphumeleleni
maitekolong a gagwe
self-identity – selfidentiteit boitšhupo ukuzazi
self-image – selfbeeld Kgopolo ka ga wena mong ukuzazi
self-management groups/teams – Dihlopha tša boitaolo amaqembu aziphethe,
selfbestuurgroepe/spanne azilawulayo
self-monitoring – selfmonitering Mokgwa wo motho a lemogago ukuziqaphela
boitshwaro bjo bo nyakegago le
boitshwaro bjo bo letetšwego go yena
gomme a ikemišeditše go bo fetola go
ya ka mo go nyakegago
self-perception – selfpersepsie boitemogo ukwazi ukuthi ungubani
self-realisation – selfwaardering, Phethagatšo ya bokgoni bja gago ukuthuthukisa ikhono
selfbereiking lakho
self-regulation – selfregulering Boimatlafatšo le tiišo ya melao ka ukuzibekela umthetho
bowena ntle le go hwetša thušo go
tšwa ka ntle
self-reinforcement – selfversterking boithušo umphumela
wokuhlosiwe
self-report inventory – Lenaneo leo motho a swanetšego go ukuzibikela ngohlu
selfantwoordvraelys šupa boitshwaro bjo bo mo hlalošago lwezinto
bokaone
self-representations – selfvoorstellings Seswantšho seo motho a nago le sona ukuzimela
ka ga gagwe
self-schemas – selfskemas Kgopolo goba tumelo ye motho a nago ukuzenzela uhlelo
le yona ka ga gagwe
self-schemata – self-skema/-skemata Kgopolo goba tumelo ye motho a nago ukuzenzela izinhlelo
le yona ka ga gagwe
self-sentiment – selfsentiment boikutlo umcabango obhekise
emqondweni womuntu
self-serving – selfregverdigende Tlwaelo ya go fela o inyakela tše botse ukuzisiza
ka go šomiša batho ba bangwe
self-transcendence – selfuitstyging Mokgwa wa go dira dilo go kgotsofatša ukunqoba imikhawulo
batho ba bangwe yakho
self-verification – selfverifiëring, Kgopolo ya gore batho ba nyaka go ukufuna ukwaziwa
selfbevestiging tsebja le go kwešišwa go ya ka ngenkolelo yakho
ditumelo tša bona
semantic differential – semantiese Mokgwa wa go ela dikgopolo tša batho indlela yokuthola
differensiaal ka ga selo se rilego izincazelo ezihlosiwe
sensation – sensasie, gewaarwording Maikutlo/khuduego ukuzwa
sense of coherence – sin vir koherensie, Kgopolo ya go tšea lefase bjalo ka selo umqondo
samehang seo se nago le tlhalošo wokuhambisana
sensitivity training – Tlhahlo ya go dira gore batho ba uqeqesho olunozwelo
sensitiwiteitsopleiding lemoge boitshwaro bja sehlopha le bja
bona
sensory adaptation – sensoriese Tlwaetšo ya dikwi ukuguquka kohlelo
aanpassing lwemizwa
sensory (afferent) neurons – sensoriese Dinyorone tše di rwalago tshedimošo uhlelo lwemizwa
(afferente) neurone ka ga dikwi
separation anxiety – skeidingsangs Tlalelo ka morago ga go kgaoganywa le ukwehlukanisa
motho yo o phetšele le yena nako ye okukhathazayo
telele
severity effect – verswaringseffek Ditlamorago tše di bontšhago dika tše umthelela wobunzima
šoro
sex determination – geslagsbepaling Phetho ya bong indlela yokuthola
inkanuko yocansi
sex-linked genes – geslagsgebonde Ditšini tše sepelelanago le bong ufuzo oluxhumene
gene ngokocansi
sexual harassment – seksuele teistering Tlaišo ka thobalano ukukhathaza
ngokocansi
shadow – skaduwee, onderliggende moriti isithunzi
gedrag (soos id)
shaping – vorming Go bopa ukwakha
shared spiritual essence – gedeelde Dikgopolo, ditumelo tše di swanago ukuzwana
geestelike belangrikhede bathong ngokwasemoyeni
signal detection – seinherkenning, - Khwetšo ya temoši ukufunwa kophawu
nasporing
signature behaviour/situation – Ditiro tša motho tšeo e sego gore di ubugebengu
kenmerkgedrag; kenmerk-situasie phetha tiro ya bosenyi obubonakala
ngezimpawu
signature strengths – kenmerksterkpunte Bokgoni bjo bo fetišago bja motho amandla okuguqula
impilo yakho
significance – betekenisvolheid bohlokwa ukubaluleka
simple schizophrenia – eenvoudige Go palelwa ke go fihlelela dinyakwa tša ukungaphili kahle
skisofrenie setšhaba le go ya fase ga phethagatšo engqondweni
ya tiro okungangenelele
similarity – eendersheid tshwano ukufana
simplicity – eenvoudigheid, bonolo ubulula
ongekompliseerdheid
simulator – simulator, nabootser Seetšiši, seekiši umlingisi
situational approach (situationism) – Kwešišo ya seo se diregago tikologong umqondo ogcizelela
situasionele benadering ya gago ukubaluleka kwento
situational tests – situasietoetse Diteko tša maemo isivivinyo esibeka
ezingeni elithile
skewness – skeefheid Go se lekalekane ukutsheka
skill – vaardigheid Bohlale, bokgoni ikhono
spiritual self – spirituele self Ditumelo tša motho le popego ya ukuzazi ngaphakathi
bophelo bja gagwe bja ka mehla
sociocentric – sosiosentries Kgopolo ya go tšea setšhaba sag ago okuqondiswe eqenjini
go bas a maemo a godimo go fetiša tše lakho lezenhlalo
dingwe
social-cognitive – sosiaal-kognitiewe Mokgwa wo batho ba tsenelelanago le umqondo wokuhlalisana
ba bangwe gammogo le tikologo ya kwabantu
bona
social constructionism – sosiale Saekholotši yeo e tsepelelafo tlhalošo imiqondo yokwazi
konstruksionisme le maatla ngenhlaliswano
socially desirable responses – sosiaal- Diphetogo tše di kganyogwago ke isijwayezi sokunikeza
gewensde response setšhaba ubuhle ngawe
socialisation – sosialisering, kgwerano ukuhlalisana kwabantu
gedragsontwikkeling
social isolation – sosiale isolasie Mokgwa wa go ipeela thoko ukukhishelwa
setšhabeng ngaphandle
social loafing – sosiale (aanvaarbare) Mokgwa wa batho wa go se šome ka ukukhekheleza
slaplê maatla ge ba le karolo ya sehlopha
social self – sosiale self Ka moo motho a iponago setšhabeng ubuwena obukhombisa
emhlabeni
social support – sosiale ondersteuning Thekgo ya setšhaba ukwesekela
kwezenhlalo
somatic – somatiese (liggaamlike) Sa mmeleng okuphathelene
nomzimba wonke
somatic nervous system – somatiese Karolo ya tshepelo ya megalatšhika ye okuphathelene nohlelo
senuweestelsel e amago tshepelo ya mmele le go kwa lwemizwa emzimbeni
ditsoši tša ka ntle
somatotype – liggaamstipe Mohuta wa mmele uhlobo lomzimba wonke
somnambulism – somnambulisme, Go sepela ga morobadi, malaomabe ukulala uhamba
slaaploop
source trait – oorsprongtrek Boitshwaro bjo sa bonwego ka mahlo ukubikezela
okuzokwenziwa
ngumuntu
spacial differentiation – ruimtelike Go se swane ga phatlalatšo ya ditšini ukwehlukaniswa
differensiasie nageng komkhathi
span of control – kontroleomvang Palo ya bašomedi ye molaodi a ka e isilinganiso sokulawula
hlapetšago
spatial summation – ruimtelike Mokgwa wa go fihlelela kgonagalo ya ukuzwa ubuhlungu
summasie tiro go nyorone esikhunjeni
spill-over effects – oorspoelgevolge Ka moo maikutlo a motho a amago ka imizwa edluliselwa
moo ba lemogago ditiragalo tše dingwe kwabanye
spinal cord – rugmurg mongetsane umgogodla
spirit of the time – tydsgees Maikutlo a sepelelanago le nako ye e umoya wesikhathi
itšego
spiritual self – geestelike self Ditumelo tša motho le dipopego tša ukuzazi ngaphakathi
gagwe tša ka mehla tša bophelo
standard deviation – standaardafwyking Phapogo ya boemo inani elikhombisa
ukwehluka
standardisation – standaardisasie, tekanetšo ukwenza kuvame
eenvormigheid
static muscular activity – statiese Khunyelo ya mešifa ukufinyela kwemisipha
spieraktiwiteit
stereotype – stereotipe, rigiede opvatting kgopolotee ukubheka uhlangothi
olulodwa
stimulus-response (S-R) approach – Mokgwa wa setsoši - phetogo indlela yokwenanela
stimulus-responsbenadering (S-R) kumizwa
storming – storm (’n fase) Kgodišo ya temogo ukuhlasela
stream of consciousness – bewussyns-, Kelo ye tšwelelago pele ya dikakanyo, imicabango nendlela
ervaringsintegrasie dikgopolo le maikutlo yokubheka izinto
stress – stres (druk, spanning) kgatelelo ingcindezi yengqondo;
ukugcizelela
strengths – sterktes maatla amandla
stressors – stresoorsake Tiragalo goba maitemogelo ao a okucindezela ingqondo;
hlolago kgatelelo ya monagano isigcizeleli
stroboscopic movement – skynbare Boiphoro bja go bona selo se tee se ya into yokubheka into
beweging (stroboskopies, phi) pele le morago enganyakazi
structuralism – strukturalisme Mokgwa wa tshekatsheko ya polelo umqondo ohlaziya
ukuziphatha
struggling – sukkel Go katana ukuthola ubunzima
styles – style mekgwa izindlela; izitayela
sublimation – sublimasie, vervanging Phetogo ya dikgato ukuhlanzisisa
subliminal perception – subliminale Temogo goba phetogo ye e diregago umqondo wokucwebisa
(onderbewuste) waarneming ntle le go elelwa.
submerged – onderliggende sobeletše cwilisiwe
subordinates – ondergeskiktes molata okungaphansi kokunye
substance dependence – substansie-, Tšhomišo mpe ya direthefatši ukwencika entweni
middelafhanklikheid edakayo
substance induced – middelgeinduseerd Tšhašarakano ya mogopolo ka lebaka ukuhungwa yinto
(veroorsakend) la tšhomišo ya direthefatši edakayo
summative assessment – Kelokakaretšo ya katlego ya moithuti uhlolo oluqoqayo
eindresultaatevaluering
super-ego – super-ego Boitshwaro go tšwa batswading le umqondo wokuzazi
setšhabeng
surface trait – oppervlaktrek Boitshwaro bjo ka bonwago bja ka ntle izimpawu zomuntu
ezibonakalayo
survey – opname Lekola, tekolo ukuhlolwa
suspended – uitgespreide, onderdrukte Lekeletša, fega, kgaola, emiša ukulengiswa,
ukuhlehliswa
SWOT analysis – SWOT-analise (sterk Tshekatsheko ya SWOT SWOT - isu lokuhlola
punte, swakpunte, geleenthede, amandla,
bedreigings) ubuthakathaka,
amathuba nokwesaba
syllogism – sillogisme, afleidende denke Kgang yeo e nago le bofora isimo esiveza okubili
kwengqondo efanayo
symbolic rehearsal – simboliese Poeletšo ya go bona dipopego ukuzejwayeza
herhaling monagano ngokwenza
symmetrical – simmetries, ewewydig lekanetšego ukufanana kokubili
sympathetic nervous system – Karolo ya tshepelo ya megalatšhika ye imizwa enozwelo
simpatiese senuweestelsel e kitimišago lebelo la go rethetha ga
pelo
symptom bearer – simptoomdraer Morwadi wa sešupo okhombisa izimpawu
symptom-focused – simptoomgerig Ye e tsepeletšego go dika izimpawu ezigxile
kokuthile
synapse – sinaps (neuronekontakpunt Magahlamo a mogalatšhika le mošifa ukuhlangana kwamaseli
vir impulsgeleiding) amabili emizwa
syndrome – sindroom, siektebeeld Ditšhupo tše di bontšhago go ba gona isimo, isifo
ga seemo goba bolwetši
synergy – sinergie, samewerking Bokgoni bja mekgatlo goba dihlopha ukusebenzisana
bja go ka atlega le go feta ka morago
ga kgotlano
systemic – sistemies Ye e theilwego go peakanyo okuvamile
Systems Model – Sisteemmodel Mmotlo wa dipeakanyo indlela eveza imibono
eminingi
task group – taakgroep sehlophatiro iqembu elenza
umsebenzi
task identity – taakidentiteit Boitšhupo bja tiro ukukhomba umsebenzi
task-orientated – taakgeoriënteerd Tsepelelo go phethagatšo ya tiro okubhekiswe
emsebenzini
task significance – taaksinvolheid Bohlokwa bja tiro ukubaluleka
komsebenzi
task simulation – taaksimulasie, Ketšišo ya tiro ukuphindwa
taaknabootsing komsebenzi
taxonomy – taksonomie, indeling, Tlhopho ya diphedi go ya ka magoro ukuhlela ngezinhlobo
klassifikasie
teaming – spanwerk, spanbou Go bopa dihlopha ukuhlangana ndawonye
teleological principle – teleologiese Kgopolo ya gore ditlamorago tša dilo di umqondo wokuthola
beginsel (toekomsgerigtheid) a direga ka tlhago ngemvelaphi
telepathy – telepatie Kgokagano ya megopolo, boikutlo, ukudlulisela umcabango
dikganyogo gare ga batho ka tsela ye e
sa kwešišegego
temperament – temperament, Mokgwa, sebopego isigubho
geaardheid
temperance – gematigdheid Boitimo, tekano ukuzithiba
temporal summation – temporale Ditlamorago tša nakwana tše di isifinyezo sesikhashana
summasie hlotšwego ke kgonagalo ya tiro
nyoroneng
temporal cortex – temporale korteks Dikarolo tša ka thoko tša bjoko ingxenye yobuchopho
engaphansi
terminal values – terminale, eindwaardes Boleng bja selo mafelelong a nako ye e inani lokuthile
itšego ekupheleni kwesikhathi
test bias – toetssydigheid Phapano ya meputso molekong isivivinyo esivuna
uhlangothi
thalamus – talamus thalamase ingxenye yobuchopho
eyemukela imizwa
theoretical – teoretiese Ye e theilwego go teori umcabango
threshold – drempel mogato umnyango
token economy – teken-, Phekolo yeo ka yona badudi ba ukuziphatha
beloningsekonomie institušeneng ba putswago gobane ba okuklonyeliswayo
itshwere gabotse ka go fiwa sešupo
seo se ka fetolelwago go tšhelete
tolerance – toleransie, kgotlolelo ukubekezelela
verdraagsaamheid
top-down – bo-na-onder Yeo e laolwago goba e beakantšwego ukusuka phezulu ukuya
go tšwa godimo phansi
topographical – topografies Ye e amago thutelo goba tlhalošo ya incasiselo yesimo
popego ya selo sendawo
trait/factor – trek/faktor Semelo sa motho uphawu
transactionism – transaksionisme Papatšišano/kwano isimo sokwenza
(interaksie tussen mens, omgewing en ibhizinisi
gedrag)
transcendence – transendensie, Go feta, go phala ukubabazeka
uitstyging
transfer of learning – leeroordrag Mokgwa wa go tšea bokgoni bjo o bo ukwedluliselwa
hweditšego thutong ye nngwe wa bo kwemfundo
šomiša go ye nngwe
transference – oordrag tšhutišo ukudlulisa
transformation – transformasie, phetogo inguquko
vervorming
transition – oorgang Phetogo ya segalo ukudlulela kwesinye
isimo
transparency – deursigtigheid ponagatšo okusobala
transitional person – veranderende Motho yo a go homotšago morago ga umuntu oguqukela
persoon tiragalo ye mpe gomme o mo tlogele ka kwesinye isimo
morago ka ge a go gopotša tiragalo ye
mpe yeo
thriving – vooruitgang katlego okuhlumile
Type-A behaviour – tipe A-gedrag Boitshwaro bja mohuta wa A umqondo wephethini
yokuziphatha
types – tipes Mehuta, mekgwa izinhlobo
typology – tipologie Thuto ka ga mehuta goba nyalelano ukwehlukanisa
gare ga mehuta ngokohlobo
ubuntu (humaneness) – botho ubuntu
medemenslikheid
unconditioned stimulus – Setsoši seo se hlolago phetogo yeo o okudonsa imizwa
ongekondisioneerde stimulus nago le tsebo ya yona ka go wena kungahleliwe
unconscious – onbewuste Idibetšego, itebetšego lele isihlwathi
unconscious factors – onbewuste faktore Mabaka ao a sa lemogwego izimpawu zokulala
isihlwathi
unconscious mental content – Dilo tše motho a di dirago ka go go se isimo sokulala isihlwathi
onbewuste psigiese inhoud lemoge
undoing hypothesis – omkerende Tahlo ya tlhalošo ye e šišintšwego ukubuyela emuva
hipotese komcabango
unfreezing – ontvriesing, desensitisering Go nyefiša ukuncibilika
unilateral – eensydige Ya lehlakoretee kohlangothi olulodwa
unobservable behaviour – nie- Boitshwaro bjo bo sa lemogwago ukuziphatha
waarneembare gedrag okungabonisi
uplift – ophef Kaonafatšo ya seemo sa boitshwaro ukukhuphuka
utility motive – nuttigheidsmotief Morero wa tšhomišego isisusa somsebenzi
valence – valensie (aantrekkingskrag) Maatla a kgahlego goba lehloyo go selo isidlakadlaka
validity – geldigheid bokgonthe ukuba neqiniso
values – waardes mehola okwaziswayo
values-in-action – waardes in aksie Dihlokwa tše di lego tiišong ukuziphatha
okwaziswayo
variability – varieerbaarheid, pharologanyo ukuguquguquka
veranderlikheid
variable ratio – veranderlike ratio Palo ye e ka fetogago inani eluguquguqukayo
variables – veranderlikes Tše di fetogang okuphenduphendukayo
variance – variansie, afwyking, Phapano, go se swane impambano
varieerbaarheid
verification – verifiëring, Tiišo/tlhohlomišo ukuqinisa
aanvaarbaarheidsproses
vertical differentiation – vertikale Phapanoya tsepamo ubunjalo bempahla
differensiasie
virtues – deugde Bothaka, bokgabane, maatla igunya
vicarious learning – middellike leer, Thuto ye e tšeago legato la ye nngwe ukufunda ngokuzinikela
observasieleer
vicarious reinforcement – versterking Mokgwa wa go etšiša boitshwaro bja ukuqinisa ngokuzinikela
deur waarneming motho yo mongwe
vigor – energie Maatla, mafolofolo amandla
vocational identity diffusion – Boemo bjo motho a sa kgonego go dira ukuhlakazela
beroepsidentiteitsvaagheid dikgetho dithutong ngobunjalo bomsebenzi
whole learning – geheelleer Go ithuta ka botlalo ukufunda okuphelele
wholeness – geheelheid bokamoka ukuphelela
wholeness of experience – geheel van Bokamoka bja boitemogelo ulwazi oluphelele
ervaring
will to meaning – wil tot betekenis Boikemišetšo bja motho bja go hwetša intando yokunikeza
bonnete go hwetša tlhalošo le morero incazelo
wa bophelo
withdrawal – onttrekking Katologo, khunyelo, tlošo ukuhoxa
workaholism – werkoholisme, Go rata mošomo kudu ukusebenza kakhulu
werkverslaafdheid
work centrality – sentraliteit van werk Bohlokwa bja go šoma bathong ukwenziwa komsebenzi
endaweni eyodwa
work dysfunction – werkdisfunksie Go se phethe mošomo ka go ukungahambi kahle
swanetšego komsebenzi
work ethics – werketiek Maitshwaro mošomong ukuziphatha
emsebenzini
workforce demographics – Dipalopalo tša bašomi mošomong wa abasebenzi bezinhlanga
werkmagdemografie bona ezahlukene
working body posture – Leemo la mmele mošomong ukuxhumana
werkliggaamshouding ngomzimba
okubonisayo
working conditions – Maemo a go šoma izimo okusetshenzwa
werkomstandighede ngaphansi kwazo
working memory – werkende geheue Bokgoni bja go swara tsebo inkumbulo yomsebenzi
monaganong ye e nyakegago go
phethagatša ditiro tše di rilego
work-related attitudes – werkverwante Maikutlo ao a nyalelanego le mošomo izimongqondo
houdinge ezimayelana
nomsebenzi
work sample test – werkmonstertoets Thekniki ya teko ye e šomišwago go isivivinyo sesampuli
kgetha bašomedi go šupa bokgoni bja yomsebenzi
bona
work station design – werkstasieontwerp Moakanyetše wa lefelo la mošomo ukuma kwendawo
yokusebenzela
workplace aggression – Pherekanyo lifelong la mošomo ukuhlasela emsebenzini
werkplekaggressie
workplace bullying – werkplekafknouery Mphenyašilo mošomong ukwesabisa
emsebenzini
zoophobia – soöfobie, dierefobie Poifo ye e feteletšego ya diphoofolo ukwesaba izilwane
IOP1501/101/3/2023
Tutorial Letter 101/3/2023
Psychological Processes in the Work and

Self-employed Context
IOP1501
Semesters 1 and 2
Department of Industrial and Organisational

Psychology
This tutorial letter contains important information about your module.
BARCODE
IOP1501/101/3/2023
CONTENTS
Page
1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................ 3
1.1 Getting started ................................................................................................................................ 3
2 OVERVIEW OF THE MODULE ...................................................................................................... 4
2.1 Purpose .......................................................................................................................................... 4
2.2 Learning outcomes and assessment criteria .................................................................................. 4
2.3 Learning content for this module .................................................................................................... 5
3 CURRICULUM TRANSFORMATION ............................................................................................ 6
4 LECTURERS AND CONTACT DETAILS ...................................................................................... 6
4.1 Lecturers for the module at the time of printing .............................................................................. 6
4.2 Department ..................................................................................................................................... 6
4.3 University ........................................................................................................................................ 6
5 RESOURCES ................................................................................................................................. 7
5.1 Joining myUnisa ............................................................................................................................. 7
5.2 Prescribed and Recommended books ............................................................................................ 7
5.3 Electronic reserves (e-reserves) ..................................................................................................... 7
5.4 Library services and resources ....................................................................................................... 8
6 STUDENT SUPPORT SERVICES ................................................................................................. 9
6.1 First-Year Experience Programme @ Unisa .................................................................................. 9
7 ASSESSMENT ............................................................................................................................. 10
7.1 Assessment plan: Four Assignments............................................................................................ 10
7.2 How to submit assignments .......................................................................................................... 11
7.3 Calculating your final year mark.................................................................................................... 12
7.4 Randomised multiple-choice questions ........................................................................................ 13
7.5 Guidelines on answering multiple-choice questions ..................................................................... 14
7.6 Invigilation/proctoring .................................................................................................................... 15
8 ACADEMIC DISHONESTY .......................................................................................................... 16
8.1 Plagiarism ..................................................................................................................................... 16
8.2 Cheating ....................................................................................................................................... 16
8.3 More information about plagiarism can be downloaded on the link below:................................... 16
9 STUDENTS LIVING WITH DISABILITIES ................................................................................... 16
10 CONCLUSION .............................................................................................................................. 16
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IOP1501/101/3/2023
1 INTRODUCTION
Dear Student,
Welcome to the module Psychological Processes in the Work and Self-employed Context (IOP1501).
Unisa, as a comprehensive open distance e-learning institution (CODeL), is moving towards becoming an
online institution. You will therefore see that all your study material, assessments and engagements with
your lecturers and fellow students will take place online. This tutorial letter is intended to offer you some
guidance in this regard.
This is your first module in the Department of Industrial and Organisational Psychology. You must therefore
use myUnisa to study and complete all the learning and assessment activities for this module online.
Visit the website for this module on myUnisa frequently. The website code is IOP1501-23-S1 for Semester
1 and IOP1501-23-S2 for Semester 2.
You must remember the following:
• All your study material and learning activities are delivered online on myUnisa.
• All your assignments must be submitted online. This means that you must do all the activities and submit all your
assignments on myUnisa. You may NOT post or email your assignments to Unisa or lecturers.
• All communication between you and the university happens online. Your lecturers will communicate with you by e-
mail and SMS, and via the Announcements and Discussion Forums tools on myUnisa. You can also use these
platforms to ask questions and contact your lecturers.
1.1 Getting started
Read about this module and find ALL your study material online. To do so, you must first claim
your myLife Unisa e-mail account – it is free. All communication posted online on the IOP1501 module
site, goes to your myLife e-mail account. You can choose to redirect these to another e-mail account in
the settings of the myLife e-mail account.
If you have any problems accessing your myLife email account, please contact the technical support via
email to myLifeHelp@unisa.ac.za.
Upon registration you will be linked to two myUnisa sites that you must use on to enable you to successfully
complete this module. These sites are:
(i) The main module site: IOP1501-23-S1 (Semester 1) or IOP1501-23-S2 (Semester 2). Here you
will find all the information about the content of the module, how to access prescribed reading
material (e-reserves), your assignments and your learning activities. This is the most important site.
(ii) The E-Tutor site: You may be allocated to an e-tutor who is qualified in the subject and has
experience with the Unisa learning system. You will receive a notification in your myLife e-mail,
informing you if you have been allocated an e-tutor. To access your e-tutor, log on to myUnisa. You
will have an additional module tab with the module code: IOP1501-23-S1-1E (Semester 1) or
IOP1501-23-S2-1E (Semester 2). Depending on the number of students, the last two digits of the
e-tutor site can range from 1E to 12E and further per semester.
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(iii) To find your sites on myUnisa log onto myUnisa and select the orange myModules dropdown
button. The face of myUnisa is driven by new Moodle technology and you are encouraged to spend
some time familiarising yourself with the myUnisa site before continuing with your studies.
Go to the website at https://my.unisa.ac.za and log in using your student number and password.
To find the sites for IOP1501, click on at the top of your myUnisa
dashboard and select the site you want to access from the dropdown list.
(iv) The home page of the main IOP1501 module site contains two important segments that you must
use to orientate yourself about IOP1501, to access your learning material and to understand what
assignments you must do to pass the IOP1501 module. The home page is broadly divided into an
ACTIVITY segment and an ORIENTATION segment. Important information about the module
content is clustered under the ORIENTATION segment. This includes the eleven (11) LESSONS
that are grouped into three (3) SECTIONS. There is also an ASSIGNMENT section which contains
important information that you need to read carefully before submitting any assignments.
Prescribed and Additional Resources can also be accessed in the ORIENTATION segment on the
module home page on myUnisa. The ACTIVITY segment contains links to your assignments and
other activities that you need to complete to be successful in this module. It is in the ACTIVITY
segment that you will submit your assignments.
Once you have familiarised yourself with the myUnisa IOP1501-2023 site, turn your attention to the content
of IOP1501.
2 OVERVIEW OF THE MODULE
2.1 Purpose
The purpose of this module is to introduce you to the theoretical perspectives, methodology and
psychological basis of human behaviour in the world, African and South African contexts. Students who
have completed this module successfully have a fundamental knowledge base of psychological and social
processes in the work and self-employment context. This fundamental psychology knowledge base
contributes to understanding individual differences and work behaviour, and the improvement of
interpersonal work relationships and organisational effectiveness.
You will learn about processes such as the biological basis of human behaviour, development, learning,
perception, cognition, motivation, attitudes, and pro-social behaviours such as aggression and conflict.
You will also learn about social processes such as group behaviour and leadership.
2.2 Learning outcomes and assessment criteria
This module contributes to your total degree study and how your qualification/graduateness can make a
difference in your life and other people’s lives. If you pass the second year and third year IOP modules,
you can complete an honours degree in industrial and organisational psychology (IOP). Thereafter, you
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can complete a professional master's degree in IOP, an internship and the board examination to register
as a professional industrial psychologist with the Health Professions Council of South Africa.
For this module, you must master three overall study outcomes:
• Specific outcome 1: Demonstrate an informed understanding of the principles of IOP and how
they can be applied to various roles students fulfil in real life (personally, socially and
professionally).
• Specific outcome 2: Demonstrate an awareness of how people’s basic behaviour and related
processes contribute to the overall behaviour of individuals in the workplace and self-employed
context, including how the overall behaviour of individuals influences the student in various
graduateness-related roles.
• Specific outcome 3: Demonstrate an informed understanding of the importance and contributions
of social processes to human behaviour and interactions in the work and self-employed context.
For each of these learning outcomes, there are assessment criteria that you will be assessed on to
demonstrate your competence in this module. These assessment criteria are linked to each of the eleven
(11) lessons on myUnisa.
2.3 Learning content for this module
The eleven (11) lessons for this module are categorised into three sections:
SECTION 1: Industrial & • LESSON 1: GRADUATENESS

Organisational • LESSON 2: WHAT IS WORK?
Psychology @work • LESSON 3: INDUSTRIAL & ORGANISATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY
• LESSON 4: NEUROSCIENCE & HUMAN BEHAVIOUR

SECTION 2: Individual • LESSON 5: COGNITION & MEMORY
Psychological Processes • LESSON 6: MOTIVATION & EMOTION
@work • LESSON 7: SENSATION, PERCEPTIONS, ATTITUDES, VALUES
• LESSON 8: LEARNING & COGNITION
SECTION 3: Social • LESSON 9: SOCIAL PROCESSES & GROUP BEHAVIOUR

Psychological Processes • LESSON 10: LEADERSHIP
@work • LESSON 11: SUSTAINABLE EMPLOYABILITY
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Access and STUDY the content of the lessons on your main module site on myUnisa. Each lesson contains
a study guide, some lessons have additional prescribed reading material, to study and some have
activities that you must complete before continuing to the next lesson.
3 CURRICULUM TRANSFORMATION
Unisa has implemented a transformation charter, in terms of which the university has placed curriculum
transformation high on the teaching and learning agenda. Curriculum transformation includes student-
centred scholarship, the pedagogical renewal of teaching and assessment practices, the scholarship of
teaching and learning, and the infusion of African epistemologies and philosophies. All of these will be
phased in at both programme and module levels, and as a result of this you will notice a marked change
in the teaching and learning strategy implemented by Unisa, together with the way in which the content is
conceptualised in your modules. We encourage you to embrace these changes during your studies at
Unisa in a responsive way within the framework of transformation.
4 LECTURERS AND CONTACT DETAILS
4.1 Lecturers for the module at the time of printing
Dr L Tonelli Primary Lecturer leyl@unisa.ac.za

Prof HA Barnard Secondary Lecturer barnaha@unisa.ac.za
Ms M Kumbi Postgraduate Development Fellow kumbim@unisa.ac.za
When you contact a lecturer by e-mail, please include your student number and the module code in the
subject line to enable the lecturer to help you more effectively.
4.2 Department
You can contact the Department of Industrial and Organisational Psychology as follows:
Telephone numbers – 012 429 8054/8033

E-mail – Deptiop@unisa.ac.za
4.3 University
Contact addresses of the various administrative departments appear on the Unisa website:
http://www.unisa.ac.za/sites/corporate/default/Contact-us/Student-enquiries.
Please include the student number in all correspondence
For technical inquiries, you can contact:

MyUnisaHelp@unisa.ac.za or 012 4293111 (Option 2)
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IOP1501/101/3/2023
5 RESOURCES
5.1 Joining myUnisa
The myUnisa learning management system is Unisa’s online campus which will help you to communicate
with your lecturers, other students, and the administrative departments of the university. To claim your
myUnisa account, please follow the steps below:
1. Visit the myUnisa website at https://my.unisa.ac.za/portal .

2. Click on the "Claim Unisa login" link on the top of the screen under the orange user ID box.
3. A new screen will load, prompting you to enter your student number. Please enter your student
number and click "continue".
4. Enter your surname, your full name, your date of birth, and your South African ID number (for South
African citizens) OR your passport number (for foreign students). Then click "continue".
Remember to enter either an ID number or a passport number, NOT both.
5. Please read the guidelines and click all the check boxes to acknowledge that you have read all
the information provided. Once you are done, click the "Acknowledge" button to redirect you to
the final page of the process.
6. The final page will display your myLife e-mail address and your myLife AND myUnisa password.
This password will also be sent to the cellphone number displayed on the page for safekeeping.
7. Please note that it can take up to 24 hours for your myLife e-mail account to be created.
Remember that the password provided is your myUnisa AND myLife password.
5.2 Prescribed and Recommended books
There are no prescribed books for this module and there are no recommended books for this module.
5.3 Electronic reserves (e-reserves)
The module content is divided into 11 LESSONS on myUnisa. For some of these lessons we prescribe
additional reading material (e-reserves) that you must study to enable you to do the assignments and to
pass the module. In each lesson we clearly note on myUnisa whether there is additional reading material
to be downloaded and studied. The following e-reserves are prescribed for IOP1501 and can be
downloaded from the library catalogue by following the link to the Unisa Library provided on myUnisa. A
link is also provided for you in your READING MATERIAL section as well as in the LESSON sections on
myUnisa. More information is also available at: https://libguides.unisa.ac.za/request/request.
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Allvin, M., & Movitz, F. (2017). Whose side is technology on, really? On the interdependence of work and technology. In
N. Chmiel, F. Fraccaroli & M. Sverke, (Eds.), An Introduction to work and organizational psychology: An
international perspective (pp. 121-134), Wiley Blackwell.
Coetzee, M., & Schreuder, A.M.G. (2020). Changes in the world of work and careers. In M. Coetzee, & A.M.G. Schreuder
(Eds.), Careers an Organisational perspective (6th ed., pp. 42-89), Juta.
De Kock, F., S. (2018). Industrial, work and organizational psychology in Africa. In D., S. Ones, N. Anderson, H.K.,
Sinagil & C Viswesvaran (Eds.). The Sage Handbook of Industrial work and Organizational Psychology (pp.110-
127)
Donald F. (2015). Leadership. In A. Moerdyk, N. Dodd, F. Donald, J. Kiley, G. Van Hoek, & L. Van Hoek (Eds.),
Organisational Behaviour (pp. 178-202), Oxford University Press.
Gross, R. (2015). Learning and Cognition. In R. Gross, (Eds.), Psychology: The Science of Mind and Behaviour (7th
ed.,).
Kgatle, M.S., (2018). ‘Servant leadership: An urgent style for the current political leadership in South Africa’. Verbum et
Ecclesia 39(1), a1815. https://doi.org/ 10.4102/ve.v39i1.1815.
Kiley, J. (2013). Attitudes and Values. In Z. C., Bergh and D. J., Geldenhuys, (Eds.), Psychology in the work context (5th
ed., pp. 188-209). Oxford University Press London.
Ncube, L.B. (2010). Ubuntu: A transformative leadership philosophy. Journal of Leadership Studies 4(3):77-82.
Nevid, J., S. (2018). Sensation & Perception. In J. S., Nevid, Essentials in Psychology (pp. 86-131), Cengage.
Woods, A., Dinh, J., & Salas, E. (2017). How do I Learn what to do? How the science of training supports learning. In N.
Chmiel, F. Fraccaroli & M. Sverke, (Eds.), An Introduction to work and organizational psychology: An
5.4 Library services and resources
The Unisa Library offers a range of information services and resources:
• For brief information, go to https://www.unisa.ac.za/library/libatglance

• For more detailed library information, go to http://www.unisa.ac.za/sites/corporate/default/Library
• For research support and services (e.g. the services offered by personal librarians and the
request a literature search service offered by the information search librarians), go to
http://www.unisa.ac.za/sites/corporate/default/Library/Library-services/Research-support
• For library training for undergraduate students, go to
https://www.unisa.ac.za/sites/corporate/default/Library/Library-services/Training
The library has created numerous library guides, available at http://libguides.unisa.ac.za
Recommended guides:
• Request and find library material/download recommended material:
http://libguides.unisa.ac.za/request/request
• Postgraduate information services: http://libguides.unisa.ac.za/request/postgrad
• Finding and using library resources and tools:
http://libguides.unisa.ac.za/Research_skills
• Frequently asked questions about the library:
http://libguides.unisa.ac.za/ask
• Services to students living with disabilities:
http://libguides.unisa.ac.za/disability
• A–Z of library databases:
https://libguides.unisa.ac.za/az.php
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Important contact information:

• Ask a librarian: https://libguides.unisa.ac.za/ask
• Technical problems encountered in accessing library online services: Lib-help@unisa.ac.za
• General library-related queries: Library-enquiries@unisa.ac.za
• Queries related to library fines and payments: Library-fines@unisa.ac.za
• Social media channels: Facebook: UnisaLibrary and Twitter: @UnisaLibrary
6 STUDENT SUPPORT SERVICES
The Study @ Unisa website is available on myUnisa: www.unisa.ac.za/brochures/studies.
This brochure contains important information and guidelines for successful studies through Unisa.
If you need assistance with regard to the myModules system, you are welcome to use the following contact
details:
• Toll-free landline: 0800 00 1870 (Select option 07 for myModules)
• E-mail: mymodules23@unisa.ac.za or myUnisaHelp@unisa.ac.za
You can access and view short videos on topics such as how to view your calendar, how to access module
content, how to view announcements for modules, how to submit assessment and how to participate in
forum activities via the following link: https://dtls-qa.unisa.ac.za/course/view.php?id=32130
As indicated previously registered Unisa students get a free myLife e-mail account. Important
information, notices and updates are sent exclusively to this account. Please note that it can take up to
24 hours for your account to be activated after you have claimed it. Please do this immediately after
registering at Unisa, by following this link: myLifeHelp@unisa.ac.za
Your myLife account is the only e-mail account recognised by Unisa for official correspondence with
the university and will remain the official primary e-mail address on record at Unisa. You remain
responsible for the management of this e-mail account.
mailto:
6.1 First-Year Experience Programme @ Unisa
Many students find the transition from school education to tertiary education stressful. This is also true in
the case of students enrolling at Unisa for the first time. Unisa is a dedicated open distance and e-learning
institution, and it is very different from face-to-face/contact institutions. It is a mega university, and all our
programmes are offered through either blended learning or fully online learning. It is for this reason that
we thought it necessary to offer first-time students additional/extended support to help them seamlessly
navigate the Unisa teaching and learning journey with little difficulty and few barriers. We therefore offer a
specialised student support programme to students enrolling at Unisa for the first time – this is Unisa’s
First-Year Experience (FYE) Programme, designed to provide you with prompt and helpful information
about services that the institution offers and how you can access information. The following FYE services
are currently offered:
• FYE website: All the guides and resources you need in order to navigate through your first year at
Unisa can be accessed using the following link: www.unisa.ac.za/FYE
• FYE e-mails: You will receive regular e-mails to help you stay focused and motivated.
• FYE broadcasts: You will receive e-mails with links to broadcasts on various topics related to your
first-year studies (e.g. videos on how to submit assessments online).
•
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IOP1501/101/3/2023
• FYE mailbox: For assistance with queries related to your first year of study, send an e-mail to
fye@unisa.ac.za .
7 ASSESSMENT
IOP1501 is a continuous assessment module.
This means that for IOP1501 you must complete four (4) compulsory assignments which ALL
contribute to your final year mark. There is no examination. If you fail the module there is no
supplementary exam. You will have to reregister for the module.
All assignments are randomised multiple choice questions (MCQs). Assignments have different time
restrictions. You must read the detailed information about each assignment, how to submit assignments
and calculate your final year mark on myUnisa carefully. This is essential so that you understand the rules
about each assignment clearly. Log on to the module site on myUnisa, select and read with attention
the section named Assignments.
Apart from the detailed information on myUnisa, below we provide some guidance on:
• the four (4) assignments in the assessment plan

• how to submit assignments online
• how to calculate your final mark
• what randomized MCQs mean, and
• how to complete MCQs
7.1 Assessment plan: Four Assignments
The following is a breakdown of the compulsory formal assessment activities as they become due during
the semester. This is applicable to students registered in semesters 1 as well as for students registered in
semester 2.
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IOP1501/101/3/2023
Assignment Where to find the Type Feedback Percentage (%)
number assignment contribution to
the year mark
Assignment 01 Find important 2 Attempts 15%
information in the 20 x randomised MCQ
ASSIGNMENTS section
Assignment 02 on the myUnisa module 2 Attempts 20%
site. 20 x randomised MCQ
*You will not receive
Assignment 03 2 Attempts feedback and results 25%
DUE DATES are
25 x randomised MCQ immediately after
provided on myUnisa.
submission.
Assignment 04 Two (2) attempts Feedback to the 40%
This is an online 30 x timed randomised MCQ assignments is made
module, and the
available online about 2
assignments are not * the assignment has a time restriction. weeks after the due date.
provided in this tutorial
letter. The conditions for this assignment are
The assignments will be similar to an exam
provided online as they
become due.
7.2 How to submit assignments
Unisa, as a comprehensive open distance e-learning institution (CODeL), is moving towards becoming an
online institution. You will therefore see that all your study material, assessments and engagements with
your lecturer and fellow students will take place online. We use myUnisa as our virtual campus
The myUnisa virtual campus will offer students access to the myModules site, where learning material will
be available online and where assessments should be completed. This is an online system that is used to
administer, document, and deliver educational material to students and support engagement between
academics and students.
The university undertakes to communicate clearly and as frequently as is necessary to ensure that you
obtain the greatest benefit from the use of the myModules learning management system. Please access
the announcements on your myModules site regularly, as this is where your lecturer will post important
information to be shared with you
All four of the assignments are compulsory and can only be submitted online. No other forms of
submission are accepted. Once a student has submitted the assignment and reached the number of
submissions allowed per assignment, no further submissions will be accepted.
It is not advisable to use a cell phone to complete the assignments. Please use a desktop computer, tablet
or laptop when completing the assignments. Students who use a cell phone find it difficult to navigate the
Online Assessment tool on the small screen and often struggle to navigate between questions and
successfully complete the quizzes. In addition, cell phones are more vulnerable to dropped internet
connections than other devices. If at all possible, please do not use a cell phone for the assignments.
It is your responsibility to manage the completion and submission of your assignment. To DO and submit
the assignments, you will find the four assignments in the ACTIVITY section on the home page of the
IOP1501 module site. However, make sure you have READ all the information about the assignments in
the ASSIGNMENT section in the ORIENTATION segment of the module site.
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IOP1501/101/3/2023
The system is set to record the highest mark of all permitted submissions. The highest mark will be
recorded towards your year mark according to the weighting of the assignment as indicated in the table in
the next section.
There is no supplementary exam for IOP1501. If you fail to obtain a 50% minimum year mark for the
assignments, you will have to re-register for another semester.
Retain the following as proof that you submitted an assignment successfully:

1. The notification you receive when you submit the assignment.
2. The notification forwarded to your myLife e-mail account.
3. The submitted assignment will reflect in the list of submitted assignments in the Online Assessment
tool.
7.3 Calculating your final year mark
To pass the module, you must achieve a year mark of at least 50%. If you obtain less than 50% for your
final year mark, you will fail the module.
Continuous assessment means that you are not going to write any examination, but the four (4)
assignments ALL contribute to your year mark according to the percentage weighting of each
assignment.
The assignments become progressively more difficult, and their weighting becomes higher. For example,
the last assignment 04, contributes 40% to your year mark and it is a timed assignment, with strict rules,
very much like an exam.
The proportion that each assignment contributes to the year mark are indicated in the box below, which
also clarifies how your final year mark is calculated.
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IOP1501/101/3/2023
CALCULATING THE FINAL YEAR MARK

Your year mark is based on the weighted marks received for each of the six compulsory assignments.
Each Assignment carries a different weight towards the total mark namely:
Assignment 01 15%
Assignment 02 20%
Assignment 03 25%
Assignment 04 40%
For example:
If the total mark for an assignment is 20 and the weight of that assignment is 15% and you receive an
assignment mark of 19, you would have obtained 14% of the total year mark. The greater the weighting of
the assignment the higher the percentage mark towards the year mark.
You can track your progress throughout the year as you work towards obtaining the 50% subminimum to
pass the module.
Remember that the better your assignment marks are, the better your year mark will be. It is therefore
imperative that you do well in all four (4) assignments to benefit from good marks being added to your
overall mark of your qualification. Should you be following a career path in Industrial and Organisational
Psychology and continue with your honours programme in Industrial and Organisational Psychology you
would need a minimum of 60% for the major(s), or for a selected number of NQF 7 modules in the
qualification. If you are not following a career path in Industrial and Organisational Psychology, see the
admission requirement of your undergraduate programme. It is then imperative to try to score the highest
pass percentage in each module you complete in your undergraduate qualification, so you may continue
with your studies.
Be sure that you access myUnisa regularly to keep yourself informed. It is advisable that you activate your
myLife e-mail account as all communication posted online will automatically generate an e-mail to this
account. Remember that your mark for each assignment will contribute a weighted percentage to your
year mark.
7.4 Randomised multiple-choice questions
Multiple-choice questions (MCQs) are randomized. This means that the alternative answers or options of
the MCQ are randomised every time a student attempts the question. Each time a student begins the
assessment the correct answer to each MCQ remains the same but will move between different options
numbers. This also means that no two students will receive the exact same MCQs.
Example
When a student opens the assignment the first time, they may receive a question such as this:
The “midlife crisis” experience relates to _______.
A. children leaving home

B. reassessment of careers
C. physical decline
D. all of these options
The answer to this question is “all of these options” (D).

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IOP1501/101/3/2023
If a student opens the assignment a second time, they receive the same question; however, the answer
would be in a different position:
will
The “midlife crisis” experience relates to _______.

C. all of these options
D. physical decline
The answer to this question is “all of these options” (C).
The correct answer remained the same; however, the position moved from D to C. Therefore, do not rely
on merely recognising in which position the answer is; read the question and alternatives each time you
attempt the assignment. Be sure that you know the right answer and indicate it as such irrespective of its
position. Review the questions and answers thoroughly before your final submission, and make sure that
you have answered correctly and not merely copied what you had done before.
7.5 Guidelines on answering multiple-choice questions
Many students find it difficult to answer multiple-choice questions. The following suggestions should help
you to answer this type of question more easily.
• Do not rely merely on recognising the correct answer to answer MCQs correctly. Recognition
usually entails/involves choosing a familiar item but with MCQs, each alternative answer can look
familiar. Don’t rely on familiarity but make sure you understand what each alternative answer
means in the context of the question. This level of understanding is best achieved by studying for
the assignment as though it were a short- or essay-question assignment/examination.
• Try to answer the question before you read the alternative answers. The alternative answers may
confuse you, so it is best to think about what you know before you look at them. If you are unsure
what the question stem is asking, glance at the alternative answers to get a better idea. It is also
important that you understand and recall the module content.
• Always read the alternative answers carefully instead of jumping to the conclusion that a particular
one must be the correct option.
• Beware of jargon. Alternative answers may contain technical language to test whether you know
the difference between what "looks right" and what "is right".
• Beware of alternative answers that are correct statements but not the correct one for the question
stem. Be sure that your choice best completes the stem.
• Be particularly careful with alternative answers such as “All these" and "None of these". These
options are usually the most difficult. Look carefully at every other alternative answer to ensure that
it says what you think it says. Sloppy reading can be particularly disastrous with such items.
• Watch out for double negatives! A question stem that reads "Which of the following is not true?" is
particularly difficult, especially if one or more of the alternative answers also contain negatives.
Identify the alternatives that are true; you will soon identify the correct (false) alternative if you use
a process of elimination.
• A good strategy for answering MCQs is to answer as many of the questions as you can without
worrying about the ones you cannot answer. Then work through the questions again and answer
14
IOP1501/101/3/2023
all the questions you are uncertain about. Answering the easier questions first may help you to
overcome some anxiety.
• Pace yourself properly throughout the examination. On average, you will have just over one minute
per question. This may cause that you have some time left to answer the difficult questions. Also
make sure that you have a bit of time to review your answers.
• Review the questions that you got wrong in your assignments and try to find out why you answered
them incorrectly. Look for patterns in your incorrect answers, both in the type of material tested
and, in the form or style of the questions. If you are unsure why the alternative answer that you
chose for a particular question was incorrect, review the text and your notes again. If you are still
unsure, contact your lecturer or tutor.
To get the maximum benefit from these suggestions, we recommend that you review them before each
assignment or the examination.
7.6 Invigilation/proctoring
Since 2020 Unisa conducts all its assessments online. Given stringent requirements from professional
bodies and increased solicitations of Unisa’s students by third parties to unlawfully assist them with the
completion of assignments and examinations, the University is obliged to assure its assessment integrity
through the utilisation of various proctoring tools: Turnitin, Moodle Proctoring, the Invigilator App and IRIS.
These tools will authenticate the student’s identity and flag suspicious behaviour to assure credibility of
students’ responses during assessments.
The assessment strategy of IOP1501 means that the Moodle proctoring tool may be applied to the
assessments. The Moodle Proctoring tool is a facial recognition software that authenticates students’
identity during their assessments. This tool requires access to a student’s mobile or laptop camera.
Students must ensure their camera is activated in their browser settings prior to their assessments.
Students who are identified and flagged for suspicious dishonest behaviour arising from the invigilation
and proctoring reports are referred to the disciplinary office for formal proceeding.
Please note:
Students must refer to their module assessment information on their myModule sites for more information
about proctoring of assignments.
15
IOP1501/101/3/2023
8 ACADEMIC DISHONESTY
8.1 Plagiarism
Plagiarism is the act of taking the words, ideas and thoughts of others and presenting them as your own.
It is a form of theft which involves several dishonest academic activities, such as the following:
• Cutting and pasting from any source without acknowledging the source.
• Not including or using incorrect references.
• Paraphrasing without acknowledging the original source of the information.
8.2 Cheating
Cheating includes, but is not limited to, the following:
• Completing assessments on behalf of another student, copying from another student during an
assessment or allowing a student to copy from you.
• Using social media (eg WhatsApp/Telegram) or other platforms to spread assessment
information.
• Submitting corrupt or irrelevant files.
• Buying completed answers from “tutors” or internet sites (contract cheating).
8.3 More information about plagiarism can be downloaded on the link below:
https://www.unisa.ac.za/sites/myunisa/default/Study-@-Unisa/Student-values-and-rules
9 STUDENTS LIVING WITH DISABILITIES
The Advocacy and Resource Centre for Student with Disability ARCSWiD) provides an opportunity for
staff to interact with students with disabilities. If you are a student with a disability and would like additional
support or need additional time for assessments, you are invited to contact the module leader for IOP1501.
10 CONCLUSION
Do not hesitate to contact us by e-mail if you have problems with the content of this tutorial letter or with
any academic aspect of the module. We wish you a fascinating and satisfying journey through the learning
material, and trust that you will complete the module successfully.
All the best!
The IOP1501 lecturing team

DEPARTMENT OF INDUSTRIAL AND ORGANISATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY
©
UNISA 2023
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Iop1501 Assignments
Psychological Processes in Work Context (University of South Africa)
Studocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university

Downloaded by Anil Harichandre (anilh1106@gmail.com)
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1 Assignment 01 (Unique number 852472)

Return to Ass ess ment List
Part 1 of 2 - 15.0 Points
Question 1 of 18
1.0 Points
According to Erikson, in their life-span development, individuals who cannot complete
tasks, even if they try many times, express feelings of inadequacy, are unassertive and
sometimes act impulsively, and may experience one of the following psychosocial crises:
A. autonomy versus guilt and shame

B. trust versus mistrust
C. generativity versus stagnation
D. initiative versus guilt
Answer Key: A
Question 2 of 18
1.0 Points
An important difference between psychology and I-O Psychology is that:
A. I-O Psychology puts emphasis on the individual and groups.

B. Only I-O Psychology has foundational knowledge and applied fields.
C. Only I-O Psychology can be viewed as a scientific discipline.
D. I-O Psychology does not use psychological concepts and methods.
Answer Key: A
Question 3 of 18
1.0 Points
As a result of a brick hitting an employee on the head, the employee’s speech is slightly
impaired. What part of the brain is most likely to have been affected?
A. the medulla oblongata

B. the thalamus
C. the parietal cortex
D. the limbic system

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Answer Key: C
Question 4 of 18
1.0 Points
As a result of a brick hitting an employee on the head, the employee’s speech is slightly
impaired. What part of the brain is most likely to have been affected?
A. the parietal cortex

B. the medulla oblongata
C. the thalamus
D. the limbic system
Answer Key: A
Question 5 of 18
1.0 Points
Busi is 21 years old and has just left the Unisa Career Counselling Department with a report
on her career interests, based on psychometric assessments she has taken part in. She now
has a clear indication of what possible jobs would suit her interests and abilities what she
would need to study in the future for the best possible job fit. In Busi’s career development
tasks for career maturity at this stage her ________ relate(s) to a realistic choice of career.
A. career information and planning

B. crystallisation of concepts
C. consistency of career preferences
D. wisdom of vocational choice
Answer Key: A
Question 6 of 18
1.0 Points
Latent learning implies _______
A. learning that does not immediately affect behaviour

B. the acquisition of knowledge
C. improved performance
D. a relatively permanent change in behaviour
Answer Key: A

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Question 7 of 18
1.0 Points
Michael’s team was tasked with building a prototype of a bridge suitable for use at a river
in Musina. Obtaining the materials required to build this prototype seemed near impossible
and the team’s morale was slowly fading away. Michael relentlessly increased his efforts
and demanded high quality standards from his team so they can master their skills. After a
few months the prototype project was successfully concluded. What was the basic internal
need influencing Michael’s behaviour?
A. need for power.

B. need for goal setting.
C. need for achievement.
D. need for affiliation.
Answer Key: C
Question 8 of 18
1.0 Points
Paul believes that Simon is intelligent because he speaks well. However, Paul did not
consider Simon’s social inadequacies when making this judgement. Based on the theory of
impression formation, _______ is in operation here.
A. the attribution effect

B. the primacy effect
C. stereotyping
D. the halo effect
Answer Key: D
Question 9 of 18
1.0 Points
Sidwell is the resident I-O Psychologist at one of the car manufacturing companies.There
has been a rise in absenteeism, sick leave and early retirement which is costly to the
organisation. Upon investigation he identified the source of the problem as the design of the
emplyees' work stations. One of the recommendations he made to address this issue is
_________.
A. Repaint the walls of the work station so that it incorporates colors that reduce
stress.
B. Give employees longer lunch breaks so as to allow enough time for relaxation.
C. Design the work station in a way that encourages natural body movements and
posture, bringing controls within reach and avoiding unnecessary strain on the body.

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D. Provide the employees with free health check-ups so they have access to
medical assistance.
Answer Key: C
Question 10 of 18
1.0 Points
Vocational identity diffusion is an ego-identity state explained by _______ to describe the
experiences of adolescents in career-choice issues.
A. Marcia
B. Erikson
C. Bowlby
D. Havighurst
Answer Key: A
Question 11 of 18
1.0 Points
When Mpho was a young adult he experienced many uncertainties and problems to decide
what to study or what job to select to start a working life. Once he was in a job he soon was
criticised for not performing according to expectations, which makes him feel incompetent.
According to psychosocial theory Mpho may have developed a core pathology related to:
A. ego-integrity and despair

B. identity and ego or role diffusion
C. industry and inferiority
D. trust and mistrust
Answer Key: C
Question 12 of 18
1.0 Points
When a person has a generalised idea about a frequently encountered object, event or
person, this is an example of (a/an) _______.
A. stereotyping
B. self-serving bias
C. attribution error
D. schema

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Answer Key: D
Question 13 of 18
1.0 Points
Which area of the brain controls unconscious activities of various organs like the heart,
lungs, digestive tract, and excretory system?
A. Frontal cortex
B. Cerebral cortex
C. Hypothalamus
D. Reticular activating system
Answer Key: C
Question 14 of 18
1.0 Points
While conducting research, a researcher has to ask herself three critical questions. The way
she answers one question will influence her answers to the other two questions, as she
engages with reality. The theory of gaining knowledge about reality and what would be
considered as true knowledge would be the researcher’s ________.
A. ontology
B. anthropology
C. epistemology
D. methodology
Answer Key: C
Question 15 of 18
1.0 Points
The relationship between language and thinking is influenced by _______.
A. reinforcement
B. psycholinguistics
C. cultural differences
D. interpersonal communication
Answer Key: C

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Part 2 of 2 - Part 2 15.0 Points

Questions in this section are matching items. Match the correct item with the correct
response.
Question 16 of 18
5.0 Points
The Quality of Work life (QWL) approach advocates identifying a number of factors that
affect QWL. Take each of these and identify at least one theory of emotion that these can
be linked to.
A. Herzberg: Motivational factors addressed
B. McGregor: Theory Y management
C. QWL: Healthy work relationships
D. Goal-setting Theory: Performance measured by achievement of goals
E. Maslow: Self-esteem and recognition
A 1. Job satisfaction
B 2. Leadership and management style:
D 3. Communication:
C 4. Relationships and trust
E 5. Rewards, recognition and performance management:
Answer Key: 1:A, 2:B, 3:E, 4:C, 5:D
Question 17 of 18
5.0 Points
Match the ontological stance of the researcher to the scientific framework they would
conduct research in.
A. symbolic interpretive
B. rationalism
C. empiricism
D. mystic
E. idealism
1. Lebo views the nature of reality as being made up of independent parts
C that fit together like a machine. Reality works according to terms of fixed
rules.
D
2. Dawid understands the nature of reality to be contained in sacred texts
conveyed to people by holy persons on behalf of the divine being.
E
3. Vusi considers reality to be contained in our minds in the form of
innate ideas which we must discover and logically evaluate.
B 4. Elsie believes that reality exists independently of ourselves.
A
5. Itani views reality as co-created through interactions in the form of
language and conversations.

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Answer Key: 1:C, 2:D, 3:E, 4:B, 5:A
Question 18 of 18
5.0 Points
Match the following career stages and tasks.
A. Likes and dislike forms the basis of job and career choice
B. Ability the basis of thinking about a job
C. Realistic about career choice
D. Productive in given job or career
E. No or little career interest
E 1. Pre-vocational
C 2. Transition
D 3. Stabilisation
B 4. Capacity
A 5. Interest
Answer Key: 1:E, 2:C, 3:D, 4:B, 5:A

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Question 1 of 14
1.0 Points
Accoding to Geert Hofstede's six cultural dimensions a society that scores low on
" A woman can do anything a man can do" would value ______.
A. masculinity
B. power distance
C. individualism
D. Uncertainty avoidance
Answer Key: A
Question 2 of 14
1.0 Points
An outstanding characteristic of the Delphi technique is that _______.
A. ideas are discussed openly and freely

B. members do not meet face-to-face
C. strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats are identified
D. ideas are silently recorded by group members meeting in one room
Answer Key: B
Question 3 of 14
1.0 Points
Complete the following sentence by selecting the appropriate answers from the
four options.
People who are competitive and have a drive for power and recognition and want
to influence others may have a/n _________ orientation.
A. economic
B. theoretical
C. aesthetic

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D. political
Answer Key: D
Question 4 of 14
1.0 Points
The staff of AN organisation are willing to go the extra mile for the CEO of the
organisation whenever he asks this from his employees. According to Fiedler’s
contingency model, and degree of situational favourableness this factor could be
seen to refer to _______.
A. Task structure
B. Leader-member relations
C. Position power
D. Supportive leadership
Answer Key: B
Question 5 of 14
1.0 Points
The values that are emphasised in feminine societies are mostly related to
________.
A. equality
B. performance and justice
C. material success and progress
D. competition
Answer Key: A
Question 6 of 14
1.0 Points
When group members coordinate their skills and efforts in such a way that they
reach unthinkable levels of performance, one can attribute it to _______.
A. high levels of cohesion

B. synergy
C. the successful prevention of social loafing
D. groupthink

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Answer Key: B
Question 7 of 14
1.0 Points
Which conflict-handling approach indicates a willingness to work together while
satisfying one’s own concerns?
A. collaboration
B. avoidance
C. accommodation
D. compromise
Answer Key: A
Question 8 of 14
1.0 Points
Which leadership theory proposes that employees are more satisfied and
motivated when they believe that the leader is facilitating goal-attainment?
A. Behavioural leadership theory

B. Fiedler’s leadership theory
C. Path-Goal theory
D. Vroom-Jago’s leadership theory
Answer Key: C
Question 9 of 14
1.0 Points
Which type of communication is most likely to be effective when you are trying
to change the attitude of a person who feels undecided about an issue?
A. A message that presents both positive and negative information.

B. A series of subtle messages that evoke fear.
C. A message that arouses guilt in the person.
D. A message that presents only positive information.
Answer Key: A

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Question 10 of 14
1.0 Points
You lend your textbook to a fellow student who was supposed to return it a week
before you were due to write a test. When she did not return the book on time,
and you did not have enough time to prepare for the test, you felt very angry.
However, you wanted to deal with the situation in a constructive manner. What is
the most appropriate response?
A. “I felt frustrated because I could not start studying. If I lend

something out, I expect it to be returned at the agreed time.”
B. “I don’t think I will ever lend anything to you again.”
C. “It is clear that you are an irresponsible person.”
D. “These things always happen to me. I am a sucker for helping others.
This is the last time I will help anybody.”
Answer Key: A
Question 11 of 14
1.0 Points
Your employer wants you to work on three public holidays during the year. This
is an example of _______.
A. role overload
B. role expectation
C. role identification
D. role perception
Answer Key: B

Questions in this section are matching items. Match the correct item with the
correct response.
Question 12 of 14
4.0 Points
The different approaches, concepts and experts with regard to

understanding individual values:
A. Economic person
B. Hedonism

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C. Terminal values
D. Social person
E. Instrumental values
F. Universalism
G. Eduard Spranger
H. Shalom Schwartz
For each of the items below, select the most appropriate answer
option(s) above. Each answer option may be used once, more than
once, or not at all.
1 C Milton Rokeach classifies values in two broad categories. In which

value category do you think obtaining your degree would fall?
2 A Once you have obtained your degree and see yourself as a successful
business person, driving the latest sports car, living in a house with
original art collections, which value orientation of Eduard Spranger
do you think would best describe you?
3 B If you consider Shalom Schwartz's theory people who are orientated

towards a life of pleasure and enjoyment would be identified with
which value?
4 G A psychological test namely the Allport-Vernon- Lindzey Study of

Values is based on which theorists value approach?
Answer Key: | 1: C | 2: A | 3: B | 4: G |
Question 13 of 14
5.0 Points
Possible causes of conflict, over and above personality attributes and

organisational structure:
A. Lack of leadership
B. Differences in attitude
C. Semantic differences
D. Divergent value structures
E. Blocked communication channels
F. Information differences

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G. Different method of pursuing the objective

H. Lack of common objective
1 A Group members in the same group may not hold the same goal or
objective, resulting in different behaviours being exhibited in pursuit
of understanding the group’s objective.
2 H Conflict could arise if the group does not have consensus and a
common understanding of the approach or method to adopt in order
to achieve the common objective.
3 F Differences in the interpretation of information may result in

conflict.
4 E Disruptions in the flow of communication can result in conflict.

Disruptions can occur either through an individual getting too much
information or being forced to work with too little information.
5 D Conflict may arise when there are differences in moral and ethical
values between individuals and groups within the organisation.
Answer Key: | 1: H | 2: G | 3: F | 4: E | 5: D |
Question 14 of 14
5.0 Points
The five-stage model of group development, proposed by Tuchman and Jensen in
the 1960's is characterised by certain emotions and behaviours that constitute
group dynamics. Match the stage with its characteristics.
A. Norming
B. Forming
C. Performing
D. Adjourning.
E. Storming.
B
1. Group members make use of defence mechanisms such as
suppression, denial and projection.
E
2. Members accept the existence of the group but there is
conflict at times as to who will have leadership in the group.
A
3. A common set of expectations that defines the group is
accepted.

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C 4. Fully functioning group.
D 5. The group prepares to disband.
Answer Key: 1:B, 2:E, 3:A, 4:C, 5:D

Part 1 of 3 - Graduateness skills and attributes inventory (GSAI) 26.0 Points
The Graduateness Skills and Attributes Inventory (GSAI) is a questionnaire which

measures Unisa students graduateness skills and attributes.Download the inventory
below and answer the following questions in Part 1 of this assignment.
Attachments
Graduateness+Skills+and+Attributes+Inventory+xlsx+2018.xlsx 182 KB
Question 1 of 6
3.0 Points
In Bergh and Geldenhuys (2013), a number of sub-fields and practice areas in I-O
Psychology are identified. In many of these sub-fields, I-O Psychologists would
need to interpret scores from questionnaires and report on these. Open the report
sheet on the GSAI and answer the following question.
A. the student's score falls within the red flag area
B. the student's score falls within an area of well-developed skills and attributes
C. the student's score falls within an area of enrichment
B
1. If a student scored a 20 on the graph for interactive skills
this could be an indication that____.
A
2. If a student scored a 90 on the graph for enterprising skills
this could be an indication that____.
C
3. If a student scored a 62 on the graph for goal directed
behaviour this could be an indication that____.
Answer Key: 1:A, 2:B, 3:C

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Question 2 of 6
3.0 Points
Considering your answers in the previous question what does it mean when a
student scores:
A. less than 49
B. more than 75
C. 50-74
A 1. The student needs to develop the skill and attributes.
C 2. The student can further develop their skills and attributes.
B 3. The student has well developed strengths.
Answer Key: 1:A, 2:C, 3:B
Question 3 of 6
8.0 Points
The CEMS framework of graduateness skills and attributes addresses

three holistic/overarching attributes that are regarded as important
trans-disciplinary enabling outcomes of a university education.
A. Scholarship skills
B. Global and moral citizenship
C. Lifelong learning
Match the holistic/ overarching attributes above to the CEMS generic

transferable meta-skills below.
1 A Problem-solving and decision-making skills
2 B Ethical and responsible behaviour
3 C Goal-directed behaviour
4 C Continuous learning orientation
5 A Analytical thinking skills
6 B Presenting and applying information skills
7 B Interactive skills
8 A Enterprising skills

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Answer Key: | 1: A | 2: B | 3: C | 4: C | 5: A | 6: B | 7: B | 8: A |
Question 4 of 6
4.0 Points
CEMS aims to produce graduates who are RARE citizens in the community
where they live and work. This means that graduates who are:
A. responsible, goal directed, relevant and ethical.

B. ethical, relevant, life-long learner, and enterprising.
C. responsible, accountable, relevant and ethical.
D. life-long learners, global citizens, enterprising and ethical.
Answer Key: C
Question 5 of 6
8.0 Points
As students study and work they will develop their CEMS generic
transferable meta-skills and attributes. This will become evident in
everyday life as students engage in:
A. conflict resolution.
B. initiating changes.
C. identifying business opportunities.
D. rational judgements.
E. a wide range of solutions.
F. accepting responsibility for own actions
G. the application of information for making a positive difference.
H. self-improvement.
I. identifying necessary resources.
Match the above actions with the CEMS generic transferable meta-skill
and personal attribute that had been developed below.
1 B Problem-solving/decision-making skills
2 C Enterprising skills

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3 D Analytical skills
4 A Interactive skills
5 G Presenting and applying information skills
6 F Ethical and responsible behaviour
7 H Continuous learning orientation
8 I Goal-directed behaviour
Answer Key: | 1: B | 2: E | 3: D | 4: A | 5: E | 6: F | 7: H | 8: I |
Part 2 of 3 - The case of Anele 4.0 Points
Download the case study and answer the questions to follow.
Attachments
The case of Anele.pdf 279 KB
Question 6 of 6
4.0 Points
Match the CEMS generic transferable meta-skills and personal attributes with the
behaviour Anele is exhibiting in the case study.
The+case+of+Anele.pdf 279 KB
A. During the June-July holidays, he worked in the human-resources department
of a computer company. He was not paid for this but he saw it as a good
opportunity to practise some human-resources skills and to get used to an
organisational environment.
B. Anele worked at a tyre dealership, where he worked alongside other men of
different ages and backgrounds.
C. While Anele was still a student within the College of Economic and
Management Sciences (CEMS) at Unisa, he got involved in various student
societies and activities relating to his studies and community issues.
D. The work was physical and hard, but allowed Anele to learn some technical
and business skills, and taught him excellent interpersonal skills.
B 1. Interactive skills.
A 2. Continuous learning orientation.
C 3. Problem-solving and decision-making skills.
D 4. Enterprising skills.

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Answer Key: 1:B, 2:A, 3:D, 4:C
Part 3 of 3 - NON-COMPULSORY Self-reflection on graduateness 0.0 Points

The self-reflection on graduateness is NOT compulsory. Students who would like
personal feedback on their graduateness can download the attached documents,
complete the personal profile and submit it to the E-tutor drop box. The e-tutor
will provide personal feedback.
Attachments
Graduateness+Skills+and+Attributes+Inventory+xlsx+2018.xlsx 182 KB
Personal Profile Assignment 03.docx 26 KB

No Questions

Question 1 of 14
1.0 Points
The field of I-O psychology can be presented as four independent worlds. The
assumptions, beliefs and values framing your understanding of I-O psychology as
a science and practice are known as the _______.
A. personal world
B. world of meta-theory
C. world of science
D. world of practice
Answer Key: B
Question 2 of 14
1.0 Points
The First and Second World Wars contributed to the field of _____
A. selection and placement.

B. psychometric testing.

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C. stress management.
D. all these.
Answer Key: D
Question 3 of 14
1.0 Points
Within the cognitive domain of human development, _______ shows cultural
differences influenced by individual cognitive learning, internal reflection,
feelings, experiences, peoples’ efforts to adapt to situations, and the meanings
attached to social processes in and between groups and societies.
A. membership
B. morality
C. motivation
D. maturity
Answer Key: B
Question 4 of 14
1.0 Points
When a group of learners is provided with a description of a problem situation
and they have to analyse and solve it, this is an example of _______.
A. a business game
B. programmed instruction
C. a role-play
D. a case study
Answer Key: D
Question 5 of 14
1.0 Points
“She must feel terrible about not qualifying for the competition. I know how I felt
when it happened to me.” This is an example of _______.
A. projection
B. the primacy effect
C. the halo effect

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D. stereotyping
Answer Key: A
Question 6 of 14
1.0 Points
__________ intelligence could be attributed to a test pilot in the air force who
may be required to come up with new ideas to solve a landing gear problem not
yet identified in the new range of aircraft being tested.
A. Creative
B. Linguistic
C. Multiple
D. Emotional
Answer Key: A
Question 7 of 14
1.0 Points
In Expectancy Theory “expectancy” refers to _______.
A. your belief that you will receive the rewards you value
B. the expectations the organisation has of you
C. the rewards you want
D. the support you expect from the manager
Answer Key: A
Question 8 of 14
1.0 Points
The meaning of work embraces the _____ that individuals attach to work or to
not working.
A. motives
B. needs
C. value
D. power
Answer Key: C

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Question 9 of 14
1.0 Points
A social person _______.
A. wants to be in control of others

B. gets involved in activities with visible utility value
C. experiences life to the full
D. is geared towards serving others
Answer Key: D
Question 10 of 14
5.0 Points

organisational structure:
A. Lack of leadership
B. Differences in attitude
C. Semantic differences
D. Divergent value structures
E. Blocked communication channels
F. Information differences
G. Different method of pursuing the objective
H. Lack of common objective
1 H Group members in the same group may not hold the same goal or
objective, resulting in different behaviours being exhibited in pursuit
of understanding the group’s objective.
2 G Conflict could arise if the group does not have consensus and a
common understanding of the approach or method to adopt in order
to achieve the common objective.
3 F Differences in the interpretation of information may result in conflict.

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4 E Disruptions in the flow of communication can result in conflict.

Disruptions can occur either through an individual getting too much
information or being forced to work with too little information.
5 D Conflict may arise when there are differences in moral and ethical
values between individuals and groups within the organisation.
Answer Key: | 1: H | 2: G | 3: F | 4: E | 5: D |
Question 11 of 14
4.0 Points
Group dynamics is the term used to describe the psychodynamic

phenomena in groups.
A. dependency
B. fight or flight
C. pairing
D. me-ness
E. systems
F. we-ness
1 E Group dynamics are studied from three (3)perspectives. Choose one

of these perspectives from above.
2 C Which behaviour tendency in a group explains the following

dynamic? The manager of the sales team has called a meeting to
discuss the decline in sales revenue, which means that staff will need
to be retrenched. During the meeting the conversation keeps around
the topic of who is to blame and not on how the sales figures could
be improved.
3 D Which behaviour tendency in a group explains the following

dynamic? David's innovation is crucial to his teams success.
However during each meeting and with his interactions outside of the
group he openly states that he does not want to work with the team
and could easily accomplish what needs to be done by himself.

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4 F Which behaviour tendency in a group explains the following

dynamic? Bright Star Pty (Ltd) has a charismatic CEO for whom the
staff will do any thing. They often go the extra mile to please her and
make the company shine. It is also the culture of the company to pass
all decision-making processes to the CEO as she knows best and has
never failed any of her staff. So much so that the company is listed in
the top 100 Forbes list.
Answer Key: | 1: E | 2: B | 3: D | 4: A |
Question 12 of 14
8.0 Points
Select the most approriate scientific framework stance with its

ontological stance
A. Rationalism
B. Empiricism
C. Cybernetic
D. Epistemelogical stance
E. Relativistic
F. Mystic
G. Antropological stance
H. Idealism
1 A Reality exists independently from ourselves
2 D Gaining knowledge about reality
3 G My role as knower
4 B Reality works like a machine
5 H Reality is contained in our mind
6 F Reality is presented in the sacred

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7 E Everyone has there own understanding of reality
8 C Reality consists of various systems
Answer Key: | 1: A | 2: D | 3: G | 4: B | 5: H | 6: F | 7: E | 8: C |
Part 2 of 3 - Case studies 8.0 Points
Open the case study document below and answer the questions relating to the case
study in Part 2 of this assignment.
Attachments
The biology of thinking and problem solving - 760874.pdf 57 KB
Question 13 of 14
8.0 Points
The biology of thinking and problem solving
A. logical thinking
B. mathematical tasks
C. visualisation
D. right hemisphere
E. imagination
F. artistic
G. intuition
H. left hemisphere
Answer the questions below by choosing the correct options from the
above.
1 A The managers who demonstrated analytical thinking and problem

solving would predominantly use the ______, _____ and _____ of
B the brain.
H
2 C The manager who comments he got his creativity from his parents
would predominantly use the ______, ______, ______, ______ and
D ______ of the brain. Specialised for which tasks.
E
G

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Answer Key: | 1: ABH | 2: CDEFG |

Part 3 of 3 - ROCKADOO Quarry case study 6.0 Points
Open the case study below and answer the questions to the case study in this Part 3
of the assignment.
Attachments
Rockadock quarry - 760874.pdf 175 KB
Question 14 of 14
6.0 Points
Fiedler's contingency model
A. leadership style
B. task
C. situation
D. achievement-oriented
E. directive
F. autocratic
G. visionary
H. leadership situation
1 A Fiedler's contingency model highlights ______ and ______ that

influence leadership effectiveness.
H
2 F Which leadership orientation would you think Peter Skepe is

exhibiting in the case study?
3 H The Path-Goal theory indicates that leaders must assess the task and
follower characteristics, and then choose an appropriate leadership
style. In the above situation, the senior managers are capable of
dealing with the challenges at hand. Which leadership style would
you think could be used by them?
4 E Which leadership style is currently being used?

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5 C The company is subjected to a changing environment. In a changing

environment Skepe should be ____
Answer Key: | 1: AH | 2: B | 3: D | 4: E | 5: G |
1 Revision exercise Chapter 1

Question 1 of 10
1.0 Points
You are the human-resources manager at Neverflat Batteries. You have realised that the
bureaucratic structures of the organisation inhibit creativity and accountability amongst
employees. You require the services of a professional person who can assist you in
transforming the management approach to one of teamwork, participation, and information-
sharing. Who will you consult? A/n _______
A. personnel psychologist.
B. research psychologist.
C. an employee-relations specialist.
D. an organisational psychologist.
Answer Key: D
Feedback: Section 1.4.1 pp. 7-8 Bergh and Geldenhuys 5th edition
Question 2 of 10
1.0 Points
Taylorism was criticised for _______
A. resulting in unemployment.
B. ignoring the training of employees.
C. dehumanising people.
D. a and c. Feedback: .

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Answer Key: D
Feedback: Section 1.5 p. 11 Bergh and Geldenhuys 5th ed.
Question 3 of 10
1.0 Points
The First and Second World Wars contributed to the field of _____
A. psychometric testing.
B. selection and placement.
C. stress management.
D. all of the above.
Answer Key: D
Feedback: Section 1.5 pp. 11-12 in Bergh & Geldenhuys 5th ed.
Question 4 of 10
1.0 Points
_______ as an applied field is concerned with optimal functioning.
A. Consumer psychology
B. Employee and organisational well-being
C. Career psychology
D. Ergonomics
Answer Key: B
Feedback: Section 1.4.7 p. 9 in Bergh and Geldenhuys 5th ed.
Question 5 of 10
1.0 Points
Career psychology involves _______
A. assisting people to cope more effectively.

B. facilitating occupational development.
C. emphasis on adult career development.
D. B and C
Answer Key: D

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Feedback: Section 1.2.1 p.4 in Bergh and Geldenhuys 5th ed.
Question 6 of 10
1.0 Points
The “Hawthorne effect” implies that _______
A. employees have social needs.

B. the working environment influences behaviour.
C. behavioural changes are often short lived.
D. women have different needs than men
Answer Key: C
Feedback: Section 1.5 pp.11-13 in Bergh and Geldenhuys 5th ed.
Question 7 of 10
1.0 Points
The _______ is responsible for ensuring that high ethical standards are maintained in the
various fields of psychology.
A. Health Professions Council of South Africa

B. Psychological Society of South Africa
C. South African Research Council
D. King Commission
Answer Key: A
Feedback: Section 1.6 p.16 in Bergh and Geldenhuys 5th ed.
Question 8 of 10
1.0 Points
The training and practice of human-resources practitioners is controlled by the _______
A. Institute of People Management

B. South African Board for Personnel Practice
C. Society for Industrial and Organisational Psychology
D. Training Institute of South Africa
Answer Key: B
Feedback: Section 1.6 p.16 in Bergh and Geldenhuys 5th ed.

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Question 9 of 10
1.0 Points
The roots of I-O psychology lie in _______
A. psychology
B. economics
C. industrial psychology
D. occupational psychology
Answer Key: A
Feedback: Part one p.1 in Bergh and Geldenhuys 5th ed.
Question 10 of 10
1.0 Points
Which of the following is the most notable future challenge for I-O psychologists?
A. The training and development of employees in large organisations.

B. Practising as human-resources managers.
C. Doing research on organisational problems such as absenteeism.
D. Helping organisations to become more adaptive and resilient to external
changes
Answer Key: D
Feedback: Section 1.7 p. 16 in Bergh and Geldenhuys 5th ed.

Question 1 of 10
1.0 Points
Which of the following best implies a helicopter view of IOP?
A. world of meta-theory
B. personal world

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C. world of practice
D. world of science
Answer Key: A
Question 2 of 10
1.0 Points
Which of the following is an example of the world of science rather than the world of
practice?
A. determining why employees are absent on Mondays

B. applying disciplinary measures to those employees who are absent
C. determining how different economic philosophies are likely to influence
absenteeism
D. developing an absenteeism policy
Answer Key: C
Question 3 of 10
1.0 Points
The understanding and exploring of meta-theory is important for:
A. developing a personal preference for dealing with people

B. qualifying for a professional qualification
C. following the correct procedures for managing people in the workplace
D. developing a broad perspective of the assumptions, beliefs, and values that are
fundamental in science and practice
Answer Key: D
Question 4 of 10
1.0 Points
Which of the following is a so-called world of I-O psychology?
A. world of inquiry
B. world of meta-psychology

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C. world of personality theory

D. world of science
Answer Key: D
Question 5 of 10
1.0 Points
Which of the following is NOT a critical question with regards to a meta-theoretical
conviction?
A. What is one’s view of human work?

B. What is one’s view of the human psyche?
C. What is one’s view of being human?
D. What is one’s view of the organisation one is serving?
Answer Key: D
Question 6 of 10
1.0 Points
Which school/s of thought studies the normal consciousness of a person as an
interconnected dynamic whole?
A. Positive psychology
B. Gestalt
C. Humanism
D. a and c
Answer Key: B
Feedback: Table 2.2 pp.28-28 in Bergh and Geldenhuys 5th ed.
Question 7 of 10
1.0 Points
What is the purpose of an IOP structural blueprint?
A. to indicate the main components of IOP

B. to indicate how various parts of IOP are related to each other
C. to provide a skeleton or framework of the field of IOP
D. all of the above

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Answer Key: D
Question 8 of 10
1.0 Points
An IOP credo provides:
A. ethics guidelines for employees to follow

B. a set of fundamental beliefs about the rights of working people
C. a helicopter view of assumptions, beliefs, and values
D. an overview of the processes and procedures to be followed in the organisation
Answer Key: B
Question 9 of 10
1.0 Points
Which of the following ideological stances does not incorporate a belief in a God/Deity?
A. Materialism and Communism

B. Socialism and Communism
C. Anarchism and Nihilism
D. Ecologicalism
Answer Key: C
Feedback: Table 2.7 p. 39 in Bergh and Geldenhuys 5th ed.
Question 10 of 10
1.0 Points
The interrelated foundational concepts of IO Psychology are:
A. Id; Ego; Superego

B. Body; Mind; Soul
C. Human; Psyche; Work
D. all of the above
Answer Key: C

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8 Revision Excercise Chapter 4

Question 1 of 10
1.0 Points
“Maturity” is best defined as _______
A. the full integration of physical, cognitive and psychosocial tasks

B. pre-planned changes that are due to genetic factors
C. readiness levels for learning to be successful
D. a chronological increase in years
Answer Key: A
Feedback: Section 4.1.1 p.68, Bergh and Geldenhuys 5th Ed
Question 2 of 10
1.0 Points
Assimilation in cognitive development implies_______
A. the ability to absorb more information

B. an increase in memory
C. the learning of new concepts
D. the ability to integrate information from a variety of sources
Answer Key: A
Feedback: Sec 4.4.2 p. 75 Bergh and Geldenhuys 5th Ed
Question 3 of 10
1.0 Points
Young adulthood involves _______
A. occupational choice and preparation

B. career decline
C. career consolidation and maintenance

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D. establishing a career
Answer Key: D
Feedback: Section 4.2.1 p. 68 Bergh and Geldenhuys 5th ed.
Question 4 of 10
1.0 Points
Psychosocial development includes _______
A. personality development
B. self-concept
C. social skills
D. all of the above
Answer Key: D
Feedback: Section 4.4.3 pp. 77-80 Bergh and Geldenhuys 5th ed.
Question 5 of 10
1.0 Points
Human development is characterised by _______
A. a hierarchical evolution of phases

B. progression from the general to the specific
C. increased complexity and sophistication
D. all of the above
Answer Key: D
Question 6 of 10
1.0 Points
According to Schaie, the following stage of cognitive development is characterised by
responsibility and increased knowledge, which enables a person to serve in responsible
positions in organisations and in the community _______
A. reintegration
B. acquisition
C. responsibility
D. executive

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Answer Key: D
Question 7 of 10
1.0 Points
At what stage in life, according to Erikson, do people develop a basic trust in others?
A. the first year of life

B. between 2 and 3 years of age
C. between 6 and 11 years of age
D. during adolescence
Answer Key: A
Feedback: Section 4.5.2.1 p. 82 Bergh and Geldenhuys 5th ed.
Question 8 of 10
1.0 Points
“Career orientation” implies _______
A. knowing what career to choose

B. taking responsibility for choosing a career by using relevant information to
make a choice
C. sticking with a specific career choice
D. career preparation
Answer Key: B
Question 9 of 10
1.0 Points
The “midlife crisis” experience relates to _______

C. physical decline
D. all of the above
Answer Key: D

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Feedback: Section 4.6.3 p.89 Bergh and Geldenhuys 5th ed.
Question 10 of 10
1.0 Points
Middle adulthood is mostly concerned with _______
A. coping with lesser physical strength

B. establishing a career
C. maintaining various life roles
D. maintaining dignity and personal identity
Answer Key: C

Question 1 of 10
1.0 Points
Latent learning implies _______
A. a relatively permanent change in behaviour

B. improved performance
C. learning that does not immediately affect behaviour
D. the acquisition of knowledge
Answer Key: C
Question 2 of 10
1.0 Points
Which of the following approaches implies the use of punishment?
A. classical conditioning
B. social learning

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C. generalisation
D. operant conditioning
Answer Key: D
Question 3 of 10
1.0 Points
When a person enrols for a training course because he/she believes it will enhance his/her
chances for promotion, it is an example of _______
A. classical conditioning
B. instrumental conditioning
C. social learning
D. cognitive learning
Answer Key: D
Question 4 of 10
1.0 Points
Brian's organisation has applied the ______ schedule to the sales department. This means
that Brian will have to persevere in his sales tasks despite him not being able to sell the
organisations product each time.
A. fixed-ratio
B. variable-ratio
C. variable-interval
D. fixed-interval
Answer Key: B
Question 5 of 10
1.0 Points
Which of the following is an example of social learning?
A. You get a fright every time you see a traffic cop.

B. You study harder after your lecturer gives you low marks for a test.
C. You do a favour for your co-worker because you expect something in return.
D. While driving, you make a U-turn in a prohibited area after you saw other
people doing this.

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Answer Key: D
Question 6 of 10
1.0 Points
The purpose of a training-needs analysis is to _______
A. consider the organisation’s short- and long-term goals

B. determine what tasks should be performed
C. evaluate how well a person is performing a task
D. all of the above
Answer Key: D
Question 7 of 10
1.0 Points
When a group of learners is provided with a description of a problem situation and they
have to analyse and solve it, this is an example of _______
A. a case study
B. a role-play
C. programmed instruction
D. a business game
Answer Key: A
Question 8 of 10
1.0 Points
Simulation involves _______
A. observing the trainer and copying his/her behaviour

B. performing two actions at the same time
C. using similar equipment to that in the workplace
D. improving interpersonal relations
Answer Key: C
Question 9 of 10
1.0 Points
Continuous learning is important as it _______

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A. satisfies the needs of adult learners

B. enhances individual and organisational adaptation to future changes in the
environment
C. contributes to solving existing problems in the organisation
D. evaluates the progress of adult learners in the organisation
Answer Key: B
Question 10 of 10
1.0 Points
A group of potential managers are identified and invited to participate in a leadership-
development programme. What is the best experiential learning technique to enhance the
orientation and professional development of these candidates?
A. stimulation
B. sensitivity training
C. scaffolding
D. mentoring
Answer Key: D

Question 1 of 10
1.0 Points
Sensation is _______.
A. feeling excited
B. the organisation of sensory output
C. the interpretation of sensory information
D. seeing an object without knowing what it is

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Answer Key: D
Question 2 of 10
1.0 Points
The just-noticeable difference is the _______.
A. minimum amount of stimulation that can be detected

B. maximum amount of stimulation that can be detected
C. smallest difference in stimulation that the senses can detect
D. absence of stimulation
Answer Key: C
Question 3 of 10
1.0 Points
After listening to really loud music for a while, it does not sound that loud any more. This
is a result of _______.
A. the just-noticeable difference

B. the threshold
C. sensory adaptation
D. subliminal perception
Answer Key: C
Question 4 of 10
1.0 Points
The moon appears bigger when it is near the horizon in comparison to when it is up in the
sky. This phenomenon is due to _______.
A. perceptual constancy
B. an illusion
C. subliminal perception
D. the just-noticeable difference

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Answer Key: B
Question 5 of 10
1.0 Points
Which of the following refers to a factor in a situation that could influence perception?
A. experience
B. time
C. size
D. interests
Answer Key: B
Question 6 of 10
1.0 Points
“She must feel terrible about not qualifying for the competition. I know how I felt when it
happened to me.” This is an example of _______.
A. projection
B. stereotyping
C. the halo effect
D. the primacy effect
Answer Key: A
Feedback: Section 6.5.1.7 p.131 Bergh and Geldenhuys 5th ed.
Question 7 of 10
1.0 Points
When the first employee who finishes a test is consistently receiving a better rating, this is
an example of _______.
A. stereotyping
B. projection
C. appearance
D. the primacy effect
Answer Key: D

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Question 8 of 10
1.0 Points
A person schema refers to _______.
A. how we perceive ourselves

B. how we perceive others
C. our perceptions of how others should behave
D. our perceptions of the order in which people should do things
Answer Key: B
Question 9 of 10
1.0 Points
John did not get the promotion he wanted. While he blames it on the selection process and
the people involved in the decision, you secretly believe that he was not selected due to his
personal shortcomings. What kind of attributional error is evident in this case?
A. an external attribution
B. an internal attribution
C. the self-serving bias
D. the actor-observer effect
Answer Key: D
Question 10 of 10
1.0 Points
Cognitive processes as an explanation for the development of prejudice relate to _______.
A. the influence parents have on their children’s thinking

B. intergroup conflict
C. the in-group and out-group effect
D. socialisation
Answer Key: C

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Question 1 of 10
1.0 Points
A mental representation of the world around us is called a _______.
A. prototype
B. schema
C. concept
D. cognitive map
Answer Key: D
Question 2 of 10
1.0 Points
An algorithm is _______.
A. a systematic process used to solve a problem

B. transferring a solution to a new situation
C. the consideration of available solutions only
D. when different solutions are tried until one proves to be successful
Answer Key: A
Question 3 of 10
1.0 Points
Which of the following enhances effective problem-solving?
A. Mental set
B. Functional fixedness
C. Framing

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D. None of the above
Answer Key: D
Question 4 of 10
1.0 Points
What kind of heuristic is evident if you need to recruit a biochemist and decide to use the
same recruitment procedure that was followed when the company searched for a new CEO?
A. Availability
B. Representativeness
C. Mental set
D. Anchoring and adjustment
Answer Key: B
Question 5 of 10
1.0 Points
The sensory memory _______.
A. stores seven to nine chunks of information at a time

B. has unlimited capacity
C. stores information for 20-40 minutes
D. temporary stores information provided by the senses
Answer Key: D
Question 6 of 10
1.0 Points
Declarative memory allows us to remember _______.
A. how to type a document

B. the last time we had a bad incident
C. what an object is called
D. language

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Answer Key: C
Question 7 of 10
1.0 Points
The dynamic approach to intelligence emphasises _______.
A. multiple intelligences
B. learning potential
C. proximal development
D. all of the above
Answer Key: D
Question 8 of 10
1.0 Points
Which one of the following statements is incorrect?
A. Intelligence is influenced by the environment

B. Intelligence is hereditary
C. Intelligence is expressed as a ratio between mental age and chronological age
D. Intelligence can be measured precisely
Answer Key: D
Question 9 of 10
1.0 Points
Creative people _______.
A. use convergent thinking

B. have a right-hemisphere dominance
C. have an IQ of at least 130
D. use algorithms to solve problems
Answer Key: B

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Question 10 of 10
1.0 Points
Your boyfriend/girlfriend has recently broken up with you. For the last few weeks you have
felt depressed, rejected and lonely. All you can think about is this terrible thing that has
happened to you. However, this morning you realise that, for the first time in many weeks,
your thoughts are more positive. You don’t think only of your boyfriend/girlfriend
anymore, but of exiting things you want to do. This is an example of _______.
A. superior intellect
B. meta-cognition
C. emotional intellect
D. analogy
Answer Key: B

Question 1 of 10
1.0 Points
Which of the following is an example of positive motivation?
A. The manager praises the employee for a job well done

B. Employees are entitled to a medical aid
C. Employees’ jobs are enriched
D. A manager explains to the employee how to do a task
Answer Key: A

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Question 2 of 10
1.0 Points
Which of the following is an example of a hygiene factor?
A. autonomy
B. recognition
C. pay
D. responsibility
Answer Key: C
Question 3 of 10
1.0 Points
A peak experience related to self-actualisation implies _______.
A. task identity
B. responsibility
C. rewards
D. high levels of consciousness
Answer Key: D
Question 4 of 10
1.0 Points
In Expectancy Theory “instrumentality” refers to _______.
A. the value of a goal

B. the ability to achieve a goal
C. the probability that a reward will be obtained
D. one goal leading to the attainment of other goals
Answer Key: D
Question 5 of 10
1.0 Points
In Expectancy Theory “expectancy” refers to _______.

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A. the expectations the organisation has of you

B. the rewards you want
C. your belief that you will receive the rewards you value
D. the support you expect from the manager
Answer Key: C
Question 6 of 10
1.0 Points
When Venus Williams won the cup in the Wimbledon tennis championships, she told a
reporter: “It was a very difficult match. I was very, very lucky to win today.” This remark
best reflects _______.
A. functional autonomy
B. self-efficacy
C. a lack of equity
D. an external locus of causality
Answer Key: D
Question 7 of 10
1.0 Points
Job enrichment implies _______.
A. doing more work

B. receiving more money
C. being transferred to another job or section
D. doing more complex work and carrying a greater level of responsibility and
authority
Answer Key: D
Question 8 of 10
1.0 Points
Motivated people demonstrate_______.

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A. high levels of self-efficacy

B. functional autonomy
C. emotional intelligence
D. all of the above
Answer Key: D
Question 9 of 10
1.0 Points
The fact that you are attending university and planning to graduate is primarily an example
of fulfilling which level of Maslow's hierarchy of Needs?
A. ego needs
B. physiological needs
C. self-actualization needs
D. social needs
Answer Key: C
Question 10 of 10
1.0 Points
Which of the following factors does not affect the quality of work life in the workplace?
A. a physical working environment

B. challenging work
C. advanced technology
D. adequate and fair compensation
Answer Key: C
12 Revision exercises Chapter 9


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Question 1 of 10
1.0 Points
As a child, Andy enjoyed rescuing animals. Today he belongs to the Green Peace
environmental group. Andy’s attitude towards nature is best described as _______.
A. peripheral
B. selective
C. temporary
D. central
Answer Key: D
Question 2 of 10
1.0 Points
Which type of communication is most likely to be effective when you are trying to change
the attitude of a person who feels undecided about an issue?
A. A message that arouses guilt in the person

B. A series of subtle messages that invoke fear
C. A message that presents only positive information
D. A message that presents both positive and negative information
Answer Key: D
Question 3 of 10
1.0 Points
An employee who experiences job involvement is one who _______.
A. works hard even if the job is mostly boring

B. identifies psychologically with the job and feels embarrassed when he/she is
not performing well
C. feels committed to the organisation and therefore performs to his/her best
D. believes that the job is a stepping stone to a more challenging job

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Answer Key: B
Question 4 of 10
1.0 Points
Which one of the following statements about values is correct?
A. Values are mostly inherited from parents.

B. Values are idealistic rather than pragmatic.
C. Values are free from cultural influences.
D. Values are not always directly reflected in behaviour.
Answer Key: D
Question 5 of 10
1.0 Points
A. wants to be in control of others

B. experiences life to the full
C. gets involved in activities with visible utility value
D. is geared towards serving others
Answer Key: D
Question 6 of 10
1.0 Points
A person who puts pressure on others to recycle used material reflects _______ values.
A. economic
B. social
C. power
D. religious
Answer Key: A

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Question 7 of 10
1.0 Points
An organisation that encourages assertiveness and leadership in employees endorses
_______.
A. collectivism
B. a high power distance
C. masculinity
D. individualism
Answer Key: C
Question 8 of 10
1.0 Points
What type of values are reflected in an organisation in which it is difficult for the individual
employee to communicate with management?
A. individualism
B. masculinity
C. femininity
D. a high power distance
Answer Key: D
Question 9 of 10
1.0 Points
People value work, mostly because it provides _______.
A. money
B. security
C. personal development
D. authority
Answer Key: C
Question 10 of 10
1.0 Points

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The values emphasised in feminine societies are mostly related to _______.
A. protection
B. ambition
C. competition
D. religion
Answer Key: A
Timed online revision exercise

Question 1 of 8
8.0 Points
Select the most approriate scientific framework stance with its ontological
stance
A. Rationalism
B. Empiricism
C. Cybernetic
D. Epistemelogical stance
E. Relativistic
F. Mystic
G. Antropological stance
H. Idealism
For each of the items below, select the most appropriate answer option(s)
above. Each answer option may be used once, more than once, or not at all.
1 A Reality exists independently from ourselves

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2 D Gaining knowledge about reality
3 G My role as knower
4 B Reality works like a machine
5 H Reality is contained in our mind
6 F Reality is presented in the sacred
7 E Everyone has there own understanding of reality
8 C Reality consists of various systems
Question 2 of 8
1.0 Points
Which one of the following statements best describes the process of perception? Perception
is _______.
A. receiving, through the senses, stimuli or information which give meaning to the
world
B. experiencing meaning when stimuli are processed and interpreted
C. becoming aware of sensations from the environment which give meaning to
experiences
D. the neural processes in the brain that provide cognitive meaning to the world
Answer Key: C
Question 3 of 8
5.0 Points
Match the following to the specific theory as it relates to motivation and emotion.
A. Expectancy theory.
B. Self-efficacy.
C. Cognitive evaluation theory.
D. Maslow's hierarchy of needs.
E. McClelland's needs theory.
D 1. Achievement, independence, status, freedom, self-esteem.
C 2. The demotivating aspect promotes perceived incompetence.
B 3. People strive to exercise control over their lives.

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A 4. The value of the perceived reward for the employee.

E 5. The need for affiliation.
Answer Key: 1:D, 2:C, 3:B, 4:A, 5:E
Question 4 of 8
1.0 Points
A. social
B. religious
C. economic
D. power
Answer Key: C
Question 5 of 8
1.0 Points
Deindividuation is associated with _______.
A. a focus on external events rather than on personal feelings

B. higher levels of social responsibility
C. feeling isolated
D. self-monitoring behaviour
Answer Key: A
Question 6 of 8
1.0 Points
The role of a facilitator is to ___________.
A. help a group grow and learn

B. prevent group dynamics
C. evaluate a group’s performance
D. solve group problems
Answer Key: A
Question 7 of 8
8.0 Points

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What would the evidence be that a Unisa graduate has transferred her or his
CEMS generic skills and attributes into her or his work environment or private
business?
A. Persuading
B. Conflict resolution
C. Draws insightful conclusions
D. Initiates changes
E. Impact on the larger culture of the business
F. Identifies business opportunities
G. Rational judgements
H. Novel ideas
I. Considers a wide range of solutions
J. Accepts responsibility for own actions
K. Applies information for making a positive difference
L. Self-improvement
M. Takes the lead
N. Develops plans
O. Monitors own performance
P. Identifies necessary resources
For each of the items below, select the most appropriate answer option(s)
above. Each answer option may be used once, more than once, or not at all.
1 D Problem-solving/decision-making skills
2 I Enterprising skills
3 G Analytical skills
4 B Interactive skills
5 I Presenting and applying information skills
6 J Ethical and responsible behaviour

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7 L Continuous learning orientation
8 P Goal-directed behaviour
Answer Key: | 1: 1 of DH | 2: 1 of EF | 3: 1 of CG | 4: 1 of AB | 5: 1 of IK | 6: 1 of JM | 7:
1 of LO | 8: 1 of NP |
Part 2 of 2 - Chemco Chemicals case study 5.0 Points
Download the case study from additional resources or under additional resources and answer
the following questions.
Attachments
Chemco Chemicals Case study .pdf 264 KB
Question 8 of 8
5.0 Points
Criteria for the evaluation of the training programme of Chemco Chemicals
A. Organisational analysis
B. Task analysis
C. Implicit memory
D. Needs assessment
E. Internal validity
F. Reinforcement schedules
G. Instrumental conditioning
H. Self-directed learning
I. External validity
J. Episodic memory
K. Person analysis
For each of the items below, select the most appropriate answer option above.
1 A On what would you base the criteria for a systematic approach to training on.
2 F You have identified a serious flaw in the manner in which employees are
selected for training as it coincides with individual performance problems. You
inform the management of Chemco that employees would benefit from ______
as they are adults.

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3 B You are concerned about the ______of the training course, can the results
really be ascribed to what is learnt in the course?
4 H You are also concerned that the lack of interaction with the training material
would lead to a specific type of memory known as _____ which means the
employees may remember report writing procedures but not be able to teach
this skill to their subordinates
5 G You question the _______ of the course as you are concerned it may not be
generalised to employees work performance.
Answer Key: | 1: D | 2: H | 3: E | 4: C | 5: I |

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IOP1501 mock examination
Psychological Processes in Work Context (University of South Africa)
Studocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university

lOMoARcPSD|9000307
Mock Examination
Return to Assessment List
Question 1 of 50 1.0 Points
Which of the following statements does NOT represent a primary
definition
and task of I-O psychology?
A.It involves using and applying psychological knowledge to
understand the world of work.
B.In general, it studies the mental processes and behaviour of
individuals and groups.
C.It studies working persons in work settings and how they fit
into
their workplaces.
D.It entails assessing employee abilities and their attitudes
towards
work and organisations.
Answer Key: B
_______ suggests that a person must be able to integrate
conscious and
unconscious urges and solve conflicts from past experiences to

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be able to
experience balanced emotional growth.
A.Humanism
B.Positive psychology
C.Psychoanalysis
D.Functionalism
Answer Key: C
In studying the human psyche, structuralism compared to
functionalism was
more interested and involved in the _______ of the human
experience of
feelings, sensations and thoughts.
A.existence
B.evolution
C.elements
D.functions
Answer Key: C
_______ focuses on the human capacity for goodness and virtuous
character, compared with disciplines that focus on negative
attributes and

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experiences.
A.Structuralism
B.Positive psychology
C.Gestalt psychology
D.Evolutionary theory
Answer Key: B
Being human will be best achieved by striving for positive
psychological
growth, self-actualisation, freedom and finding meaning in
life. This
statement best reflects the primary assumptions of _______
A.constructivism.
B.psychoanalysis.
C.humanism.
D.Gestalt psychology.
Answer Key: C
People tend to organise sensory elements in such a way as to
provide the
most meaningful and organised whole perception of events and
things. This

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assumption is important in _______
A.Gestalt psychology.
B.cognitive psychology.
C.humanism.
D.psychoanalysis.
Answer Key: A
_______ assumes that individuals strive to be the best that they
can be and
are inclined towards psychological growth and
self-actualisation.
A.Structuralism
B.Behaviourism
C.Humanism
D.Functionalism
Answer Key: C
The most important function of the meta-theory in I-O
psychology is
to_______ I-O psychology.
A.define the building blocks of psychology and I-O psychology.
B.critically reflect on and think in new ways about the science

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and
practice of
C.develop new theories or thinking frameworks and methods for
psychology.
D.deliver products and services to make life on earth possible
and
meaningful.
Answer Key: B
_______ focuses on the functioning of the mind, with specific
reference to
how the mind allows people to adapt to their environments.
A.Structuralism
B.Behaviourism
C.Humanism
D.Functionalism
Answer Key: D
_______ focuses on finding new meanings in how individuals
construct their
personal beliefs and attach meanings to these beliefs.
A.Idealism

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B.Postmodernism
C.Socialism
D.Humanism
Answer Key: B
_______ is a technique where an individual thinks about their
immediate
experience of a stimulus so as to establish the feelings or
thoughts evoked
by the stimulus.
A.Experimentation
B.Free association
C.Observation
D.Introspection
Answer Key: D
Human development does NOT refer to _______
A.changes in a person’s cognitive abilities and skills across the life
span.
B.all age-related personality and behaviour changes across the life
span.
C.changes influenced by unconscious contents not observable to

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us.
D.the visible physical and biological changes in people during
certain
stages.
Answer Key: C
The integration of all domains of human functioning to become a
fully
functioning person characterised by, inter alia, independence,
autonomy and
stability, refers to _______
A.maturity.
B.maturation
C.ageing.
D.growth.
Answer Key: A
According to Erikson, individuals in their life span development,
who cannot
complete tasks even if they try many times, express feelings of
inadequacy,
are unassertive and sometimes act impulsively, may experience

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one of the
following psychosocial crises:
A.Trust versus mistrust.
B.Generativity versus stagnation.
C.Initiative versus guilt.
D.Autonomy versus guilt and shame.
Answer Key: D
This process entails an individual having the necessary emotional
and social
experiences and acquiring the necessary feelings and behaviour to
be able
to feel wanted, accepted and loved.
A.Continuity
B.Socialisation
C.Discontinuity
D.Attachment
Answer Key: D
According to Marcia, adolescents who experience career-choice
issues or
problems in that they cannot or avoid making career or study

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choices, which
can result in career failure, may be experiencing the _______
ego-identity
state.
A.career immaturity
B.moratorium
C.foreclosed vocational identity
D.vocational identity diffusion
Answer Key: D
Assimilation in cognitive development implies_______
A.the ability to absorb more information
B.an increase in memory
C.the learning of new concepts
D.the ability to integrate information from a variety of sources
Answer Key: A
Young adulthood involves _______
A.occupational choice and preparation
B.career decline
C.career consolidation and maintenance
D.establishing a career

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Answer Key: D
Which of the following refers to the process in classical conditioning
where
an original stimulus can be replaced or substituted by other stimuli
to evoke
the same response, for example, being afraid of all insects after
having been
bitten by a spider, or when hearing a certain type of voice, it
reminds of your
supervisor at work and the fear you have for him/her.
A.Spontaneous recovery
B.Discrimination between stimuli
C.Stimulus generalisation
D.Higher-order conditioning
Answer Key: C
As a training manager, you had the task to train five salary clerks to
know
and use a new IT-based salary system which the company will
implement.
During the one week training programme, each day trainees were

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examined.
If a pass mark of at least 70% was obtained, bonus points out of ten
were
awarded towards their six monthly performance assessment, which
eventually is used for promotion and remuneration purposes. This
manner of
motivating employees and establishing new knowledge has been
achieved
by using a _______ reinforcement schedule.
A.fixed ratio
B.fixed interval
C.partial
D.continuous partial
Answer Key: A
_______ describes an activity when a person applies what he/she
has
learned in the work place or any other environment.
A.Cognitive mapping
B.Concrete experience
C.Trainee readiness
D.Transfer of learning

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Answer Key: D
In an effort to enhance the understanding and relations between
HRdepartments in your organisation, you have designed a two day
training
session with simulated exercises where the head and another
employee of
each of the HR-departments had to execute the tasks of similar
positions of
another department other than their own work. This approach best
illustrates
the _______ technique.
A.experiential
B.in-basket
C.experimental
D.action learning
Answer Key: B
_______ is/are the study of the relationship between actual
physical stimuli
and their attributes which people become aware of and people’s
actual

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psychological perceptual experience/s of such sensations.
A.Psychophysics
B.Signal detection
C.Thresholds
D.Just-noticeable difference
Answer Key: A
When becoming aware of certain stimuli or information from your
environment, you know that in many instances it is not only the
stimuli that
influence your perception, but also your decisions based on your
previous
experience, behaviour and expectations. This can be referred to as
_______
A.sensory adaptation.
B.bottom-up processing.
C.top-down processing.
D.subliminal perception
Answer Key: B
Which of the following creates the impression that while you are
travelling in

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a vehicle and looking sideways you become aware that far-away
objects in
the outside landscape seems to also move in the same direction
and close
objects in the opposite direction your vehicle is travelling?
A.Interposition
B.Monocular cues
C.Motion parallax
D.Binocular cues
Answer Key: C
In conflicts between two opposing political groups, group A is
accusing group
B of the conflict and poor situation in the country because of the
inefficiency
of group B’s leadership and criminal behaviour towards other
groups. These
reasons for the conflict between the two groups as given from
group A’s
perspective relates to _______
A.self-serving bias.
B.blaming the victim attribution.

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C.the actor-observer effect.
D.fundamental attribution error.
Answer Key: A
When a person unexpectedly finds the solution to a problem that he
or she
has been trying to solve for a while, the problem-solving stage
referred to as
_______ is evident.
A.incubation
B.illumination
C.verification
D.preparation
Answer Key: B
In contrast to some of the views on intelligence within Western
culture,
African and Asian cultures put more emphasis on one of the
following
aspects:
A.Social skills and relations in and between groups influence
intelligence.

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B.Behaviour has intellectual expressions, for example adapting to
the
environment.
C.Intelligence can be improved by lifelong learning.
D.Genetics influence the development of intelligence.
Answer Key: A
_______ is a typical error in reasoning where you only seek the
opinions of
those who you know will share your view of a situation.
A.Framing
B.Over-reliance on the anchor
C.Confirmation bias
D.Escalation of commitment
Answer Key: C
The ability to monitor your own thoughts is commonly referred to as
_______
A.episodic memory.
B.semantic memory.
C.metacognition.
D.Whorf’s hypothesis.

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Answer Key: C
_______ explain how human behaviour is influenced and directed
by internal
and external factors.
A.Motivation and emotion
B.Motivation and instincts
C.Drives and instincts
D.Emotion and values
Answer Key: A
The continuous tendency and inner dynamic or motivation for
growth in
people and being open to experience to realise autonomy and part
of the self
by achieving good that also go beyond own needs refers to
_______
A.engagement.
B.self-actualisation.
C.actualisation.
D.creative values
Answer Key: B

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Which of the following describes the belief an individual has that
their
behaviour may or may not lead to certain consequences.
A.Expectancy
B.Self-efficacy
C.Effort
D.Valence
Answer Key: A
Interpreting the U-curve on the relationship between emotions and
performance, the most applicable work design to obtain the optimal
performance in employees is that tasks __________
A.are simple with moderate difficulty, with little tension.
B.are moderately complex and difficult with moderate tension.
C.have moderate complexity and difficulty with high levels of
tension.
D.are simple and easy with little tension so as to have a relaxed
employee.
Answer Key: B
Knowing Jonah as a, quiet, passive and calm person who seldom

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expresses
opinions, you were surprised at work when after an incident Jonah
becomes
angry and persistent that a supervisor must treat all employees
equally well
without favours for some only. The behaviour exhibited by Jonah is
an/a
__________
A.expression of the emotional component of an attitude.
B.expression of a central attitude with regard to equality amongst
people.
C.prejudiced expression of the cognitive aspects of an attitude.
D.unconscious expression of an attitude towards the supervisor.
Answer Key: B
As a child, Andy enjoyed rescuing animals. Today he belongs to the
Green
Peace environmental group. Andy’s attitude towards nature is best
described
as _______.
A.peripheral
B.selective

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C.temporary
D.central
Answer Key: D
Which type of communication is most likely to be effective when
you are
trying to change the attitude of a person who feels undecided about
an
issue?
A.A message that arouses guilt in the person
B.A series of subtle messages that invoke fear
C.A message that presents only positive information
D.A message that presents both positive and negative information
Answer Key: D
An employee who experiences job involvement is one who
_______.
A.works hard even if the job is mostly boring
B.identifies psychologically with the job and feels embarrassed
when
he/she is not performing well
C.feels committed to the organisation and therefore performs to

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his/her
best
D.believes that the job is a stepping stone to a more challenging job
Answer Key: B
Clive tends to be quite objective when dealing with situations. He
prefers
facts that can be proven rather than the deeper meaning of things.
The
value-orientation that best describes Clive is the _______ person.
A.social
B.power
C.religious
D.theoretical
Answer Key: D
Thandi loves taking risks and describes herself as an adrenaline
junkie. She
hates routine work and has changed jobs three times in the past
year.
According to Schwartz's values, Thandi's motivational goals belong
to the

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value named _______.
A.power
B.hedonism
C.stimulation
D.achievement
Answer Key: C
In an organisation you find that its values are characterised by a
strong
emphasis on the nature, value and purpose of work, the meaning of
rewards
at work, attributes of managers and how conflict is resolved. Which
of the
following cultural values does this relate best?
A.Masculinity versus femininity
B.Power distance in work relations
C.Individualism versus collectivism
D.Laissez-faire versus pragmatism
Answer Key: A
A.wants to be in control of others

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B.experiences life to the fullest
C.is geared towards serving others
D.gets involved in activities with visible utility value
Answer Key: C
An analysis of two organisations leads you to believe that
organisation ABC
has a large power distance, whereas organisation XYZ has a small
power
distance. Which of the following characteristics are indicative of
organisation
ABC?
A.A flat hierarchy and subordinates are consulted.
B.Dominant values of success and progress are encouraged.
C.Relationships are more important than the task
D.The salary gap is wide and employees are dependent on their
managers.
Answer Key: D
An analysis of two organisations leads you to believe that
organisation ABC
has a large power distance, whereas organisation XYZ has a small

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power
distance. Which of the following characteristics are indicative of
organisation
XYZ?
A.A flat hierarchy and subordinates are consulted.
B.Managers value diversity in the organisation.
C.Dominant values of success and progress are encouraged.
D.The salary gap is wide and employees are dependent on their
managers.
Answer Key: A
Sam has strong feelings and fixed ideas and behaviours about race
and
religion. This type of behaviour possibly explains _______ in Sam’s
value
system.
A.power distance
B.self-perception
C.central attitudes
D.peripheral attitudes
Answer Key: C

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The work-related attitude that best describes how an employee
identifies with
the organisation and its goal is _______.
A.engagement
B.organisational commitment
C.emotional content
D.conformity
Answer Key: B
The values that are emphasised in feminine societies are mostly
related to
_______.
A.competition
B.religion
C.power
D.protection
Answer Key: D
An organisation that encourages assertiveness and leadership in
employees
endorses _______.
A.collectivism

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B.a high power distance
C.masculinity
D.individualism
Answer Key: C
What type of values are reflected in an organisation in which it is
difficult for
the individual employee to communicate with management?
A.individualism
B.masculinity
C.femininity
D.a high power distance
Answer Key: D
People value work, mostly because it provides _______.
A.money
B.security
C.personal development
D.authority
Answer Key: C
Assignment 1

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Return to Assessmen t List

Question 1 of 14 1.0 Points You are the human resources manager at Neverflat
Batteries. You have realised that the bureaucratic structures of the organisation inhibit
creativity and accountability amongst employees. You require the services of a
professional person who can assist you in transforming the management approach to
one of teamwork, participation and informationsharing. Who will you consult? A/n
______ A. personnel psychologist. B. research psychologist. C. organisational
psychologist. D. employee-relations specialist. Answer Key: C Feedback: Section
1.4.1 pp. 7-8 Bergh and Geldenhuys 5th edition
Question 2 of 14 1.0 Points The “Hawthorne effect” implies that _______ A.
behavioural changes are often short lived. B. employees have social needs. C. the
working environment influences behaviour. D. women have different needs than men.
Answer Key: A Feedback: Section 1.5 pp.11 -13 in Bergh and Geldenhuys 5th ed.
Question 3 of 14 1.0 Points A gardener complains about constant back pain. The
problem most probably lies with_____ A. an accumulation of waste products in his
blood. B. the type of tools he is using to remove weeds. C. the body posture he
assumes while removing weeds. D. the size of his work station. Answer Key: C
Question 4 of 14 1.0 Points The chemicals released into the synaptic gap are called
_____ A. axoplasm. B. transmitters. C. neurotransmitters. D. dendrites. Answer Key:
C Feedback: Section 3.3.1.1 p.51 Bergh and Geldenhuys 5th ed.
Question 5 of 14 1.0 Points ______ found in the nervous system clean up debris to
prevent certain substances in the blood stream from reaching the brain. A. Nodes of
Ranvier B. Axons C. Dendrites D. Glial cells Answer Key: D Feedback: Section 3.3.1
p. 51 Bergh and Geldenhuys 5th edition.
Question 6 of 14 1.0 Points According to Schaie, the ________ stage of cognitive
development is characterised by responsibility and increased knowledge, which
enables a person to serve in responsible positions in organisations and in the
community. A. acquisition B. reintegration C. responsibility D. executive Answer Key:
D Feedback: Section 4.4.2-p. 77 Bergh and Geldenhuys 5th ed.
Question 7 of 14 1.0 Points The “midlife crisis” experience relates to _______ A.
reassessment of careers. B. physical decline. C. all of the above. D. children leaving
home. Answer Key: C Feedback: Section 4.6.3 p.89 Bergh and Geldenhuys 5th ed.
Question 8 of 14 1.0 Points Continuous learning is important as it _______ A.
satisfies the needs of adult learners. B. enhances individual and organisational
adaptation to future changes in the environment. C. contributes to solving existing
problems in the organisation. D. evaluates the progress of adult learners in the
organisation. Answer Key: B Feedback: Section 5.6 pp. 111 - 112 Bergh and
Geldenhuys 5th ed.
Question 9 of 14 1.0 Points The developmental psychologist Howard Gardner
considered multiple intelligence as revealing itself within the context of a specific task,
domain and discipline. Which one of the following is the ability to understand the
usefulness and dangers of the animal and plant world? A. spatial intelligence B.

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naturalistic intelligence C. analytical intelligence D. creative intelligence Answer Key:

B Feedback: Section 7.5.2.2 p. 161 Bergh and Geldenhuys 5th edition
Part 2 of 2 - Part 2 21.0 Points Questions in this section are matching items. Match
the correct item with the correct response.
Question 10 of 14 5.0 Points I-O Psychologists may be employed in all sectors of the
economy in various types of jobs. Match the activities of the I-O Psychologist to the
sub-field and practice areas in I-O Psychology. A. consumer psychology. B.
employment relations. C. organisational psychology. D. employee and organisational
well-being. E. work-related psychological assessment. select A B C D E 1. Anna
works as a counsellor within the employee assistance programme (EAP) of her
organisation where she facilitates positive psychological capital, promoting
employees’ health and resilience. select A B C D E 2. Busi is not a legal expert;
however, she has been tasked by her organisation to look into the conflict that has
erupted between the sales and finance departments which has influence on customer
services. select A B C D E 3. Chris is working as a consultant for a consultancy firm
who has been tasked with designing a new programme in identifying management
potential at WECAN PTY (LTD). select A B C D E 4. Dineo is a qualified
psychometrist conducting a validation study within her organisation. select A B C D E
5. Egbert conducts market research to determine the marketing strategies that
consumers use to buy goods and services. Answer Key: 1:D, 2:B, 3:C, 4:E, 5:A
Feedback: Section 1.4. pp. 7 to 10 Bergh and Geldenhuys 5th edition.
Question 11 of 14 3.0 Points Match the following views of the human psyche to the
dominant human psyche stances. A. psychoanalysis B. Gestalt C. Cognitivism select
A B C 1. The human psyche is about studying the normal mind in its totality as a
constructing and problem-solving mechanism. select A B C 2. The human psyche is
about studying the normal consciousness of a person as an interconnected, dynamic
whole. select A B C 3. The human psyche is about studying the dynamic, instinctual
forces of the unconsciousness. Answer Key: 1:C, 2:B, 3:A Feedback: Table 2.2 pp.
27-28 in Bergh and Geldenhuys 5th edition.
Question 12 of 14 3.0 Points When forming impressions of one another we often use
a number of shortcuts. Match the following shortcuts with the impression. A. the halo
effect B. a self-fulfilling prophecy. C. script select A B C 1. The line manager informs
you he wants Vusi to be promoted because he could see that Vusi knows his job. Lebo,
whom he interviewed before Vusi was just not as bright. select A B C 2. The manager
of the sales department contacts you for an intervention in Beverly's behaviour - she is
just not performing to standard no matter what task she is given to do. The manager
informs you that she told you this would happen when you appointed Beverley. She
could see from the onset that Beverly was not a good performer. select A B C 3.
During a classical music concert two teenagers were admonished by an elderly person
to put away their cell phones as it was not the place to use them. The teenagers
refused as they were tweeting their enjoyment of the concert to their friends. Answer
Key: 1:A, 2:B, 3:C Feedback: Section 6.5.1 pp. 130-132 Bergh and Geldenhuys 5th
edition
Question 13 of 14 5.0 Points Match the following description to the specific theory as

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it relates to motivation and emotion. A. Maslow's hierarchy of needs B. the

expectancy theory C. the cognitive evaluation theory D. McClelland's needs theory E.
self-efficacy select A B C D E 1. Achievement, independence, status, freedom,
self-esteem select A B C D E 2. The demotivating aspect promotes perceived
incompetence select A B C D E 3. People strive to exercise control over their lives
select A B C D E 4. The value of the perceived reward for the employee select A B C
D E 5. The need for affiliation Answer Key: 1:A, 2:C, 3:E, 4:B, 5:D Feedback:
Section 8.7 pp. 171 - 174 Bergh and Geldenhuys 5th ed.
Question 14 of 14 5.0 Points Match the ontological stance of the researcher to the
scientific framework they would conduct research in. A. mystic B. empiricism C.
idealism D. rationalism E. symbolic interpretive select A B C D E 1. Lebo views the
nature of reality as being made up of independent parts that fit together like a machine.
Reality works according to terms of fixed rules. select A B C D E 2. Dawid
understands the nature of reality to be contained in sacred texts conveyed to people by
holy persons on behalf of the divine being. select A B C D E 3. Vusi considers reality
to be contained in our minds in the form of innate ideas which we must discover and
logically evaluate. select A B C D E 4. Elsie believes that reality exists independently
of ourselves. select A B C D E 5. Itani views reality as co-created through interactions
in the form of language and conversations. Answer Key: 1:B, 2:A, 3:C, 4:D, 5:E
Feedback: Table 2.5 Section 2.4.3 pp. 31 -32 Bergh and Geldenhuys 5th edition.
Assignment 2
Question 1 of 11 1.0 Points Which type of communication is most likely to be
effective when you are trying to change the attitude of a person who feels undecided
about an issue? A. A message that arouses guilt in the person. B. A message that
presents both positive and negative information. C. A message that presents only
positive information. D. A series of subtle messages that evoke fear. Answer Key: B
Feedback: Sec 9.7.2.2 p. 206 Bergh and Geldenhuys 5th ed.
Question 2 of 11 1.0 Points What type of values are reflected in an organisation in
which it is difficult for the individual employee to communicate with management? A.
High power distance B. Individualism C. Femininity D. Masculinity Answer Key: A
Feedback: Sec 9.6.3.1 p.200 Bergh and Geldenhuys 5th ed.
Question 3 of 11 1.0 Points John smokes and he recently saw an advertisement about
the cancer causing properties of cigarettes. However, he ignores this, as he states that
this only happens to some smokers. According to Festinger’s cognitive dissonance
theory, he is_________. A. misinterpreting information that might increase dissonance
B. seeking new information to support his beliefs and avoiding information that will
increase dissonance C. playing down the importance of factors that contribute to
dissonance D. A and C Answer Key: D Feedback: Section 9.7 pp. 203-206 Bergh and
Geldenhuys 5th ed
Question 4 of 11 1.0 Points The power a leader has due to his/her personality, is
called _____power. A. legitimate. B. coercive. C. reward. D. referent. Answer Key: D

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Question 5 of 11 1.0 Points Which type of leader focuses mostly on rewards to

motivate employees? A. Transactional leaders B. Charismatic leaders C.
Transformational leaders D. Achievement-oriented leaders Answer Key: A Feedback:
Section 12.5 p. 280 Bergh and Geldenhuys 5th ed.
Question 6 of 11 1.0 Points Which of the following assumptions relates best to
Fiedler’s theory? A. Employee diversity is a determining factor in the best leadership
style. B. Leaders can change their leadership style based on situational factors. C. A
high concern for both the employee and the task makes leaders effective. D. Leaders
can change situational variables to suit their leadership style. Answer Key: D
Question 7 of 11 1.0 Points Entrepreneurial behaviour does not only consist of
positive characteristics. Responsibility, constantly overworking and financial
challenges constitute a ______ risk. A. health B. financial C. psychic D. relationship
Answer Key: C Feedback: Section 12.8.2 p. 284 Bergh and Geldenhuys 5th ed.
The different approaches, concepts and experts with regard to understanding
individual values: A. Economic person B. Hedonism C. Terminal values D. Social
person E. Instrumental values F. Universalism G. Eduard Spranger H. Shalom
Schwartz
For each of the items below, select the most appropriate answer option(s) above.
Each answer option may be used once, more than once, or not at all. 1 C Milton
Rokeach classifies values in two broad categories. In which value category do you
think obtaining your degree would fall? 2 A Once you have obtained your degree and
see yourself as a successful business person, driving the latest sports car, living in a
house with original art collections, which value orientation of Eduard Spranger do
you think would best describe you? 3 B If you consider Shalom Schwartz's theory
people who are orientated towards a life of pleasure and enjoyment would be
identified with which value? 4 G A psychological test namely the Allport-Vernon-
Lindzey Study of Values is based on which theorists value approach?
Answer Key: | 1: C | 2: A | 3: B | 4: G |
Question 9 of 11 4.0 Points Coon (2002) states that it is easy to avoid decisions in the
present however avoiding an issue in the present could result in even more conflict
and serious consequences later on. Match the following scenarios with the correct
type of approach and avoidance conflict you think is playing out. A. Approach -
avoidance conflict. B. Approach-approach conflict C. Double approach-avoidance
conflict D. Avoidance-avoidance conflict. select A B C D 1. Taki received a job offer
from a company in Durban and another offer from a company in Cape Town both jobs
will require her to travel extensively, which means she will be away from her small
children quite often. However she knows her children would love to grow up at the
seaside. select A B C D 2. Ben had attended interviews for internships to enable him
to register as an I-O Psychologist after writing the board exam and passing. He has
been accepted as an intern at two organisations, which offer the same salary. select A
B C D 3. Serena has been considering applying for a higher position in her
organisation, which requires her to attend an interview with the top management of

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the international branch of the organisation. However she is worried that she will not
progress to the short listing stage. select A B C D 4. Nick is extremely unhappy with
his boring job, however, he knows if he quits, he will be out of an income for many
months. Answer Key: 1:C, 2:B, 3:A, 4:D Feedback: Section 10.7.4.2 p. 231 Bergh and
Geldenhuys 5th ed.
Types of aggression A. Hostile aggression B. Instrumental aggression C. Antisocial
aggression D. Prosocial aggressive behaviour E. Sanctioned Aggression F. Overt
aggression G. Harassment H. Verbal hostility
Each answer option may be used once, more than once, or not at all. 1 E A person
defends themselves during a house robbery by killing the robber. 2 A The only intent
is to harm someone. 3 B Commuters become frustrated with the trains constantly
being late, resulting in them being late for work, and they burn some coaches out of
frustration. 4 F Strike action at an organisation ends in employees physically
assaulting those who try to cross the picket line. 5 G Men and women in power who
use their position of power to elicit unwanted sexual favours from lower ranking
employees in return for advancement in their organisations.
Answer Key: | 1: D | 2: A | 3: B | 4: F | 5: G |
Question 11 of 11 5.0 Points The five-stage model of group development, proposed
by Tuchman and Jensen in the 1960's is characterised by certain emotions and
behaviours that constitute group dynamics. Match the stage with its characteristics. A.
Forming B. Storming. C. Norming D. Adjourning. E. Performing select A B C D E 1.
Group members make use of defence mechanisms such as suppression, denial and
projection. select A B C D E 2. Members accept the existence of the group but there is
conflict at times as to who will have leadership in the group. select A B C D E 3. A
common set of expectations that defines the group is accepted. select A B C D E 4.
Fully functioning group. select A B C D E 5. The group prepares to disband. Answer
Key: 1:A, 2:B, 3:C, 4:E, 5:D Feedback: Section 11.5.1 p. 243 Bergh and Geldenhuys
5th ed.
Assignment 03 (Unique number 853219)
Part 1 of 2 - Section B: Personal Profile 27.0 Points The information that you need
to complete this section must be extracted from the report on the Graduateness Skills
and Attributes Inventory (GSAI) and your personal profile which you uploaded to
your e-Tutor site. Some of the questions will be as you have indicated on your
personal profile while others may be more generic based on your learning while
completing this assignment.
Question 1 of 7 0.0 Points Select to which e-Tutor drop box group you uploaded your
Assignment 03 personal profile.
Yes I uploaded to the e-tutor drop box no IOP1501 -18-S1-E1 IOP1501 -18-S1-E2
IOP1501 -18-S1-E3 IOP1501 -18-S1-E4 IOP1501 -18-S1-E5 IOP1501 -18-S1-E6
IOP1501 -18-S1-E7 IOP1501 -18-S1-E8 Assignment not uploaded to e-Tutor drop
box. Answer Key:

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Question 2 of 7 20.0 Points Take a screenshot of your Assignment 03 that you

uploaded to your e-Tutor drop box and attach it here. File:
Screenshot_20180404-022822.png (155.41 KB)
Question 3 of 7 0.0 Points Select the graduateness skill and attribute with your score
in the area of development below. If your report indicates that you do not have a
specific area for enrichment or development, select the last column. Ensure that you
have indicated a reason for this in your personal profile.
Welldeveloped
area score :
75
Areas of
enrichment
score: 50-74
Areas of
development
score: < 49
Not an area for
development/enrichment Problemsolving/decisionmaking skills Enterprising skills
Analytical skills Ethical and responsible behaviour Presenting and applying
information skills Interactive skills Goal-directed behaviour Continuous learning
orientation Answer Key:
Super and Havighurst’s integrated views of career stages and tasks. The age
profile
of the IOP1501 class is between 23 and 40 years of age. A. Possible change in job
and career B. Various attributes become the basis for occupational choice C. Realistic
choice about study and job entry. D. Moving ahead, maintaining income and lifestyle.
E. 15 - 24 years of age F. 25 - 44 years of age G. First job, identity as a worker. H.
Productive, stable work in a job and career
Match the age and phase of the IOP1501 age group to the tasks and transitions
of
the phases above. 1 BCG Exploration phase 2 ADH Establishment phase 3 F What is
the age group of the establishment phase?
Answer Key: | 1: BCG | 2: ADH | 3: F |
Part 2 of 2 - Section C Transferring meta-skills and attributes 33.0 Points The
information you need to complete this section must be extracted from the report on
the Graduateness Skills and Attributes Inventory (GSAI) and your personal profile,
which you uploaded to your e-Tutor site. Some of the questions will be as you have
indicated on your personal profile while others may be more generic based on your
learning while completing this assignment.
Holistic attributes according to the CEMS framework of graduateness skills A.
Problem-solving and decision-making skills B. Ethical and responsible behaviour C.
Goal-directed behaviour D. Continuous learning orientation E. Analytical thinking

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skills F. Presenting and applying information skills G. Interactive skills H.

Enterprising skills
For each of the three meta-skills and attributes listed below, select the most
appropriate CEMS generic skills and attribute option(s) above. Each option may
be
used once, more than once, or not at all. 1 AEH Scholarship skills 2 BFG Global
and moral citizenship 3 CD Lifelong learning
Answer Key: | 1: AEF | 2: BFG | 3: CD |
What would the evidence be that a Unisa student has developed his or her
holistic
attributes according to the CEMS framework of graduateness? A. Critical
reasoning B. Presents knowledge, facts, ideas and opinions C. Monitors own
performance D. Considers consequences of solutions E. Sets realistic goals F. Uses
language and technology efficiently G. Considers plagiarism H. Gives accurate
explanations for information I. Identifies necessary resources
Each answer option may be used once, more than once, or not at all. 1 ADH
Scholarship 2 BFG Global and moral citizenship. 3 CEI Lifelong learning
Answer Key: | 1: ADH | 2: BFG | 3: CEI |
CEMS
generic skills and attributes into her or his work environment or private business?
A. Persuading B. Conflict resolution C. Draws insightful conclusions D. Initiates
changes E. Impact on the larger culture of the business F. Identifies business
opportunities G. Rational judgements H. Novel ideas I. Considers a wide range of
solutions J. Accepts responsibility for own actions K. Applies information for making
a positive difference L. Self-improvement M. Takes the lead N. Develops plans O.
Monitors own performance P. Identifies necessary resources
Each answer option may be used once, more than once, or not at all. 1 DH
Problem-solving/decision-making skills 2 EF Enterprising skills 3 CG Analytical
skills 4 AB Interactive skills 5 IK Presenting and applying information skills 6 JM
Ethical and responsible behaviour 7 LO Continuous learning orientation 8 NP
Goal-directed behaviour
Answer Key: | 1: DH | 2: EF | 3: CG | 4: AB | 5: IK | 6: JM | 7: LO | 8: NP |
Assignment 04 (Unique number 804066)
Question 1 of 13 1.0 Points Taylorism was criticised for _______ A. dehumanising
people. B. A and C C. ignoring the training of employees. D. resulting in
unemployment. Answer Key: B Feedback: Section 1.5 p. 11 Bergh and Geldenhuys
5th ed.

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Question 2 of 13 1.0 Points The field of I-O psychology can be presented as four
independent worlds. The assumptions, beliefs and values framing your understanding
of I-O psychology as a science and practice are known as the _______. A. world of
meta-theory B. world of science C. personal world D. world of practice Answer Key:
A Feedback: Section 2.2.1 p. 2.2 Bergh and Geldenhuys 5th ed
Question 3 of 13 1.0 Points Within the cognitive domain of human development,
_______ shows cultural differences influenced by individual cognitive learning,
internal reflection, feelings, experiences, peoples’ efforts to adapt to situations, and
the meanings attached to social processes in and between groups and societies. A.
membership B. maturity C. morality D. motivation Answer Key: C Feedback: Section
4.4.2 p. 77 Bergh and Geldenhuys 5th ed.
Question 4 of 13 1.0 Points When a group of learners is provided with a description
of a problem situation and they have to analyse and solve it, this is an example of
_______. A. a business game B. a case study C. programmed instruction D. a
role-play Answer Key: B Feedback: Section 5.5.2.3 pp. 107-109 Bergh and
Geldenhuys 5th ed.
Question 5 of 13 1.0 Points “She must feel terrible about not qualifying for the
competition. I know how I felt when it happened to me.” This is an example of
_______. A. stereotyping B. the primacy effect C. the halo effect D. projection
Answer Key: D Feedback: Section 6.5.1.7 p.131 Bergh and Geldenhuys 5th ed.
Question 6 of 13 1.0 Points __________ intelligence could be attributed to a test pilot
in the air force who may be required to come up with new ideas to solve a landing
gear problem not yet identified in the new range of aircraft being tested. A. Linguistic
B. Creative C. Multiple D. Emotional Answer Key: B Feedback: Section 7.5.2.2 p.
161 Bergh and Geldenhuys 5th ed.
Question 7 of 13 1.0 Points In Expectancy Theory “expectancy” refers to _______. A.
your belief that you will receive the rewards you value B. the support you expect from
the manager C. the expectations the organisation has of you D. the rewards you want
Answer Key: A Feedback: Section 8.7.4 p. 172 Bergh and Geldenhuys 5th ed.
Question 8 of 13 1.0 Points The meaning of work embraces the _____ that
individuals attach to work or to not working. A. value B. motives C. power D. needs
Answer Key: A Feedback: Section 9.5.1 p. 196 Bergh and Geldenhuys 5th ed.
organisational structure: A. Lack of eadership B. Differences in attitude C.
Semantic differences D. Divergent value structures E. Blocked communication
channels F. Information differences G. Different method of pursuing the objective H.
Lack of common objective
Each answer option may be used once, more than once, or not at all. 1 H Group
members in the same group may not hold the same goal or objective, resulting in
different behaviours being exhibited in pursuit of understanding the group’s objective.
2 G Conflict could arise if the group does not have consensus and a common
understanding of the approach or method to adopt in order to achieve the common

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objective. 3 F Differences in the interpretation of information may result in conflict. 4

E Disruptions in the flow of communication can result in conflict. Disruptions can
occur either through an individual getting too much information or being forced to
work with too little information. 5 D Conflict may arise when there are differences in
moral and ethical values between individuals and groups within the organisation.
Answer Key: | 1: H | 2: G | 3: F | 4: E | 5: D |
Group dynamics is the term used to describe the psychodynamic phenomena in
groups. A. psychodynamic B. dependency C. fight or flight D. object-relations E.
pairing F. me-ness G. systems H. we-ness
Each answer option may be used once, more than once, or not at all. 1 ADG
Group dynamics are studied from three (3)perspectives. Select these views from the
options above. 2 C Which behaviour tendency in a group explains the following
dynamic? The manager of the sales team has called a meeting to discuss the decline in
sales revenue, which means that staff will need to be retrenched. During the meeting
the conversation keeps around the topic of who is to blame and not on how the sales
figures could be improved. 3 F Which behaviour tendency in a group explains the
following dynamic? David's innovation is crucial to his teams success. However
during each meeting and with his interactions outside of the group he openly states
that he does not want to work with the team and could easily accomplish what needs
to be done by himself. 4 B Which behaviour tendency in a group explains the
following dynamic? Bright Star Pty (Ltd) has a charismatic CEO for whom the staff
will do any thing. They often go the extra mile to please her and make the company
shine. It is also the culture of the company to pass all decision-making processes to
the CEO as she knows best and has never failed any of her staff. So much so that the
company is listed in the top 100 Forbes list.
Answer Key: | 1: ADG | 2: C | 3: F | 4: B |
Select the most approriate scientific framework stance with its ontological stance
A. Rationalism B. Empiricism C. Cybernetic D. Epistemelogical stance E. Relativistic
F. Mystic G. Antropological stance H. Idealism
Each answer option may be used once, more than once, or not at all. 1 A Reality
exists independently from ourselves 2 D Gaining knowledge about reality 3 G My
role as knower 4 B Reality works like a machine 5 H Reality is contained in our mind
6 F Reality is presented in the sacred 7 E Everyone has there own understanding of
reality 8 C Reality consists of various systems
Part 2 of 3 - Case studies 7.0 Points Open the case study document below and
answer the questions relating to the case study in Part 2 of this assignment.
Attachments
The biology of thinking and problem solving - 804066.pdf 57 KB

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The biology of thinking and problem solving A. logical thinking B. mathematical

tasks C. visualisation D. right hemisphere E. imagination F. artistic G. intuition H. left
hemisphere
Each answer option may be used once, more than once, or not at all. 1 ABH The
managers who demonstrated analytical thinking and problem solving would
predominantly use the ______, _____ and _____ of the brain. 2 CDEG The manager
who comments he got his creativity from his parents would predominantly use the
______, ______, ______, and ______ of the brain. Specialised for which tasks.
Answer Key: | 1: ABH | 2: CDEF |
Part 3 of 3 - ROCKADOO Quarry case study 6.0 Points Open the case study below
and answer the questions to the case study in this Part 3 of the assignment.
Attachments
Rockadock quarry - 804066.pdf 175 KB
Fiedler's contingency model A. leadership style B. task C. situation D.
achievement-oriented E. directive F. autocratic G. visionary H. leadership situation
Each answer option may be used once, more than once, or not at all. 1 AH
Fiedler's contingency model highlights two variables that influence leadership
effective ness. Name these variables. 2 B Which leadership orientation would you
think Peter Skepe is exhibiting in the case study? 3 D The Path-Goal theory indicates
that leaders must assess the task and follower characteristics, and then choose an
appropriate leadership style. In the above situation, the senior managers are capable of
dealing with the challenges at hand. Which leadership style would you think could be
used by them? 4 E Which leadership style is currently being used? 5 G The company
is subjected to a changing environment. In a changing environment Skepe should be
____
Answer Key: | 1: AH | 2:

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hapter 1
You are the human-resources manager at Neverflat Batteries. You have realised that
the bureaucratic
structures of the organisation inhibit creativity and accountability amongst employees.
You require the
services of a professional person who can assist you in transforming the management
approach to one
of teamwork, participation, and information-sharing. Who will you consult? A/n
_______ A. personnel psychologist. B. research psychologist. C. an
employee-relations specialist. D. an organisational psychologist. Answer Key: D
Feedback: Section 1.4.1 pp. 7-8 Bergh and Geldenhuys 5th edition
Taylorism was criticised for _______ A. resulting in unemployment. B. ignoring the
training of employees. C. dehumanising people. D. a and c. Feedback: . Answer Key:
D Feedback: Section 1.5 p. 11 Bergh and Geldenhuys 5th ed.
The First and Second World Wars contributed to the field of _____ A. psychometric
testing. B. selection and placement. C. stress management. D. all of the above.
Answer Key: D Feedback: Section 1.5 pp. 11 -12 in Bergh & Geldenhuys 5th ed.
_______ as an applied field is concerned with optimal functioning. A. Consumer
psychology B. Employee and organisational well-being C. Career psychology D.
Ergonomics Answer Key: B Feedback: Section 1.4.7 p. 9 in Bergh and Geldenhuys
5th ed.
Career psychology involves _______ A. assisting people to cope more effectively. B.
facilitating occupational development. C. emphasis on adult career development. D. B
and C Answer Key: D Feedback: Section 1.2.1 p.4 in Bergh and Geldenhuys 5th ed.
The “Hawthorne effect” implies that _______ A. employees have social needs. B. the
working environment influences behaviour. C. behavioural changes are often short
lived. D. women have different needs than men Answer Key: C Feedback: Section 1.5
pp.11 -13 in Bergh and Geldenhuys 5th ed.
The _______ is responsible for ensuring that high ethical standards are maintained in
the various fields
of psychology. A. Health Professions Council of South Africa B. Psychological
Society of South Africa C. South African Research Council D. King Commission
Answer Key: A Feedback: Section 1.6 p.16 in Bergh and Geldenhuys 5th ed.
The training and practice of human-resources practitioners is controlled by the
_______ A. Institute of People Management B. South African Board for Personnel
Practice C. Society for Industrial and Organisational Psychology D. Training Institute

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of South Africa Answer Key: B Feedback: Section 1.6 p.16 in Bergh and Geldenhuys
5th ed.
The roots of I-O psychology lie in _______ A. psychology B. economics C. industrial
psychology D. occupational psychology Answer Key: A Feedback: Part one p.1 in
Bergh and Geldenhuys 5th ed.
Which of the following is the most notable future challenge for I-O psychologists? A.
The training and development of employees in large organisations. B. Practising as
human-resources managers. C. Doing research on organisational problems such as
absenteeism. D. Helping organisations to become more adaptive and resilient to
external changes Answer Key: D Feedback: Section 1.7 p. 16 in Bergh and
Geldenhuys 5th ed.
Chapter 2
Which of the following best implies a helicopter view of IOP? A. world of
meta-theory B. personal world C. world of practice D. world of science Answer Key:
A Feedback: Section 2.2.1 p. 22 in Bergh and Geldenhuys 5th ed.
Which of the following is an example of the world of science rather than the world of
practice? A. determining why employees are absent on Mondays B. applying
disciplinary measures to those employees who are absent C. determining how
different economic philosophies are likely to influence absenteeism D. developing an
absenteeism policy Answer Key: C Feedback: Section 2.2.1 p.22 in Bergh and
Geldenhuys 5th ed.
The understanding and exploring of meta-theory is important for: A. developing a
personal preference for dealing with people B. qualifying for a professional
qualification C. following the correct procedures for managing people in the
workplace D. developing a broad perspective of the assumptions, beliefs, and values
that are fundamental in science and practice Answer Key: D Feedback: Section 2.2.1
p. 22 in Bergh and Geldenhuys 5th ed.
Which of the following is a so-called world of I-O psychology? A. world of inquiry B.
world of meta-psychology C. world of personality theory D. world of science Answer
Key: D Feedback: Section 2.2.1 p.22 in Bergh and Geldenhuys 5th ed.
Which of the following is NOT a critical question with regards to a meta-theoretical
conviction? A. What is one’s view of human work? B. What is one’s view of the
human psyche? C. What is one’s view of being human? D. What is one’s view of the
organisation one is serving? Answer Key: D Feedback: Section 2.4.2 p. 26 in Bergh
and Geldenhuys 5th ed.
Which school/s of thought studies the normal consciousness of a person as an

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interconnected dynamic
whole? A. Positive psychology B. Gestalt C. Humanism D. a and c Answer Key: B
Feedback: Table 2.2 pp.28-28 in Bergh and Geldenhuys 5th ed.
What is the purpose of an IOP structural blueprint? A. to indicate the main
components of IOP B. to indicate how various parts of IOP are related to each other C.
to provide a skeleton or framework of the field of IOP D. all of the above Answer Key:
D Feedback: Section 2.4.5 p.33 in Bergh and Geldenhuys 5th ed.
An IOP credo provides: A. ethics guidelines for employees to follow B. a set of
fundamental beliefs about the rights of working people C. a helicopter view of
assumptions, beliefs, and values D. an overview of the processes and procedures to be
followed in the organisation Answer Key: B Feedback: Section 2.4.7 p. 35 in Bergh
Which of the following ideological stances does not incorporate a belief in a
God/Deity? A. Materialism and Communism B. Socialism and Communism C.
Anarchism and Nihilism D. Ecologicalism Answer Key: C Feedback: Table 2.7 p. 39
in Bergh and Geldenhuys 5th ed.
The interrelated foundational concepts of IO Psychology are: A. Id; Ego; Superego B.
Body; Mind; Soul C. Human; Psyche; Work D. all of the above Answer Key: C
Feedback: Section 2.4.1.3 pp. 25-26 in Bergh
Chapter 3
Meiosis ____. A. keeps nucleotide bonds constant B. causes organisms to grow C.
contributes to the duplication of the number of chromosomes in daughter cells D.
effects changes in DNA composition Answer Key: D Feedback: Section 3.2.1.3 p. 48
Which equivalent is correct for genotype: phenotype? A. homozygotic: heterozygotic
B. recessive: dominant C. genetic: appearance D. prenatal: postnatal Answer Key: C
Which area of the brain controls unconscious activities of various organs like the
heart, lungs, digestive
tract, and excretory system? A. Reticular activating system B. Hypothalamus C.
Cerebral cortex D. Frontal cortex Answer Key: B Feedback: Section 3.3.2.2 pp. 54-55
Individuals who readily become emotional and excited possibly have ____. A. a
dominant parasympathetic system B. a dominant sympathetic system C. an
underactive thyroid gland D. an underactive pituitary gland Answer Key: B Feedback:
Section 3.3.3 pp. 57-58 Bergh and Geldenhuys 5th ed.

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A gardener complains about constant back pain. The problem most probably lies
with_____. A. the size of his work station B. an accumulation of waste products in his
blood C. the type of tools he is using to remove weeds D. the body posture he
assumes while removing weeds Answer Key: D Feedback: Section 3.5.3 p. 61 Bergh
Emotions such as anger, excitement, and despondency are caused by the electric
stimulation of: A. the limbic system B. the thalamus C. the hypothalamus D. the
medulla oblongata Answer Key: A Feedback: Section 3.3.2.2 pp. 53-55 Bergh and
Geldenhuys 5th ed.
As a result of a brick hitting an employee on the head, the employee’s speech is
slightly impaired. What
part of the brain is most likely to have been affected? A. the medulla oblongata B. the
parietal cortex C. the thalamus D. the limbic system Answer Key: B Feedback:
Section 3.3.2.2 pp. 53-56 Bergh and Geldenhuys 5th ed.
Which of the following characteristics is the result of multiple determination? A. eye
colour B. being male or female C. night blindness D. extraversion Answer Key: D
The chemicals released into the synaptic gap are called _____. A. axoplasm B.
neurotransmitters C. transmitters D. dendrites Answer Key: B Feedback: Section
3.3.1.1 p.51 Bergh and Geldenhuys 5th ed.
You are an I-O psychologist in a large organisation. One of the employees suffered an
epileptic seizure
during work time. What should you do? A. Make sure the person does not operate
dangerous machinery B. Refer the person to an orthopaedic surgeon who can examine
the employee’s muscle movements C. Refer the person to a neurologist D. a and c
Answer Key: D Feedback: Section 3.3.2 p. 53 Bergh and Geldenhuys 5th ed.
Chapter 4
“Maturity” is best defined as _______ A. the full integration of physical, cognitive
and psychosocial tasks B. pre-planned changes that are due to genetic factors C.
readiness levels for learning to be successful D. a chronological increase in years
Answer Key: A Feedback: Section 4.1.1 p.68, Bergh and Geldenhuys 5th Ed
Assimilation in cognitive development implies_______ A. the ability to absorb more
information B. an increase in memory C. the learning of new concepts D. the ability
to integrate information from a variety of sources Answer Key: A Feedback: Sec 4.4.2
p. 75 Bergh and Geldenhuys 5th Ed

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Young adulthood involves _______ A. occupational choice and preparation B. career

decline C. career consolidation and maintenance D. establishing a career Answer Key:
D Feedback: Section 4.2.1 p. 68 Bergh and Geldenhuys 5th ed.
Psychosocial development includes _______ A. personality development B.
self-concept C. social skills D. all of the above Answer Key: D Feedback: Section
4.4.3 pp. 77-80 Bergh and Geldenhuys 5th ed.
Human development is characterised by _______ A. a hierarchical evolution of
phases B. progression from the general to the specific C. increased complexity and
sophistication D. all of the above Answer Key: D Feedback: Section 4.1.1 pp. 67-68
According to Schaie, the following stage of cognitive development is characterised by
responsibility and
increased knowledge, which enables a person to serve in responsible positions in
organisations and in
the community _______ A. reintegration B. acquisition C. responsibility D. executive
A. the first year of life B. between 2 and 3 years of age C. between 6 and 11 years of
age D. during adolescence Answer Key: A Feedback: Section 4.5.2.1 p. 82 Bergh and
Geldenhuys 5th ed.
“Career orientation” implies _______ A. knowing what career to choose B. taking
responsibility for choosing a career by using relevant information to make a choice C.
sticking with a specific career choice D. career preparation Answer Key: B Feedback:
Section 4.6.1 p. 86 Bergh and Geldenhuys 5th ed.
The “midlife crisis” experience relates to _______ A. children leaving home B.
reassessment of careers C. physical decline D. all of the above Answer Key: D
Middle adulthood is mostly concerned with _______ A. coping with lesser physical
strength B. establishing a career C. maintaining various life roles D. maintaining
dignity and personal identity Answer Key: C Feedback: Section 4.6.3 p. 89 Bergh and
Geldenhuys 5th ed.
Chapter 5
Latent learning implies _______ A. a relatively permanent change in behaviour B.
improved performance C. learning that does not immediately affect behaviour D. the
acquisition of knowledge Answer Key: C

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Which of the following approaches implies the use of punishment? A. classical

conditioning B. social learning C. generalisation D. operant conditioning Answer Key:
D
When a person enrols for a training course because he/she believes it will enhance
his/her chances for
promotion, it is an example of _______ A. classical conditioning B. instrumental
conditioning C. social learning D. cognitive learning Answer Key: D
Brian's organisation has applied the ______ schedule to the sales department. This
means that Brian
will have to persevere in his sales tasks despite him not being able to sell the
organisations product each
time. A. fixed-ratio B. variable-ratio C. variable-interval D. fixed-interval Answer
Key: B
Which of the following is an example of social learning? A. You get a fright every
time you see a traffic cop. B. You study harder after your lecturer gives you low
marks for a test. C. You do a favour for your co-worker because you expect something
in return. D. While driving, you make a U-turn in a prohibited area after you saw
other people doing this. Answer Key: D
The purpose of a training-needs analysis is to _______ A. consider the organisation’s
short- and long-term goals B. determine what tasks should be performed C. evaluate
how well a person is performing a task D. all of the above Answer Key: D
When a group of learners is provided with a description of a problem situation and
they have to analyse
and solve it, this is an example of _______ A. a case study B. a role-play C.
programmed instruction D. a business game Answer Key: A
Simulation involves _______ A. observing the trainer and copying his/her behaviour
B. performing two actions at the same time C. using similar equipment to that in the
workplace D. improving interpersonal relations Answer Key: C
Continuous learning is important as it _______ A. satisfies the needs of adult learners
B. enhances individual and organisational adaptation to future changes in the
environment C. contributes to solving existing problems in the organisation D.
evaluates the progress of adult learners in the organisation Answer Key: B
A group of potential managers are identified and invited to participate in a
leadership-development
programme. What is the best experiential learning technique to enhance the
orientation and professional

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development of these candidates? A. stimulation B. sensitivity training C. scaffolding

D. mentoring Answer Key: D
Chapter 6
Sensation is _______. A. feeling excited B. the organisation of sensory output C. the
interpretation of sensory information D. seeing an object without knowing what it is
Answer Key: D Feedback: Section 6.2 p. 115 Bergh and Geldenhuys 5th ed.
The just-noticeable difference is the _______. A. minimum amount of stimulation that
can be detected B. maximum amount of stimulation that can be detected C. smallest
difference in stimulation that the senses can detect D. absence of stimulation Answer
Key: C Feedback: Section 6.2.2 p. 118 Bergh and Geldenhuys 5th ed.
After listening to really loud music for a while, it does not sound that loud any more.
This is a result of
_______. A. the just-noticeable difference B. the threshold C. sensory adaptation D.
subliminal perception Answer Key: C Feedback: Section 6.2.5 p.119 Bergh and
Geldenhuys 5th ed.
The moon appears bigger when it is near the horizon in comparison to when it is up in
the sky. This
phenomenon is due to _______. A. perceptual constancy B. an illusion C. subliminal
perception D. the just-noticeable difference Answer Key: B Feedback: Section 6.4.1 p.
Which of the following refers to a factor in a situation that could influence perception?
A. experience B. time C. size D. interests Answer Key: B Feedback: Section 6.4.2 pp.
129-130 Bergh and Geldenhuys 5th ed.
when it happened to
me.” This is an example of _______. A. projection B. stereotyping C. the halo effect
D. the primacy effect Answer Key: A Feedback: Section 6.5.1.7 p.131 Bergh and
Geldenhuys 5th ed.
When the first employee who finishes a test is consistently receiving a better rating,
this is an example of
_______. A. stereotyping B. projection C. appearance D. the primacy effect Answer
Key: D Feedback: Section 6.5.1.2 p. 131 Bergh and Geldenhuys 5th ed.
A person schema refers to _______. A. how we perceive ourselves B. how we
perceive others C. our perceptions of how others should behave D. our perceptions of
the order in which people should do things Answer Key: B Feedback: Section 6.5.1.1
p. 130 Bergh and Geldenhuys 5th ed.

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John did not get the promotion he wanted. While he blames it on the selection process
and the people
involved in the decision, you secretly believe that he was not selected due to his
personal shortcomings.
What kind of attributional error is evident in this case? A. an external attribution B. an
internal attribution C. the self-serving bias D. the actor-observer effect Answer Key:
D Feedback: Section 6.5.2.2 p. 134 Bergh and Geldenhuys 5th ed.
Cognitive processes as an explanation for the development of prejudice relate to
_______. A. the influence parents have on their children’s thinking B. intergroup
conflict C. the in-group and out-group effect D. socialisation Answer Key: C
Chapter 7
A mental representation of the world around us is called a _______.
A. prototype
B. schema
C. concept
D. cognitive map
Answer Key: D
An algorithm is _______.
A. a systematic process used to solve a problem
B. transferring a solution to a new situation
C. the consideration of available solutions only
D. when different solutions are tried until one proves to be successful
Answer Key: A
Which of the following enhances effective problem-solving?
A. Mental set
B. Functional fixedness
C. Framing
D. None of the above
Answer Key: D
What kind of heuristic is evident if you need to recruit a biochemist and decide to use
the same
recruitment procedure that was followed when the company searched for a new CEO?
A. Availability
B. Representativeness

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C. Mental set
D. Anchoring and adjustment
Answer Key: B
The sensory memory _______.
A. stores seven to nine chunks of information at a time
B. has unlimited capacity
C. stores information for 20-40 minutes
D. temporary stores information provided by the senses
Answer Key: D
Declarative memory allows us to remember _______.
A. how to type a document
B. the last time we had a bad incident
C. what an object is called
D. language
Answer Key: C
The dynamic approach to intelligence emphasises _______.
A. multiple intelligences
B. learning potential
C. proximal development
D. all of the above
Answer Key: D
Which one of the following statements is incorrect?
A. Intelligence is influenced by the environment
B. Intelligence is hereditary
C. Intelligence is expressed as a ratio between mental age and chronological age
D. Intelligence can be measured precisely
Answer Key: D
Creative people _______.
A. use convergent thinking
B. have a right-hemisphere dominance
C. have an IQ of at least 130
D. use algorithms to solve problems
Answer Key: B

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Your boyfriend/girlfriend has recently broken up with you. For the last few weeks you
have felt
depressed, rejected and lonely. All you can think about is this terrible thing that has
happened to you.
However, this morning you realise that, for the first time in many weeks, your
thoughts are more positive.
You don’t think only of your boyfriend/girlfriend anymore, but of exiting things you
want to do. This is an
example of _______.
A. superior intellect
B. meta-cognition
C. emotional intellect
D. analogy
Answer Key: B
Chapter 8
Which of the following is an example of positive motivation? A. The manager praises
the employee for a job well done B. Employees are entitled to a medical aid C.
Employees’ jobs are enriched D. A manager explains to the employee how to do a task
Answer Key: A Feedback: Section 8.2 p. 165 Bergh and Geldenhuys 5th ed.
Which of the following is an example of a hygiene factor? A. autonomy B.
recognition C. pay D. responsibility Answer Key: C Feedback: Section 8.8.1 p. 175
A peak experience related to self-actualisation implies _______. A. task identity B.
responsibility C. rewards D. high levels of consciousness Answer Key: D Feedback:
Section 8.7.1 p. 171 Bergh and Geldenhuys 5th ed.
In Expectancy Theory “instrumentality” refers to _______. A. the value of a goal B.
the ability to achieve a goal C. the probability that a reward will be obtained D. one
goal leading to the attainment of other goals Answer Key: D Feedback: Section 8.7.4
In Expectancy Theory “expectancy” refers to _______. A. the expectations the
organisation has of you B. the rewards you want C. your belief that you will receive
the rewards you value D. the support you expect from the manager Answer Key: C
When Venus Williams won the cup in the Wimbledon tennis championships, she told
a reporter: “It was a
very difficult match. I was very, very lucky to win today.” This remark best reflects

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_______. A. functional autonomy B. self-efficacy C. a lack of equity D. an external

locus of causality Answer Key: D Feedback: Section 8.7.6 p. 174 Bergh and
Geldenhuys 5th ed.
Job enrichment implies _______. A. doing more work B. receiving more money C.
being transferred to another job or section D. doing more complex work and carrying
a greater level of responsibility and authority Answer Key: D Feedback: Section 8.6.3
Motivated people demonstrate_______. A. high levels of self-efficacy B. functional
autonomy C. emotional intelligence D. all of the above Answer Key: D
The fact that you are attending university and planning to graduate is primarily an
example of fulfilling
which level of Maslow's hierarchy of Needs? A. ego needs B. physiological needs C.
self-actualization needs D. social needs Answer Key: C Feedback: Section 8.7.1 p.
Which of the following factors does not affect the quality of work life in the
workplace? A. a physical working environment B. challenging work C. advanced
technology D. adequate and fair compensation Answer Key: C Feedback: Section
8.8.2 p. 176 Bergh and Geldenhuys 5th ed.
Chapter 9
As a child, Andy enjoyed rescuing animals. Today he belongs to the Green Peace
environmental group.
Andy’s attitude towards nature is best described as _______. A. peripheral B.
selective C. temporary D. central Answer Key: D Feedback: Section 9.1 p. 189 Bergh
Which type of communication is most likely to be effective when you are trying to
change the attitude of
a person who feels undecided about an issue? A. A message that arouses guilt in the
person B. A series of subtle messages that invoke fear C. A message that presents only
positive information D. A message that presents both positive and negative
information Answer Key: D Feedback: Section 9.7.2.2 p. 206 Bergh and Geldenhuys
5th ed.
An employee who experiences job involvement is one who _______. A. works hard
even if the job is mostly boring B. identifies psychologically with the job and feels
embarrassed when he/she is not performing well C. feels committed to the
organisation and therefore performs to his/her best D. believes that the job is a
stepping stone to a more challenging job Answer Key: B Feedback: Section 9.5.4 p.

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Which one of the following statements about values is correct? A. Values are mostly
inherited from parents. B. Values are idealistic rather than pragmatic. C. Values are
free from cultural influences. D. Values are not always directly reflected in behaviour.
A social person _______. A. wants to be in control of others B. experiences life to the
full C. gets involved in activities with visible utility value D. is geared towards
serving others Answer Key: D Feedback: Section 9.4.2 p. 194 Bergh and Geldenhuys
5th ed.
A. economic B. social C. power D. religious Answer Key: A Feedback: Section 9.4.2
_______. A. collectivism B. a high power distance C. masculinity D. individualism
Answer Key: C Feedback: Section 9.6.3.1 p. 200 Bergh and Geldenhuys 5th ed.
What type of values are reflected in an organisation in which it is difficult for the
individual employee to
communicate with management? A. individualism B. masculinity C. femininity D. a
high power distance Answer Key: D Feedback: Section 9.6.3.1 p. 200 Bergh and
Geldenhuys 5th ed.
People value work, mostly because it provides _______. A. money B. security C.
personal development D. authority Answer Key: C Feedback: Section 9.5.1 p. 196
The values emphasised in feminine societies are mostly related to _______. A.
protection B. ambition C. competition D. religion Answer Key: A Feedback: Section
9.6.3.1 p. 200 Bergh and Geldenhuys 5th ed.
Chapter 10
John has befriended Oscar because he wants to associate with successful people,
while Oscar hopes
that John will help him with the computer. Their attachment is based on _______. A.
social comparison B. social exchange C. psychological dependence D. similarity
Answer Key: B Feedback: Section 10.4.1.1 p. 214 Bergh and Geldenhuys 5th ed.
You mostly find that people from the same racial group are attracted to each other.
This phenomenon
could be explained by _______. A. complementarity B. social exchange C. perceived
uniqueness D. genetic similarity Answer Key: D Feedback: Section 10.4.1.2 p. 215

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The following situational factor influences attraction _______. A. similarity B.
proximity C. complementarity D. reciprocity Answer Key: B Feedback: Section
10.4.4.1 p. 220 Bergh and Geldenhuys 5th ed.
Enoch is scatter-brained. He is attracted to Shirley, who is organised. Shirley, on the
other hand,
admires Enoch’s relaxed manner. The basis of their attraction is _______. A.
similarity B. reciprocity C. complementarity D. proximity Answer Key: C Feedback:
Section 10.4..1.2 p. 215 Bergh and Geldenhuys 5th ed.
John is not well liked by his manager. When John applied for a job in another section,
his manager
influenced the decision-makers not to select him. His manager constantly gives him
the most unpleasant
or boring tasks to complete, and tells other people that John has an unstable
personality, which is not
true. The above is an example of: A. escalating conflict B. sanctioned aggression C.
workplace bullying D. racial harassment Answer Key: C Feedback: Section 10.5.2.3 p.
People with the following personality characteristics or types are more likely to act
aggressively
_______. A. learned helplessness B. high emotional stability C. Type C D. Type A
Answer Key: D Feedback: Section 10.6.1.3 p. 226 Bergh and Geldenhuys 5th ed.
Deindividuation is associated with _______. A. a focus on external events rather than
on personal feelings B. higher levels of social responsibility C. feeling isolated D.
self-monitoring behaviour Answer Key: A Feedback: Section 10.6.1.2 p. 226 Bergh
The role of a devil’s advocate is to _______. A. purposefully point out shortcomings
in other’s ideas B. collaborate with other parties C. serve as a spokesperson to one
party D. set rules for conflict resolution Answer Key: A Feedback: Section 10.7.5.1 p.
Which conflict-handling approach indicates a willingness to work together while
satisfying one’s own
concerns? A. avoidance B. compromise C. accommodation D. collaboration Answer
Key: D Feedback: Section 10.7.5 p. 233 Bergh and Geldenhuys 5th ed.
You lend your textbook to a fellow student who was supposed to return it a week
before you were due to

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write a test. When she did not return the book on time, and you did not have enough
time to prepare for
the test, you felt very angry. However, you wanted to deal with the situation in a
constructive manner.
What is the most appropriate response? A. “It is clear that you are an irresponsible
person.” B. “I felt frustrated because I could not start studying. If I lend something out,
I expect it to be returned at the agreed time.” C. “I don’t think I will ever lend
anything to you again.” D. “These things always happen to me. I am a sucker for
helping others. This is the last
time I will help anybody.” Answer Key: B Feedback: Section 10.7.5.2 p. 234 Bergh
Chapter 11
Group dynamics is best described as _______. A. unconscious elements that influence
the individual’s behaviour B. communication patterns C. different levels of authority
D. the occurrence of conflict Answer Key: A Feedback: Section 11.7.1 p. 251 Bergh
Norming as a stage in group development involves _______. A. feelings of uneasiness
and uncertainty B. the forming of close relationships and demonstration of
cohesiveness C. establishing leadership and positions D. getting the job done Answer
Key: B Feedback: Section 11.5.1 p. 243 Bergh and Geldenhuys 5th ed.
The punctuated-equilibrium model is characterised by _______. A. periods of
passivity and transitions B. leadership squabbles C. intermittent periods of norm
clarification D. none of the above Answer Key: A Feedback: Section 11.5.2 p. 244
Your employer wants you to work on three public holidays during the year. This is an
example of
_______. A. role overload B. role perception C. role identification D. role expectation
Answer Key: D Feedback: Section 11.6.2.3 p. 246 Bergh and Geldenhuys 5th ed.
You favourite sport team is not performing very well and a new coach is appointed.
Everybody expects
this new coach to help the team win. This is an example of _______. A. dependency B.
fight C. representation D. valence Answer Key: A Feedback: Section 11.7.1 p. 251
An outstanding characteristic of the Delphi technique is that _______. A. members do
not meet face-to-face B. ideas are discussed openly and freely C. strengths,
weaknesses, opportunities, and threats are identified D. ideas are silently recorded by
group members meeting in one room E. no ideas are criticised Answer Key: A

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When group members coordinate their skills and efforts in such a way that they reach
unthinkable levels
of performance, one can attribute it to _______. A. synergy B. groupthink C. high
levels of cohesion D. the successful prevention of social loafing Answer Key: A
The composition of a group refers to _______. A. the number of people in the group B.
status differences C. characteristics of members D. group processes Answer Key: C
Chapter 12
Consideration in leadership behaviour implies _______ A. considering the importance
of deadlines B. concern about the relationship with employees C. having clear
expectations of employees D. considering the performance of employees as most
important Answer Key: B Feedback: Section 12.3.2 p. 274 Bergh and Geldenhuys 5th
ed.
The power a leader has due to his/her personality is called _______ power A. referent
B. coercive C. legitimate D. punishment Answer Key: A Feedback: Section 12.3.2 p.
According to Fiedler’s contingency model, a leader should_______ A. consider the
complexity of the task. B. ignore the relationship he or she has with employees. C.
consider the personal characteristics of his subordinates. D. not change his or her
behaviour according to the demands of the situation. Answer Key: A Feedback:
Section 12.3.3.1 p. 275 Bergh and Geldenhuys 5th ed.
Contemporary leadership focuses on: A. organizational culture B. matching leadership
style to a situation C. initiating structure and consideration D. leadership traits Answer
Key: A Feedback: Section 12.7 p. 281 Bergh and Geldenhuys 5th ed.
A/an _______ leadership style is not part of the Path-Goal leadership theory. A.
supportive B. participative C. consultative D. achievement-oriented Answer Key: C
In inner leadership the leader _______ A. rewards success. B. clarifies roles and
functions. C. works with the group to create a vision. D. demonstrates empathy and
emotional intelligence. Answer Key: D Feedback: Section 12.4.2.2 p. 278 Bergh and
Geldenhuys 5th ed.
A _______ leader focuses mostly on rewards to motivate employees. A. charismatic B.
supportive C. transactional D. transformational Answer Key: C Feedback: Section
12.5 p. 280 Bergh and Geldenhuys 5th ed.

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Which leadership theory proposes that employees are more satisfied and motivated
when they believe
that the leader is facilitating goal-attainment? A. Path-Goal theory B. Fiedler’s
leadership theory C. Behavioural leadership theory D. Vroom-Jago’s leadership theory
Answer Key: A Feedback: Section 12.3.3.2 p. 276 Bergh and Geldenhuys 5th ed.
Which statement related to entrepreneurship is false? A. Small business owners are
entrepreneurs. B. Entrepreneurs are highly driven and resourceful. C. Entrepreneurs
have an internal locus of control. D. Entrepreneurship is associated with social and
psychic risk. Answer Key: A Feedback: Section 12.8 p. 282 Bergh and Geldenhuys
5th ed.
A transformational leader _______ A. is charismatic. B. is a change champion. C. uses
a laissez-faire style. D. communicates very well by mostly using technology. Answer
Key: B Feedback: Section 12.4.2.2 p. 278 Bergh and Geldenhuys 5th ed.
Timed Assessment
The roots of I-O psychology lie in _______ A. psychology B. economics C.
occupational psychology D. industrial psychology Answer Key: A
You are the human-resources manager at Neverflat Batteries. You have realised that
the bureaucratic
structures of the organisation inhibit creativity and accountability amongst employees.
You require the
services of a professional person who can assist you in transforming the management
approach to one
of teamwork, participation, and information-sharing. Who will you consult? A/n
_______ A. an employee-relations specialist. B. an organisational psychologist. C.
personnel psychologist. D. research psychologist. Answer Key: B
Which of the following characteristics is the result of multiple determination? A.
being male or female B. extraversion C. eye colour D. night blindness Answer Key: B

lOMoARcPSD|9000307

A. during adolescence B. between 6 and 11 years of age C. between 2 and 3 years of
age D. the first year of life Answer Key: D
Brian's organisation has applied the ______ schedule to the sales department. This
means that Brian
will have to persevere in his sales tasks despite him not being able to sell the
organisations product each
time. A. fixed-ratio B. variable-ratio C. variable-interval D. fixed-interval Answer
Key: B
when it happened to
me.” This is an example of ______. A. projection B. stereotyping C. the halo effect D.
subliminal perception Answer Key: A
Which one of the following statements best describes the process of perception?
Perception is _______. A. becoming aware of sensations from the environment which
give meaning to experiences B. experiencing meaning when stimuli are processed and
interpreted C. the neural processes in the brain that provide cognitive meaning to the
world D. receiving, through the senses, stimuli or information which give meaning to
the world Answer Key: A
What kind of heuristic is evident if you need to recruit a biochemist and decide to use
the same
recruitment procedure that was followed when the company searched for a new CEO?
A. Availability B. Representativeness C. Mental set D. Anchoring and adjustment
Answer Key: B
Match the following to the specific theory as it relates to motivation and emotion. A.
Expectancy theory. B. Cognitive evaluation theory. C. McClelland's needs theory. D.
Maslow's hierarchy of needs. E. Self-efficacy. select A B C D E 1. Achievement,
independence, status, freedom, self-esteem. select A B C D E 2. The demotivating
aspect promotes perceived incompetence. select A B C D E 3. People strive to
exercise control over their lives. select A B C D E 4. The value of the perceived
reward for the employee. select A B C D E 5. The need for affiliation. Answer Key:
1:D, 2:B, 3:E, 4:A, 5:C
A. social B. religious C. economic D. power Answer Key: C
_______. A. collectivism B. a high power distance C. masculinity D. individualism

lOMoARcPSD|9000307
Answer Key: C
Deindividuation is associated with _______. A. a focus on external events rather than
on personal feelings B. higher levels of social responsibility C. feeling isolated D.
self-monitoring behaviour Answer Key: A
The role of a facilitator is to ___________. A. help a group grow and learn B. prevent
group dynamics C. evaluate a group’s performance D. solve group problems Answer
Key: A
The power a leader has due to his/her personality is called _______ power A. referent
B. coercive C. legitimate D. punishment
Match the CEMS generic transferable meta-skills and personal attributes with the
behaviour Anele is
exhibiting in the case study. A. Anele worked at a tyre dealership, where he worked
alongside other men of different ages and backgrounds. B. While Anele was still a
student within the College of Economic and Management Sciences (CEMS) at Unisa,
he got involved in various student societies and activities relating to his studies and
community issues. C. The work was physical and hard, but allowed Anele to learn
some technical and business skills, and taught him excellent interpersonal skills. D.
During the June-July holidays, he worked in the human-resources department of a
computer company. He was not paid for this but he saw it as a good opportunity to
practise some humanresources skills and to get used to an organisational environment.
select A B C D 1. Interactive skills. select A B C D 2. Continuous learning orientation.
select A B C D 3. Problem-solving and decision-making skills. select A B C D 4.
Enterprising skills.
Answer Key: 1:A, 2:D, 3:C, 4:B
Fields of Pyschology
This exercise is to test your understanding of the different fields of psychology and
I-O Psychology. You
will not receive questions like these in the assignments or exam. This exercise is to
test your knowledge
of the practical application in the field.
Students can debate their answers, in the discussion forum "Self - Assessment
discussions", on
myUnisa as some answers fall in more than one field of psychology or I-O
psychology.
With the above in mind consider which field(s) of psychology you think can be
associated with the
following? A. Social psychology B. Positive psychology C. Positive or health
psychology D. Health psychology E. Physiological psychology, neurological
psychology or biopsychology F. Forensic psychology G. Personality psychology H.

lOMoARcPSD|9000307
I-O psychology I. Counselling psychology J. Developmental psychology K.

Educational and school psychology L. Counselling psychology or clinical psychology
M. Career psychology N. Clinical psychology select A B C D E F G H I J K L M N 1.
Work relationships select A B C D E F G H I J K L M N 2. Mental illness select A B C
D E F G H I J K L M N 3. Alcohol and drug abuse select A B C D E F G H I J K L M
N 4. Functions of the brain select A B C D E F G H I J K L M N 5. Teacher or nurse
select A B C D E F G H I J K L M N 6. An armed robbery select A B C D E F G H I J
K L M N 7. Divorce stress select A B C D E F G H I J K L M N 8. Learning
difficulties select A B C D E F G H I J K L M N 9. Good relationships select A B C D
E F G H I J K L M N 10. Organisational problems select A B C D E F G H I J K L M
N 11. All-round health select A B C D E F G H I J K L M N 12. A car accident select
A B C D E F G H I J K L M N 13. Poor eating habits select A B C D E F G H I J K L
M N 14. Occupational development select A B C D E F G H I J K L M N 15. A crime
scene select A B C D E F G H I J K L M N 16. Enhancing human strengths select A B
C D E F G H I J K L M N 17. A good athlete select A B C D E F G H I J K L M N 18.
Dealing with life problems select A B C D E F G H I J K L M N 19. A happy marriage
select A B C D E F G H I J K L M N 20. Rape trauma select A B C D E F G H I J K L
M N 21. A mid-life crisis select A B C D E F G H I J K L M N 22. Group
communication and interaction select A B C D E F G H I J K L M N 23. Introversion
or extraversion Answer Key: 1:H, 2:N, 3:I, 4:E, 5:M, 6:L, 7:I, 8:K, 9:B, 10:H, 11:C,
12:F, 13:D, 14:H, 15:F, 16:B, 17:D, 18:I, 19:B, 20:L, 21:J, 22:A, 23:G
Timed online revision exercise
Question 2 of 9 1.0 Points Brian's organisation has applied the ______ schedule to
the sales department. This means that Brian will have to persevere in his sales tasks
despite him not being able to sell the organisations product each time. A. fixed-ratio B.
variable-ratio C. variable-interval D. fixed-interval Answer Key: B
Question 3 of 9 1.0 Points Which one of the following statements best describes the
process of perception? Perception is _______. A. receiving, through the senses,
stimuli or information which give meaning to the world B. the neural processes in the
brain that provide cognitive meaning to the world C. becoming aware of sensations
from the environment which give meaning to experiences D. experiencing meaning

lOMoARcPSD|9000307
when stimuli are processed and interpreted Answer Key: C

Question 4 of 9 5.0 Points Match the following to the specific theory as it relates to
motivation and emotion. A. Expectancy theory. B. McClelland's needs theory. C.
Self-efficacy. D. Maslow's hierarchy of needs. E. Cognitive evaluation theory. select A
B C D E 1. Achievement, independence, status, freedom, self-esteem. select A B C D
E 2. The demotivating aspect promotes perceived incompetence. select A B C D E 3.
People strive to exercise control over their lives. select A B C D E 4. The value of the
perceived reward for the employee. select A B C D E 5. The need for affiliation.
Answer Key: 1:D, 2:E, 3:C, 4:A, 5:B
Question 5 of 9 1.0 Points A person who puts pressure on others to recycle used
material reflects _______ values. A. power B. religious C. social D. economic Answer
Key: D
Question 6 of 9 1.0 Points Deindividuation is associated with _______. A. a focus on
external events rather than on personal feelings B. higher levels of social
responsibility C. feeling isolated D. self-monitoring behaviour Answer Key: A
Question 7 of 9 1.0 Points The role of a facilitator is to ___________. A. help a group
grow and learn B. prevent group dynamics C. evaluate a group’s performance D.
solve group problems Answer Key: A
CEMS
generic skills and attributes into her or his work environment or private business?
A. Persuading B. Conflict resolution C. Draws insightful conclusions D. Initiates
changes E. Impact on the larger culture of the business F. Identifies business
opportunities G. Rational judgements H. Novel ideas I. Considers a wide range of
solutions J. Accepts responsibility for own actions K. Applies information for making
a positive difference L. Self-improvement M. Takes the lead N. Develops plans O.
Monitors own performance P. Identifies necessary resources
Each answer option may be used once, more than once, or not at all. 1
Problem-solving/decision-making skills 2 Enterprising skills 3 Analytical skills 4
Interactive skills 5 Presenting and applying information skills 6 Ethical and
responsible behaviour 7 Continuous learning orientation 8 Goal-directed behaviour
Answer Key: | 1: 1 of DH | 2: 1 of EF | 3: 1 of CG | 4: 1 of AB | 5: 1 of IK | 6: 1 of JM
| 7: 1 of LO | 8: 1 of NP |
Part 2 of 2 - Case Study 4.0 Points Read the case study which is attached and found
under additional resources. Answer the MCQ in this part in context of the case study.
Attachments
The case of Anele.pdf 279 KB
Question 9 of 9 4.0 Points Match the CEMS generic transferable meta-skills and
personal attributes with the behaviour Anele is exhibiting in the case study.
The+case+of+Anele.pdf 279 KB A. The work was physical and hard, but allowed
Anele to learn some technical and business skills, and taught him excellent
interpersonal skills. B. Anele worked at a tyre dealership, where he worked alongside

lOMoARcPSD|9000307
other men of different ages and backgrounds. C. During the June-July holidays, he
worked in the human-resources department of a computer company. He was not paid
for this but he saw it as a good opportunity to practise some human-resources skills
and to get used to an organisational environment. D. While Anele was still a student
within the College of Economic and Management Sciences (CEMS) at Unisa, he got
involved in various student societies and activities relating to his studies and
community issues. select A B C D 1. Interactive skills. select A B C D 2. Continuous
learning orientation. select A B C D 3. Problem-solving and decision-making skills.
select A B C D 4. Enterprising skills. Answer Key: 1:B,

lOMoARcPSD|9000307

Key concepts ‒ lesson 2: What is work and self-employment?
Concept Meaning
Authentic A person who lives purposefully and creates a
entrepreneur meaningful lifestyle
Chronosystem A change in individuals over time and space
Ecological systems Multiple environmental and external influences
model between an individual, a group and the environment
where transformation occurs between input and
output
Employment Activities performed for others in exchange for pay or
profit
Entrepreneur A specialist taking risks and creating industries
Entrepreneurial A regional economic development strategy based on
ecosystem creating supportive structures and environments that
support environments that foster self-employment
Exosystem It includes access to education, finance, housing and
employment; it can exclude some individuals
Formal labour Salaried or waged workers enjoying social protection
Informal labour Workers who are not waged or salaried and do not
have social protection
Macro system Social clubs, professional organisations and institutions
Meso system It includes schools, churches and employers; it can
exclude people of different cultures and languages
Micro system The inner world of the person; it consists of those
people and organisations with whom intimate and
frequent contact exists
Von Bertalanffy It connects a system to its environment
model through “intake, conversion and output”
Work A multi-purpose function of organised production
processes of products and services
1
ILO Flagship Report
World
X
Employment
and Social Outlook
Trends
2022
World
X Employment
and Social Outlook
Trends 2022
International Labour Office • Geneva

Copyright © International Labour Organization 2022
First published 2022
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3
Preface
During the second half of 2021, what had been a modest and uneven
global labour market recovery lost momentum. In consequence,
as the COVID-19 pandemic enters its third calendar year, the global
employment and social outlook remains uncertain and fragile.
Throughout 2021, the pandemic weakened the economic, financial
and social fabric in almost every country, regardless of development
status. At the same time, significant differences emerged, driven
largely by differences in vaccination coverage and economic re-
covery measures. This resulted in developed economies recouping
significant elements of their employment and income losses, while
emerging and developing countries continued to struggle with
the labour market fallout of workplace closures and weak eco-
nomic activity.
Without concerted and effective international and domestic policies,
it is likely that in many countries it will take years to repair this
damage, with long-term consequences for labour force participation,
household income, and social – and possibly political – cohesion.
This year’s World Employment and Social Outlook: Trends provides a
comprehensive assessment of how the labour market recovery has
unfolded across the world, reflecting different national approaches
to tackling the COVID-19 crisis. It analyses global patterns, regional
differences and outcomes across economic sectors and groups
of workers. The report also offers labour market projections for
2022 and 2023.
The current crisis has made it more challenging to accomplish the
United Nations Sustainable Development Goals, especially those re-
lating to long-standing decent work deficits. It is therefore essential
that governments and employers’ and workers’ organizations come
together with renewed determination to address these challenges.
In this difficult context, in June 2021 the ILO’s 187 Member States
adopted a Global Call to Action for a Human-Centred Recovery from the
COVID-19 Crisis that is Inclusive, Sustainable and Resilient. Reflecting
the Global Call, this report includes a summary of key policy rec-
ommendations in support of sustained national and international
efforts to bring about that human-centred recovery.
Guy Ryder
ILO Director-General
Contents 5
Contents
Preface3
Acknowledgements9
Executive summary 11
1. (Re)building a resilient world of work after the COVID-19 pandemic 17

Recovery impaired 17
Employment trends spotlight 22
The pandemic reset 26

Macroeconomic shifts 26
Deepening inequality 27
Flexibility 2.0: Changes in informality and patterns of work 29
What governments are doing 32

The post-pandemic policy context: From emergency assistance to “building back better” 32
References34
2. Employment and social trends by region 39

Overview39
Africa41
Labour market trends in North Africa 42
Labour market trends in sub-Saharan Africa 43
Underemployment and expansion in low-productivity work in Africa: Decent work deficits
and the decoupling of GDP from labour markets 45
Americas48
Labour market trends in North America 48
Post-COVID-19 dynamics in North America: Inflation, wages, and market power 50
Labour market trends in Latin America and the Caribbean 52
Drivers and risks of post-COVID‑19 “deformalization” or “informalization”
in Latin America and the Caribbean 53
Arab States 55
Labour market trends 55
Resource dependence and labour markets: Rentier economies
and limited structural transformation and private sector development 57
6 World Employment and Social Outlook | Trends 2022
X
Asia and the Pacific 60

Tourism and wholesale and retail trade in Asia and the Pacific:
COVID-19 impacts and implications 62
Europe and Central Asia 65

Engaging and re-engaging youth: Labour market activation and challenges 67
References71
3. Temporary workers and COVID-19: Currents below a calm sea 77

Introduction77
The temporary employment context 79

Defining temporary employment 79
Long-term trends and characteristics 81
Temporary employment and the COVID-19 pandemic 84

The net change in temporary workers 84
Labour market churn of temporary workers 86
Prospects during recovery 87
Implications for workers, enterprises and the economy 90

Implications for workers 90
Implications for enterprises 91
Macroeconomic implications 92
Conclusion93
References94
Appendices97
A. Country groupings by region and income level 98
B. ILO modelled estimates 100
C. Tables of labour market indicators, world, by country income group

and by region or subregion 106
Contents 7
List of boxes
1.1 Making sense of estimates of working poverty19
3.1 Hypothetical examples of different types of temporary workers80
List of figures
1.1 Growth in manufacturing employment, 2019–20, by country income group19
1.2 Change in hours worked by size of establishment, 2019–2021
1.3 Index of weekly hours worked, employment and labour force as ratios
of the global population aged 15–64 (2019 = 100)22
1.4 Deficit in full-time equivalent of hours worked, employment and the labour force
with respect to 201924
1.5 Decomposition of change with respect to 2019 in weekly hours worked (adjusted for
population) into changes in the labour force, unemployment and hours worked per
employed person (world)24
1.6 Employment-to-population ratio, 2019–22, by sex, world and country income groups25
1.7 Change in employment by formality and status, relative to the same quarter in 2019,
2020 Q2 to 2021 Q230
1.8 Share of own-account and contributing family work in total employment (world), 2017–2130
2.1 Correlation between working-age population growth and employment growth across
Africa’s subregions, 2010–1945
2.2 Correlation between GDP growth and employment growth across Africa’s subregions, 2010–1945
2.3 Resource dependence and employment elasticities of growth in Africa and its subregions,
2001–09 and 2010–1946
2.4 Sectoral employment elasticities of growth in Africa’s subregions, 2001–09 and 2010–1947
2.5 Annual growth in real average wages, Canada and the United States, 2002–2051
2.6 Real hourly minimum wages in Canada and the United States, 2001–20 (US$)51
2.7 Change in informal employment share in selected Latin American countries, 2010–1953
2.8 Informal share of net job destruction (2020 Q1 to 2020 Q2) and net job creation
(2020 Q2 to 2021 Q2)54
2.9 Oil dependence, labour share of income, and public sector share of employment
in the Arab States57
2.10 Labour income share as a percentage of GDP, world’s regions, 2010–1758
2.11 Female share of employment by institutional sector in the Arab States region,
latest year available59
2.12 Public sector share of employment by sex in the Arab States region, latest year available59
2.13 Change in sectoral employment shares, Asia and the Pacific and its subregions, 2010–1962
2.14 Wholesale and retail trade, and accommodation and food service activities’ shares
of employment (pre-pandemic) and job losses (2019 Q2 to 2020 Q2), selected economies
in Asia and the Pacific63
X
2.15 Employment in the food and accommodation sector in selected Asian

and Pacific countries, index64
2.16 Employment in the wholesale and retail trade sector in selected Asian
and Pacific countries, index64
2.17 Share of unemployed who contacted PES to find work in 2020 Q2–Q468
2.18 Capacity of ALMPs and PES, Europe and Central Asia70
3.1 Temporary employment and different forms of work80

3.2 Temporary employment rate according to latest available data81
3.3 Temporary employees as a proportion of all employees, by country income group82
3.4 Distribution of temporary workers and temporary employment rate, by broad sector
group, averaged over selected economies with available data82
3.5 Distribution of temporary employees by occupation and sex, latest pre-crisis data83
3.6 Temporary workers as share of all employees, 2012–20, selected economies84
3.7 Where temporary workers in 2020 Q1 had gone by 2021 Q186
3.8 What temporary workers in 2021 Q1 were doing in 2020 Q187
3.9 Distribution of temporary employment and temporary employee share of all employees,
by occupational skill levels, in selected economies88
3.10 Distribution of temporary employees and temporary employee share of all employees
across selected industries in selected economies before the crisis89
List of tables
1.1 Weekly hours worked, employment, unemployment and labour force
(world and country income groups), 2019–2323
2.1 Estimates and projections for working hours, employment, unemployment

and labour force, regional and subregional, Africa, 2019–2343
2.2 Estimates and projections of working hours, employment, unemployment
and labour force, regional and subregional, Americas, 2019–2349
and labour force, regional and subregional, Arab States, 2019–2356
and labour force, regional and subregional, Asia and the Pacific, 2019–2361
and labour force, regional and subregional, Europe and Central Asia, 2019–2366
2.6 ALMPs during the crisis, recovery and beyond69
3.1 Transitions of temporary and non-temporary employees (percentage of employees

in 2020 Q1 not employed in subsequent quarters), selected economies85
9
Acknowledgements
The World Employment and Social Outlook: Trends 2022 report was prepared by the Macro-
economic Policies and Jobs Unit of the ILO Research Department, led by Ekkehard Ernst.
Chapter 3 was prepared in collaboration with the Inclusive Labour Markets, Labour Relations
and Working Conditions Branch of the ILO Conditions of Work and Equality Department. The
report was written by Sabina Dewan, Ekkehard Ernst, Souleima El Achkar Hilal, Richard Horne,
Sergei Suarez Dillon Soares and Stefan Kühn, under the overall coordination and leadership
of Stefan Kühn. Ekkehard Ernst supervised the process and provided decisive contributions.
The report was produced under the overall guidance of Richard Samans, Director of the ILO
Research Department. The authors are grateful for all the inputs and suggestions received
from Janine Berg and from the ILO Regional Offices for Africa, the Arab States, Asia and the
Pacific, Europe and Central Asia, and Latin America and the Caribbean.
The ILO modelled estimates presented in this report were produced by the Data Production and
Analysis Unit, led by Steven Kapsos, within the ILO Department of Statistics and by the Macro-
economic Policies and Jobs Unit of the ILO Research Department. The authors especially ac-
knowledge the modelling work carried out by Evangelia Bourmpoula, Roger Gomis, Stefan Kühn,
Avichal Mahajan and Felipe Rodríguez. The underlying database of international labour market
indicators used to produce the estimates was prepared by the Data Production and Analysis
Unit of the ILO Department of Statistics. The authors also wish to acknowledge the efforts of
David Bescond, Vipasana Karkee, Quentin Mathys, Yves Perardel and Mabelin Villarreal-Fuentes.
Excellent comments and suggestions were provided by Martha E. Newton, ILO Deputy Director-
General for Policy, and James Howard, Senior Adviser to the ILO Director-General.
The ILO Research Department wishes to acknowledge the comments and suggestions provided
by the following ILO colleagues: Maria Helena André, Sevane Ananian, Christina Behrendt,
Paul Comyn, Marva Corley-Coulibaly, Rafael Diez de Medina, Sara Elder, Michael Thye Frosch,
Sajid Ghani, Roger Gomis, Tariq Haq, Claire Harasty, Christine Hofmann, Phu Huynh, Aya Jaafar,
Steven Kapsos, Keen Boum Kim, Sangheon Lee, Trang Luu, Nicolas Maitre, Roxana Maurizio,
David Mosler, Shane Niall O’Higgins, Aurelio Parisotto, Gerhard Reinecke, Catherine Saget,
Anna Elina Scheja, Pelin Sekerler Richiardi, Daniel Samaan, Sher Verick, Christian Viegelahn and
Jad Yassin. Furthermore, the authors thank colleagues from ACTEMP, ACTRAV and ENTERPRISE
for their excellent comments and suggestions.
We would also like to express our gratitude to Judy Rafferty and our colleagues in the Publications
Production Unit for assisting with the production process, and to our colleagues in the
ILO Department of Communication and Public Information for their continued collaboration
and support in disseminating the report.
11
Executive
summary
As the pandemic persists, global
labour markets struggle to recover
The COVID-19 pandemic dominated the global economy for a
second year in 2021, preventing a full and balanced recovery
of labour markets. The pace at which economic activity has
recovered has depended largely on the extent to which the
virus has been contained, such that the recovery is following
different patterns across geographies and sectors. However,
every new outbreak brings setbacks. Many gains in decent work
made before the pandemic have been significantly impacted
upon, and pre-existing decent work deficits are dampening the
prospects of a sustainable recovery in many regions.
The global labour market outlook has deteriorated since the
ILO’s last projections; a return to pre-pandemic performance
is likely to remain elusive for much of the world over the
coming years. On the basis of the latest economic growth
forecasts, the ILO is projecting that total hours worked globally
in 2022 will remain almost 2 per cent below their pre-pandemic
level when adjusted for population growth, corresponding to a
deficit of 52 million full-time equivalent jobs (assuming a 48-hour
working week). Global unemployment is projected to stand at
207 million in 2022, surpassing its 2019 level by some 21 million.
This outlook represents a substantial deterioration since the
projections made in the previous edition of World Employment
and Social Outlook: Trends published in June 2021, when the
shortfall in working hours relative to the fourth quarter of 2019
was projected to narrow to less than 1 per cent in 2022.
Recovery patterns vary significantly across regions, coun-
tries and sectors. Since the onset of the recovery, employment
growth trends in low- and middle-income countries have re-
mained significantly below those observed in richer economies,
owing largely to the lower vaccination rates and tighter fiscal
space in developing countries. The impact has been particularly
serious for developing nations that experienced higher levels
of inequality, more divergent working conditions and weaker
social protection systems even before the pandemic.
X
Overall, key labour market indicators in all re- Latin America and the Caribbean and for South-
gions – Africa, the Americas, the Arab States, East Asia. All regions face severe downside risks to
Asia and the Pacific, and Europe and Central their labour market recovery that stem from the
Asia – have yet to return to pre-pandemic levels. ongoing impact of the pandemic. Moreover, the
For all regions, projections to 2023 suggest that a pandemic is structurally altering labour markets
full recovery will remain elusive. The European and in such ways that a return to pre-crisis baselines
Pacific regions are projected to come closest to that may well be insufficient to make up for the damage
goal, whereas the outlook is the most negative for caused by the pandemic.
Pandemic disruptions, structural deficiencies and new risks

reduce the potential for decent work to be created
Underlying structural deficiencies and inequal- Changes in market demand and rising online
ities are amplifying and prolonging the adverse services, skyrocketing trading costs and pandemic-
impact of the crisis. The large informal economy in induced changes in labour supply have all created
many developing countries is impairing the efficacy bottlenecks in manufacturing, impeding the return
of some policy instruments, since informal enter- to pre-pandemic labour market conditions. Intense
prises have been less able to access formal lines of and prolonged supply chain shocks are creating
credit or COVID-19-related government support. uncertainty in the business climate and could lead
Thus relief measures have been less likely to reach to a reconfiguration of the geography of produc-
those in need, and inequities within countries have tion, with significant implications for employment.
worsened. Smaller businesses have experienced
The rise in prices of commodities and essential
greater declines in employment and working hours
goods, while labour markets remain far from
than have larger ones.
recovered, significantly reduces disposable
Developing economies that rely on exports of income and thereby adds to the cost of the
labour-intensive goods or commodities have crisis. Going forward, macro-policymakers face
particularly struggled to adjust to volatile difficult choices, with important international spill-
demand resulting from pandemic-related overs. If and when there are signs of rising inflation
shifts in economic growth. Tourism-dependent expectations, calls for monetary and fiscal policy
economies are suffering heavily from border to be tightened at a faster rate can be expected to
closures and lost revenues. multiply. At the same time, given the asymmetric
nature of the recovery, policy tightening would
Employment losses and reductions in working hit low-income households particularly severely,
hours have led to reduced incomes. In developing meaning that attention will need to be devoted to
countries, in the absence of comprehensive social maintaining adequate levels of social protection.
protection systems that can provide adequate
benefits to stabilize incomes, this has compounded The recovery of labour demand to pre-crisis
the financial stress of already economically vulner- levels can be expected to take time, which will
able households, with cascading effects on health slow growth in employment and working hours.
and nutrition. The pandemic has pushed millions of The sluggish and uneven recovery of working hours
in 2021 kept labour incomes subdued. Since most
children into poverty, and new estimates suggest
workers in the world had insufficient, if any, income
that, in 2020, an additional 30 million adults fell into
replacement, households were required to run
extreme poverty (living on less than US$1.90 per
down their savings. The effect has been particularly
day in purchasing power parity) while being out
pronounced in developing countries, where the
of paid work. In addition, the number of extreme
share of economically vulnerable populations is
working poor – workers who do not earn enough
larger and the size of stimulus packages has been
through their work to keep themselves and their
smaller. The consequent loss in income has further
families above the poverty line – rose by 8 million.
depressed aggregate demand, creating a vicious
The asymmetric recovery of the global economy circle that underscores the need for concerted
has started to cause long-term knock-on policies to expedite labour market recovery, tackle
effects, in terms of persistent uncertainty inequities and return the global economy to a path
and instability, that could derail the recovery. of sustainable growth.
Labour market recovery is unequal and incomplete

In 2022, ILO projections suggest that there will The disparity is most pronounced in upper-
be a working-hour deficit equivalent to 52 mil- middle-income countries, where women’s em-
lion full-time jobs jobs owing to crisis-induced ployment-to-population ratio in 2022 is projected
labour market disruptions. Although this figure to be 1.8 percentage points below its 2019 level,
is a sizeable improvement on 2021, when hours versus a gap of only 1.6 percentage points for
worked adjusted for population growth stood men, despite women having an employment rate
below their level in the fourth quarter of 2019 by the 16 percentage points below that of men to start
equivalent of 125 million full-time jobs (assuming with. The closing of schools, colleges and skills-
a 48-hour working week), it remains extremely training institutions for prolonged periods in many
high. In 2022, the employment-to-population countries has weakened learning outcomes, and
ratio is projected to stand at 55.9 per cent – that this will have cascading long-term implications
is, 1.4 percentage points below its 2019 level. for the employment and further education and
training of young people, especially those who have
Many of those who left the labour force have
had limited or no access to online learning oppor-
not come back, so the level of unemployment
tunities. Moreover, informal wage employment
still underestimates the full employment impact
still trails its pre-crisis level by 8 per cent. Own-
of the crisis. The global labour force participation
account and contributing family work, which are
rate, having fallen by close to 2 percentage points
often characterized by poor working conditions,
between 2019 and 2020, is projected to recover
were on a declining trend before the crisis. The
only partially to just below 59.3 per cent by 2022,
increase in the incidence of such work in 2020 is
around 1 percentage point below its 2019 level. The
estimated to have persisted in 2021.
global unemployment rate is projected to remain
above its 2019 level until at least 2023. The total The pandemic has started to induce economic
number of the unemployed is projected to decline changes that could become structural, with
by 7 million in 2022 to 207 million; in comparison, enduring implications for labour markets. The
the 2019 figure was 186 million. confluence of various macroeconomic trends is
creating uncertainty around whether the drop
Labour market recovery is fastest in high-
in working hours, employment and labour force
income countries. These account for about half
participation is temporary, or whether the pan-
of the global decline in unemployment between
demic is expediting more structural labour market
2020 and 2022 while constituting only around a
exits or labour-saving transformations – each of
fifth of the global labour force. By contrast, since
those requiring different courses of action. The
the onset of the pandemic lower-middle-income
pandemic is deepening various forms of inequality,
countries have fared the worst, and they are also
from exacerbating gender inequity to widening
seeing the slowest recovery.
the digital divide. Changes in the composition of
The recovery is unequal within countries. employment relationships – such as reliance on
The disproportionate impact of the pandemic informal self-employment to earn a living, the rise
on women’s employment is projected to narrow in remote work, and various trends with regard to
at the global level over the coming years, but a temporary work – all risk impairing the quality of
sizeable gap is nevertheless projected to remain. working conditions.
X
Temporary work as a buffer in times of economic uncertainty

Before the onset of the pandemic, temporary to no access to social protection systems and
employment as a share of total employment employment protection.
had been increasing over time, though not uni-
Temporary workers suffered job losses at
formly across sectors and countries. Temporary
a higher rate than non-temporary workers
employment is largely structural and driven by
at the beginning of the pandemic, but most
the sectoral and occupational composition of the
economies have since seen a rise in newly cre-
labour market; however, during crises, it tends to ated temporary jobs. The net effect of these two
serve as a shock absorber as employers scale back trends is that the incidence of temporary work has
on the use of temporary workers. Looked at in the tended to remain stable through the pandemic.
longer term, temporary employment can nega- The trends, based on limited available data, are
tively impact on the long-term productivity of firms not dissimilar from pre-crisis trends, highlighting
through its effects on job retention, training and the endemic churn of temporary workers before
innovation. Workers are also adversely affected by the crisis. Notably, however, over a quarter of those
temporary work, given the greater job and income in temporary work in the early part of 2021 (in
insecurity and lower access to social protection. countries with available data) were previously
Temporary employment rates are higher in in non-temporary jobs, which highlights the
low- and middle-income countries (just over underlying economic uncertainty and associated
one third of total employment) than in high- employment insecurity at that time.
income countries (15 per cent). But the nature of In the early stages of the pandemic, in countries
temporary employment varies between developed characterized by dual labour markets, informal
and developing countries. In the former, although it employment did not play its traditional counter-
may be an entry point into a more permanent pos- cyclical role of absorbing displaced workers
ition, or a flexible and strategic means of entering from the formal sector. In many such countries
and engaging in the labour market, temporary informal workers were more likely than formal
workers lack job security and regular incomes and workers to lose their jobs or be forced into inactivity
do not always fulfil the eligibility requirements by lockdowns and other measures. As economic
for access to social protection or employment activity gradually resumed, informal employment,
protection. For workers in the developing world, especially self-employment, has had a strong re-
on the other hand, temporary work often comes bound and many informal workers have returned
in the form of informal employment with little from inactivity.
Prevention of long-lasting damage requires

a comprehensive human-centred policy agenda
At the International Labour Conference in June development and active labour market policies
2021, the ILO’s 187 Member States discussed (including ones to bridge the digital divide), as
global, regional and national policy responses well as sustained investment in universal social
to the crisis. At the close of their discussions, they protection. Proactive macroeconomic policy has
adopted the Global Call to Action for a Human- become even more critical as the pandemic’s inter-
Centred Recovery from the COVID-19 Crisis that is action with technology and other “megatrends”
Inclusive, Sustainable and Resilient, emphasizing threatens to accelerate widening inequalities across
the need for a fully inclusive recovery based on and within economies.
accelerated implementation of the ILO Centenary
Extending and ensuring the protection of all
Declaration for the Future of Work. This implies
workers entails guaranteeing fundamental
rebuilding the economy in ways that address
rights at work, ensuring health and safety
systemic and structural inequalities and other
long-term social and economic challenges, such at the workplace and implementing a trans-
as climate change, that pre-date the pandemic. formative agenda for gender equality. The
The prerequisite for achieving such resilience is pandemic has revealed the vulnerability of many
multilateral action and global solidarity – including groups of workers – including essential, informal,
with respect to vaccine access, debt restructuring, self-employed, temporary, migrant, platform and
and facilitating a green transition. Failure to tackle low-skilled workers – who are often highly exposed
these important policy challenges will result in yet to the health and labour market impacts of the
another missed opportunity to set the world on a crisis, and many of whom fall through gaps in social
more equitable and sustainable trajectory. protection coverage across the world.
Achieving a human-centred recovery will Closing social protection gaps and providing
require the successful implementation of universal access to comprehensive, adequate
four pillars: inclusive economic growth and and sustainable social protection must remain a
employment; protection of all workers; universal key priority. Identifying equitable and sustainable
social protection; and social dialogue. Each has a financing for such systems in times of limited fiscal
key part to play. space requires multilateral action to complement
domestic resource mobilization.
Throughout the recovery period, macro-
economic policies will need to go beyond a Social dialogue has played a key role in the
countercyclical role, merely seeking a return response to the pandemic, many policies and
to pre-crisis outcomes, since this would not measures to limit job losses having resulted
address decent work deficits or leave countries from tripartite discussions. In the recovery
any less vulnerable to future crises. Fiscal pol- period, social dialogue will remain crucial to finding
icies must not only aim to protect jobs, incomes solutions that are mutually beneficial to firms
and employment, but also address structural and workers and have positive macroeconomic
challenges and root causes of decent work deficits repercussions and spillover effects. For social
across the world. Depending on country constraints dialogue to play this role, the capacities of public
and priorities, this will involve a mix of fiscal policies administrations and employers’ and workers’
targeting the widespread creation of productive organizations to participate in such a process will
employment, supported by industrial policies, skills need to be strengthened.
1
(Re)building
a resilient world
of work after
the COVID-19
pandemic
X Recovery impaired
In 2021, up to 90 per cent of the world’s workers continued to reside

in countries that had some form of workplace closures. A world of
work already in transition, as a result of demographic shifts,
technological disruptions and climate change, descended
further into disarray as the pandemic continued. Few had
anticipated that the pandemic would last this long or cut so deep.
As resurgent waves of the pandemic plagued countries for a second
year, not only did health systems struggle with the scourge, but
governments were forced to continue to rely on lockdowns, physical
distancing and mask mandates and to rest their hopes on vaccina-
tions to stop the contagion. Challenges in relation to the production,
distribution and public acceptance of vaccinations, nonetheless,
continue to slow down inoculation efforts. This is prolonging the
need for restrictions that continue to disrupt economic activity.
As concerns mount with regard to possible further waves of the
pandemic, governments struggle to balance health and safety with
economic and labour market considerations.
X
Countries have resumed economic activity uncertainty, continuing instability, and production
at different rates and times, creating uneven bottlenecks that are fuelling price hikes. A global
patterns of recovery. In the second year of the scenario of fast-rising prices despite weak eco-
pandemic, governments operated under high nomic growth is not an impossible consequence
uncertainty about when and whether another of this crisis (Ernst 2020).
wave would strike and what variant strains of the
The pandemic’s impact has been particularly
virus might emerge. They instituted pandemic-
devastating for developing nations that have
related containment measures in fits and starts,
higher levels of inequality, more heterogeneous
to varying degrees, and in different patterns
working conditions, weaker social protection
across g eographies and sectors. In a closely
systems and constricted fiscal space. There has
interconnected global economy, closures in one
been growing divergence within countries too,
country spill over to activity in other countries. In
exemplified by a strong recovery in some sectors
the absence of additional shocks, economic re-
and a weak recovery in others. These countries’
covery in aggregate is expected to continue so that
prospects of recovery are far worse than those of
global gross domestic product (GDP) will grow by
rich countries. The policy reaction to the pandemic
4.2 per cent in 2022 (IMF 2021). But this aggregate
in advanced economies, particularly in deploying a
growth masks variations across geographies and
range of fiscal support measures, was strong and
sectors, which will cause the labour market to
swift. In contrast, although developing countries
recover in an uneven manner.
have used a similarly large range of measures to
The risks to labour market recovery are strongly address the crisis, they have instituted smaller relief
tilted to the downside. The unpredictability of the packages owing to fiscal restrictions after they had
future development of the pandemic itself, and of incurred unforeseen expenses in responding to the
the responses that will be chosen by governments pandemic. Moreover, the large informal economy
and societies, makes all the projections presented in many developing countries reduces the efficacy
in this report highly uncertain. The crisis may turn of some policy instruments, many of which target
out to have permanently damaged the fabric of the only formal employees and enterprises.
economy and the labour market to a greater extent
Developing economies that rely on exports of
than currently expected, making any process of
labour-intensive goods or commodities as well
recovery more difficult. Furthermore, macroeco-
as tourism-dependent economies have strug-
nomic risk factors increase the risk of a prolonged
gled to adjust to volatile and shifting demand.
jobs crisis. For instance, if inflation becomes more
Tourism-dependent economies have suffered
endemic, there may be greater risk that premature
heavily from border closures and lost revenue.
austerity measures will be implemented.
Employment losses and reductions in working
The uneven recovery is widening the gaps hours have shrunk incomes. In the absence of
between more and less developed countries. adequate safety nets or large enough cash trans-
Uneven vaccination rates, for instance, were a fers in many developing countries, the income
major differentiating factor between countries that losses have compounded the financial stress for
were able to resume some semblance of normal already economically vulnerable households and
economic activity over the course of 2021 (nearly brought cascading effects for health and nutrition.
all developed nations) and those that were not Estimates suggest that the pandemic has pushed
(IMF 2021). Employment trends in middle-income as many as 77 million children and adults into
countries have remained significantly below those extreme poverty (Mahler et al. 2021).1 Under the
of richer economies; when restrictions were lifted, assumption that children continued to constitute
the latter experienced faster labour market re- 50 per cent of the extreme poor in 2020, as they did
covery than did the former. The asymmetric re- before the crisis (World Bank 2020), the number
covery of the global economy is already causing of adults living in extreme poverty had risen by
long-term knock-on effects in terms of persistent 38.5 million since 2019.
1 The World Bank estimates that the number of people living in extreme poverty (on less than US$1.90 PPP (purchasing power parity)
per day) went up by 77 million between 2019 and 2020. The impact of the COVID-19 crisis goes beyond that, though, because the
number of people living in extreme poverty worldwide would be expected to have decreased by 20 million in the absence of the crisis.
X Box 1.1 Making sense of estimates of working poverty
The massive loss of working hours and incomes during the COVID-19 crisis has pushed many
workers into poverty and thus may be expected to have increased the number of the working
poor. The crisis has also caused many people to lose their employment, which is likely to have
dampened the increase in working poverty numbers if such job losses have affected those who
were already among the working poor before the crisis.
The previous edition of this report (ILO 2021a) estimated the first effect above to be much more
important than the second, hence a large increase in working poverty in the year 2020. However,
new evidence shows that employment losses have been particularly great among low-income
households (APU 2021) and low-wage workers (ILO 2021b), with the consequence that the increase
in the number of the working poor is significantly lower than previously estimated. This is not good
news, because it means that most of the additional 38.5 million adults living in extreme poverty
(on less than US$1.90 PPP per day) in 2020 had no income from work at all, as opposed to having
some – even if reduced. The World Bank’s downward revision of global extreme poverty by around
20 million people constitutes another source of the revision of working poverty with respect to
the previous edition of this report.
Poverty has increased significantly among hours or payment, or other worsened conditions
working people. The share of workers living in (ILO 2021c). Some of the worst impacts were felt in
extreme poverty went up from 6.7 per cent in 2019 garment supply chains, which employ large shares
to 7.2 per cent in 2020, which equates to an increase of women workers (ILO 2021c).
of 8 million in the number of working poor. Yet, the
The impact has been particularly pronounced in
poverty increase has been much more pronounced
lower-middle-income countries that have long
among those who were not working in 2020 – a
leveraged participation in production chains
result of the large losses in global employment
as a source of employment and growth. Lower-
being concentrated among low-income households
middle-income countries saw the largest decline,
(see box 1.1). New estimates suggest that, in 2020,
11.8 per cent, in manufacturing employment, com-
an additional 30 million adults fell into extreme
pared with 7.4 per cent in upper-middle-income,
out-of-work poverty, comprising those who lost
3.4 per cent in low-income and 3.9 per cent in
their job during the course of the crisis and those
high-income countries (figure 1.1).
who did not have one to begin with. Low- and
lower-middle-income countries are estimated to
have experienced the largest rise in working poverty
rates between 2019 and 2020, with increases of X Figure 1.1 Growth in manufacturing
1 and 0.9 percentage points, respectively, which employment, 2019–20, by country
represent a significant reversal of previous trends. income group (percentages)
Prolonged lockdowns and travel bans, un-
Low-income
thinkable before the pandemic, have disrupted –3.4
countries
supply chains, leading to negative conse
Lower-middle-
quences for direct and indirect employment income countries
–11.8
linked to production networks. Estimates Upper-middle-
suggest that 97 million jobs connected to supply –7.4
income countries
chains were highly adversely affected in April High-income
–3.9
2021 by the drop in global consumer demand for countries
manufactured products. Overall, nearly one in
three jobs in manufacturing supply chains glo- Source: ILOSTAT, ILO modelled estimates,
bally are likely, as a result of the pandemic, to have November 2020.
undergone termination, a reduction in working
X
In addition to the jobs that are directly tied to pre-pandemic levels (Romei 2020). These trends
production in complex supplier networks, the affect not only the workers who are directly
“servicification of manufacturing” – or growing employed in these sectors, but also those in con-
reliance of manufacturing on services as inputs, as nected sectors.
activities within firms or as outputs accompanying
The pandemic has restructured labour mar-
goods (Nordwall 2016; Miroudot 2017; Miroudot
kets as some sectors and their workers have
and Cadestin 2017) – has also widened the cohort
experienced retrenchment while others have
of people whose livelihoods will be affected by
seen expansion. During 2021, patterns of recovery
disruptions in production chains.
varied across sectors. Some sectors such as hos-
Labour supply disruptions have been wide- pitality, tourism and physical retail continued to
spread. With over 237 million confirmed COVID-19 flag, whereas others such as information and com-
cases worldwide as of October 2021 (WHO munication, logistics and e-commerce underwent
2021) – a number that will continue to rise – illness expansion. The uneven sectoral impact has fostered
has kept many from work. Others have stayed inequality. To the extent that employment in these
at home because physical workplaces have been sectors is tied to specific worker profiles – for ex-
closed owing to mandatory restrictions, for fear ample, high skilled or low skilled, predominantly
of contracting the virus or to take care of sick rela male or predominantly female – changes in the
tives. These factors have induced staff shortages fortunes of the sectors have also exacerbated
in location-tethered work (Manpower Group 2021). inequalities between workers. The longer the pan-
Widespread school closures have caused a rise in demic and associated restrictions persist, the more
unpaid care work at home, the burden of which has entrenched and lasting the effects on labour mar-
disproportionately and largely fallen on women. kets and employment trajectories are likely to be.
Geographically targeted or sector-specific restric- Smaller businesses have seen greater declines
tions have meant that some areas and sectors in employment and working hours than have
have experienced labour shortages (Renna and larger ones. Many businesses, big and small,
Coate 2021) while others have seen a surplus of suffered with the onset of the pandemic, but
labour (Frohm 2021), making it difficult for labour smaller businesses with fewer financial reserves
markets to recover swiftly even in countries with were less equipped to deal with the shocks. Before
large fiscal stimulus packages. the pandemic, micro, small and medium-sized en-
The contraction in labour demand owing to terprises (MSMEs) constituted over 90 per cent of
factors other than direct workplace closures enterprises in most countries (OECD 2021a) and
became more pronounced in the second year of were estimated to account for 60 to 70 per cent
the pandemic. Supply chain disruptions, shifts in of global employment (ITC 2015, 2021). Many col-
market demand, and pandemic-induced changes in lapsed during 2021 as economic activity waxed and
labour supply all created bottlenecks in manufac- waned in response to resurgent virus waves and
turing. The stark geographical differences in these containment measures. This differential impact on
supply disruptions prevented a balanced return to smaller companies led to an apparent increase in
pre-pandemic levels of labour demand (Goodman labour productivity, since larger companies tend
to have higher levels of output per hour worked
and Chokshi 2021; UNCTAD 2021). In turn, services
than smaller ones. As low-productivity, smaller
linked to manufacturing value chains – transport
enterprises were pushed out of business by the
and insurance for instance – were also adversely
pandemic, average output per worker increased
affected. Travel restrictions and the rise of remote
(ILO 2021b).2
working have changed business travel, causing a
further decline in demand for services (Bharathi Studies corroborate the obser vation that
and Dinesh 2021; UNCTAD 2021). At the same time, smaller firms have experienced not only larger
some countries have seen a rise in online retail, employment losses but also deeper declines in
gig work and other forms of self-employment in hours worked than have larger firms (ILO 2021b).
services. Service output has yet to rebound to The smaller the firm, the higher the percentage
2 A meaningful analysis of the impact of the COVID-19 crisis on productivity would need to study productivity at the firm level, or
at least at a detailed sectoral level. Such studies are not feasible with the data currently available.
the quit rate, that is, the number of quits during

X Figure 1.2 Change in hours worked the entire month expressed as a share of total
by size of establishment, 2019–20 employment (BLS 2021). Although these trends
(percentages) suggest a surge in business creation rates, they
may really reflect a further informalization of work
No. of employees
in both developed and developing countries.
1–4 5–49 50+
0 The vast majority of informal enterprises are
small or micro; informal enterprises have fared
worse in the pandemic than formal ones, partly
because they have been unable to access formal
–5 lines of credit or COVID-19-related government
support. The quality of the new emerging enter-
–8.7 prises matters for their prospects of growth and
their ability to bring about decent work. In general,
–10
it will take a while before enterprises that went out
–11.5
–12.1 of business are replaced, if they ever are. Much
depends on whether start-ups and micro and
Source:ILO (2021b). small businesses receive the support they need.
In the meantime, this trend will continue to depress
labour demand.
The result of labour supply and demand dis-
decline in working hours (figure 1.2). Moreover,
ruptions was that in 2021 labour markets
many small businesses that have managed to sur-
continued to struggle, gaining modest ground
vive are weighed down with debt that will affect
but not returning to pre-pandemic levels. The
future investment and productivity growth and
number of employed individuals living in extreme
may result in consolidation.
or moderate poverty rose in 2020. This adverse
There has been an uptick in business creation trend chipped away at the hard-won development
in some developed and developing countries gains of the pre-pandemic years, setting back the
(O’Donnell, Newman and Fikri 2021). Among the progress made towards achievement of many of
factors contributing to this is the fall in regular the Sustainable Development Goals. For instance,
waged work as some of those who have lost jobs, between 1999 and 2019 the number of people in
or had trouble finding work, decide to start their extreme poverty fell by more than 1 billion, but
own businesses. In what is being dubbed the now, for the first time in 20 years, global poverty
“Great Resignation” in developed countries, initial has risen significantly: the COVID-19 pandemic
evidence also suggests that some people may be pushed almost 80 million people back into poverty
quitting their jobs to try their hand at other ven- in 2020 (Mahler et al. 2021). Labour market disrup-
tures (Thompson 2021; BLS 2021). The United States tions and the loss of livelihoods have contributed
of America saw an increase between August 2020 to bringing about this worrying break in the trend
and August 2021 in both the number of quits and of poverty reduction.
X
X Employment trends spotlight
Labour market recovery will remain weak

through 2023. Employment losses and a drop X Figure 1.3 Index of weekly hours
in labour income characterized 2021 as they had worked, employment and labour force
the year before. Low- and lower-middle-income as ratios of the global population
aged 15–64 (2019 = 100)
countries have fared the worst (table 1.1). Moreover,
people who already faced a disadvantage in the
labour market – such as women, youth, the elderly,
and migrant workers – have experienced higher 104
employment losses than have other groups. 102
The varied impact of the crisis on labour mar- 100

kets is best understood by examining working
98
hours. Data on losses in working hours put the
spotlight on those who either became unemployed 96
or left the labour force, and also on those who
94
have continued to work, whether as employees or
self-employed, but whose hours of work have gone 92
down as a result of the pandemic. The reduction 2005 2010 2015 2020
in working hours may have been remunerated by
Hours worked per population
government or firm-based employment retention
Employment-to-population ratio
schemes, or it may not.
Labour force participation ratio
Adjusted for population growth, employment,
hours worked and labour force participation Note:Owing to the limited data available,
remained below pre-pandemic levels in 2021 weekly hours worked, employment and labour
and are expected to remain so until at least force encompass people aged 15–64 and 65+,
but the ratios are presented with respect to the
2023. In 2022, the ratio of hours worked to the population aged 15–64.
population aged 15–64 is projected to remain
Source:ILOSTAT, ILO modelled estimates,
1.8 per cent below its 2019 level;3 the corresponding November 2021.
projected ratios are 1.7 per cent below the 2019
level for employment and 1.1 per cent below the
2019 level for the labour force (figure 1.3).
Assuming a 48-hour work week, the decline
in hours worked was equivalent to a deficit
employment-to-population ratio (EPR), remain
of about 125 million full-time jobs globally in
below their pre-crisis levels. For this reason, total
2021 relative to the fourth quarter of 2019.
global hours worked, employment and the labour
The employment deficit in 2021 was 92 million,
force are projected to surpass their 2019 levels in
and the decline in the labour force participation
2022 (table 1.1).
rate (LFPR) relative to 2019 levels corresponds to a
labour force deficit of 67 million people (figure 1.4). Hours worked per person employed are pro-
Although the deficits are becoming smaller, they jected to recover to around pre-crisis levels if
are projected to continue to be significant through economic activity picks up but employment and
2023. Continuous population growth raises the labour force growth lag behind. The large fall in
headcount for key labour market indicators even hours per worker driven by temporary workplace
though the corresponding ratios, such as the closures constituted roughly half of the total fall
3 Normalizing by population aged 15–64 allows the best comparison of labour market indicators over time, since this is the popu-
lation most likely to be economically active. The labour force as a proportion of the total population tends to decline over time
when the population is ageing, because of the rising proportion of retirees.
X Table 1.1 Weekly hours worked, employment, unemployment and labour force
(world and country income groups), 2019–23
Country group Ratio of total weekly hours worked Total weekly working hours in full-time
to population aged 15–64 equivalent jobs (FTE = 48 hours/week)
(percentages) (millions)
2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023
World 27.5 25.1 26.3 27.0 27.2 2 883 2 653 2 810 2 908 2 958
Low-income countries 23.5 21.9 22.3 22.9 23.2 174 167 175 186 195
Lower-middle-income countries 25.5 22.7 23.8 24.8 25.1 1 125 1 015 1 081 1 142 1 175
Upper-middle-income countries 30.5 28.3 30.0 30.3 30.3 1 127 1 048 1 113 1 125 1 128
High-income countries 27.8 25.7 26.8 27.7 28.0 457 423 441 455 460
Employment-to-population ratio Employment
2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023
World 57.3 54.8 55.4 55.8 56.0 3 287 3 183 3 257 3 325 3 375
Unemployment rate Unemployment
2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023
World 5.4 6.6 6.2 5.9 5.7 186 224 214 207 203
Lower-middle-income countries 5.1 6.6 5.9 5.6 5.4 64 81 74 72 72
Upper-middle-income countries 6.0 6.7 6.7 6.6 6.3 80 88 90 88 85
Labour force participation rate Labour force
2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023
World 60.5 58.6 59.0 59.3 59.4 3 473 3 407 3 471 3 532 3 578
Note:The employment-to-population ratio and the labour force participation rate are with respect to the population aged 15 and older.
Source:ILOSTAT, ILO modelled estimates, November 2021.
X
X Figure 1.4 Deficit in full-time equivalent of hours worked, employment

and the labour force with respect to 2019 (millions)
258
200
135
125
100 92
100
67
52 56
40 37
27 27
0
2020 2021 2022 2023
Working-hour deficit, FTE (48 hours) Employment deficit Labour force deficit
Note:The deficit represents the additional FTE of hours worked (at 48 hours per week), employment or labour
force that would exist if the respective ratios to the population aged 15–64 were at the levels of the fourth quarter
of 2019 (hours worked) or of the year 2019 (employment and the labour force).
Source:Authors’ calculations based on ILOSTAT, ILO modelled estimates, November 2021.
in working hours in 2020, the other half coming

from employment losses. The employment deficit, X Figure 1.5 Decomposition of change
in turn, was driven to a large extent by exits from with respect to 2019 in weekly hours
the labour force, as opposed to an increase in worked (adjusted for population)
into changes in the labour force,
unemployment (figure 1.5). The exodus from the
unemployment and hours worked per
labour force is projected to become the main con-
employed person (world) (percentages)
tributor to the lasting impact of the crisis, whereas
weekly hours worked per worker are projected to
0
recover to a large degree by 2023.
The global LFPR, having fallen by almost 2 per- –2
centage points between 2019 and 2020, is pro-
jected to recover only partially, to 59.4 per cent –4
by 2023, more than 1 percentage point below
its 2019 level of 60.5 per cent. With employment –6
recovery projected to be even slower than labour

–8
force recovery, the global unemployment rate is
projected to remain above its 2019 level until at 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023
least 2023 (table 1.1). The total number of the un-
employed is projected to decline in both 2022 and Exit from labour force
2023. Despite this progress, global unemployment Unemployment

is projected to remain stubbornly higher than its Reduced or zero working hours
2019 level of 186 million, at 203 million in 2023.
Furthermore, unemployment recovery is expected
Note:The sum of the contribution of the change
to be concentrated in high-income countries, which in the labour force and unemployment equals the
will account for half of the global decline in un- contribution of the change in employment.
employment between 2021 and 2023 but contain Source:Authors’ calculations based on ILOSTAT,
only 18 per cent of the global labour force. Since ILO modelled estimates, November 2021.
only people participating in the labour force can
X Figure 1.6 Employment-to-population ratio, 2019–22, by sex, world

and country income groups (percentages)
World
2019 2020 2021 2022
Male 69.4 66.6 67.3 67.9
Female 45.2 43.0 43.4 43.8
Low-income countries
2019 2020 2021 2022
Male 72.6 70.5 70.7 70.8
Female 55.7 53.2 53.3 53.8
Lower-middle-income countries
2019 2020 2021 2022
Male 70.5 66.6 67.8 68.7
Female 33.2 31.1 31.6 32.2
Upper-middle-income countries
2019 2020 2021 2022
Male 69.6 67.4 68.0 68.1
Female 53.6 51.3 51.5 51.8
High-income countries
2019 2020 2021 2022
Male 65.3 63.2 63.8 64.3
Female 51.0 49.4 50.2 50.5
become unemployed, the uncertainty around the point gap in the EPR in 2020, relative to 2019, is
projections of unemployment is compounded by somewhat comparable between women and
the unclear recovery of the labour force. men, women had a much lower employment
rate to begin with. Consequently, the relative
Since the very beginning of the pandemic,
drop in women’s EPR has been larger than that
lower-middle-income countries have fared the
of men, and it is projected to remain so in the
worst. They have seen the largest drop in the ratio
coming years (figure 1.6). However, women in
of total weekly hours worked to the population
high-income countries experienced roughly the
aged 15–64, in the employment rate and in the
same relative employment losses as men in 2020
LFPR. They are also seeing the slowest recovery.
and regained employment faster than men in
Poverty estimates suggest that eight out of ten
2021. Young people (aged 15–24) have fared much
new poor in 2020 were in middle-income countries
worse than those older than 25 during this crisis
(World Bank 2020).
(ILO 2021b, 2021d). The forthcoming ILO report
The pandemic has had a disproportionately Global Employment Trends for Youth 2022 will cover
negative impact on women’s employment and in detail the labour market situation and prospects
on youth employment.4 Although the percentage of young people.
4 ILO (2021g) presents the heterogeneous impact of the crisis across multiple dimensions of demographics and also its impact
across labour market characteristics.
X
The sluggish and uneven recovery in working have continued to impede spending. Rises in
hours in 2021 prevented a broad-based recovery food and energy prices, made worse by climate
of lost labour income. Since most workers in the change, are exerting further downward pressure
world have had inadequate, if any, income replace- on household budgets, consumption and produc-
ment (ILO 2021e), demand will remain depressed tion and therefore on the demand for workers
as families run down their savings. The effect (World Bank 2021).
has been particularly pronounced in developing
Large fiscal stimulus packages in advanced
countries where the proportion of economically
economies will help boost labour demand
vulnerable populations is larger and the size of
as governments seek not only to stimulate
stimulus packages was smaller.
spending in the short term, but to “build back
The uneven economic impact of the pandemic better” and cultivate resilience in the long run.
across sectors, along with pent-up demand The pandemic has cast a harsh spotlight on the lack
and supply chain bottlenecks, has fuelled in- of institutional preparedness in countries – both de-
flation and price hikes in certain sectors. The veloped and developing – to deal with a crisis such
consensus is that these price fluctuations are as COVID-19. This should prompt structural change
largely expected to stabilize, though they foster to make businesses and workers more resilient.
uncertainty that is not conducive to a rekindling of But heightened awareness that such crises can
spending (BLS 2021). Although some countries and happen and that they can be devastating will not
sectors have witnessed catch-up consumption, by itself fill the gaps in institutional preparedness
the sporadic nature of reopening and uncertainty to face future crises of this magnitude.
X The pandemic reset
The damaging impact of the pandemic on jobs

and livelihoods, if not quickly reversed, will
Macroeconomic shifts
run the risk of inducing long-term structural For the moment, most analysts agree that in-
change with enduring adverse implications for flation rate fluctuations are a result of uneven
labour markets. Uneven impacts of containment patterns of opening up, pent-up demand, and
measures and the decent work deficits that they supply chain bottlenecks. As economies settle,
have contributed to are threatening the prospects these drastic price swings are likely to stabilize
for sustainable and inclusive economic growth. (BLS 2021; World Bank 2021). However, should
Temporary shifts in inflation rates and prices, or there be a resurgence in the pandemic, or other
changes in the cost of capital relative to the price crises related to climate change for instance, the
of labour, pose more risk of generating structural inflationary impact could become more structural
problems the longer they persist. Moreover, the in nature. The COVID-19 pandemic has highlighted
pandemic is exacerbating inequality. It has had the extent to which crises can generate volatility
a disproportionately adverse impact on women, that extends beyond capital markets to affect
youth, migrants and the elderly. By accelerating labour markets with devastating consequences,
technological change, the pandemic has revealed especially for the most vulnerable. Thus far, the
a deepening digital divide. Intense and prolonged massive amount of investment required to revive
supply chain shocks are creating uncertainty in depressed economies, together with a continuing
the business climate and raise the spectre of a shortage of workers in certain essential services,
reconfiguration of the geography of produc- seems to have restored the bargaining power of
tion in ways that will have serious implications low-income households in some countries. In the
for employment. United States, for example, wages for low-income
workers have increased at their fastest rate since
before the 2008 financial crisis (Federal Reserve
of Atlanta 2021). However, if inflation should
become more endemic, there would be some working conditions. The effects of this pattern are
risk that premature austerity measures would be even more deleterious in developing countries,
implemented and hence the risk of a prolonged many of which already struggle to provide enough
jobs crisis. jobs for their large and growing populations. The
importation of technology before labour markets
In some developed countries, the monetary
are ready to adjust to the ensuing changes can
response to the pandemic has fuelled asset
often lead to job losses and other kinds of labour
prices, favouring capital owners and rent-
dislocation (Carbonero, Ernst and Weber 2020).
seeking over productive investment and
employment creation. It is a well-acknowledged Going forward, macro-policymakers face some
fact that labour’s share of national income has difficult choices. On the one hand, runaway in-
been dropping and that of capital increasing for flation may require policy to be tightened more
the better part of three decades (IMF 2017; ILO quickly than it has been so far. At the same time,
2020a; Dao et al. 2017; Guerriero 2019). The lack of the recovery is asymmetric, and tightening would
a strong m
acro-prudential framework and faltering hit low-income households disproportionately. In
support for the real economy with stronger public addition, monetary policymakers are constrained
investment have meant that in many advanced by the high level of (public) debt: raising interest
economies unconventional monetary policy has rates prematurely or too fast is likely to force
proved to be a boon for shareholders and house fiscal policymakers to scale down their support
owners, pushing global stock markets to unseen measures, thereby magnifying any tightening
heights, worsening wealth inequality and contrib- of monetary policy. What is most likely is that
uting to further market concentration (Colciago, major central banks will scale down their asset
Samarina and de Haan 2019; Dossche, Slačálek purchases without raising rates at the expense
and Wolswijk 2021). Not only does this endanger of continuing stimulus of the private (banking)
socio-political stability, but it also risks destabilizing sector. Fiscal policymakers are likely to become
economic growth by constricting wage-based more parsimonious with their support as well,
household consumption (Onaran and Galanis 2013; targeting it more selectively. Rate rises are never-
Ernst and Saliba 2018). theless already happening, with consequences for
exchange rates and capital flows, putting further
Longer-term demographic trends tend to
pressure on the recovery, especially in low- and
reduce labour supply. Alongside other developed
lower-middle-income countries, where the stag-
countries, some East Asian countries have experi-
flation pattern is felt more strongly.
enced rapid ageing of their populations, which
will reduce the labour supply for many years to
come. In some sectors – such as those relating to Deepening inequality
technology – rapid expansion since the onset of
the pandemic has generated the need for more
workers. As these developments unfold, a rapid
Accelerated technological change
rise in demand for labour could lead to higher is exacerbating the digital divide
wages in those sectors; such increases in wages
Even before the pandemic, technological ad-
could become more widespread if international
vances were shaping media, retail, health, social
migration resumes.
interactions, financial transactions and politics.
On the other hand, the pandemic has revealed They were prompting labour substitution and cre-
signs of accelerating technology adoption ating new jobs, but also breaking up existing work
(Dewan and Ernst 2020), which can be labour into smaller gigs and fundamentally restructuring
saving. At the same time, many sectors across the labour markets (Dewan 2018; ILO 2020b). In certain
globe, such as construction, retail and hospitality, sectors technology adoption saves labour – for
have shed jobs, at least temporarily. This is driving instance when robots are deployed in manufac-
a flow of workers into other sectors. The sectors turing or when technology raises productivity so
that are seeing a growing need for workers are that fewer workers are required. In other sectors,
ones that tend to demand higher skills, such as such as the gig economy, rising numbers of people
in tech-related industries. These trends are con- are relying on platforms to generate income. In the
tributing to a further polarization of wages and midst of such changes, people who lack access to
X
technology, or the skills needed to engage with of power in technology companies. The soaring
it, or who are victim to biases embedded in cer- profits of these corporations are but one indicator.
tain algorithms are already facing a significant The loosening of the shared understanding of
disadvantage (ILO 2021f). The pandemic is now what it means to be a “worker” or “employer” is
accelerating these changes and deepening the another. The untethering of social protection from
digital divide within and between countries. employment (Dewan and Mukhopadhyay 2018),
and the challenges of organizing workers who are
Those who have access to the technology and
self-employed and do not share the same work
are able to work from home have fared better
location (such as a factory floor) stand to further
in the COVID-19 crisis than those in location-
exacerbate such asymmetry.
tethered professions. The former also tend to
be in higher-skilled professions and/or in larger,
formal enterprises – a trend that widens the gap The pandemic is fostering
along these vectors.
gender inequities
As education and training institutions closed
When it comes to the global labour market im-
and shifted to online learning, only those
pacts of the pandemic, women, especially young
with access to the technology and the skills
women, have been among the worst affected,
to use it – whether teachers, trainers or stu-
and their recovery has also been among the
dents – were able to engage effectively. For
slowest. Even in non-crisis times, decent work
some students unable to effectively access online
deficits are more pronounced among women.
learning, what they have lost will have important
They tend to receive lower remuneration for the
implications for their ability to make the transition
same work and frequently endure poorer working
from education to work. Economically vulnerable
conditions than their male counterparts (WEF 2019;
populations in developing countries, where the
ILO 2021a). They are also more susceptible to lay-
digital divide is more acute, have been particu-
offs and face more barriers to re-entering the
larly affected.
labour market than men do. Analysis by UN Women
The pandemic has provided the impetus while and the UN Development Programme (UNDP)
technology has provided the means for con- suggested that by 2021 approximately 435 mil-
sumption to become more distributed, impulsive lion women and girls around the world would
and customized. The confluence of these trends be living on less than US$1.90 per day – and that
has opened the way for e-commerce and growing 47 million would fall back into poverty as a result
platformization. They are enabling economic ac- of pandemic-related shocks (UN Women 2020).
tivity to continue, even through lockdowns, and
Women constitute a large share of the work-
at the same time are restructuring work. In retail,
force in some of the sectors worst affected by
for example, the role of labour has morphed from
the COVID-19 crisis. For instance, women consti-
engaging with consumers throughout the entire
tute over 70 per cent of the workers in health and
process to being merely the deliverer of goods.
care institutions worldwide (ILO 2020c). A large
Now acutely aware of the potential supply chain share of women in developing economies rely on
shocks that global crises can induce, more firms employment directly or indirectly linked to supply
may choose to automate production to hedge chains. Supply chain disruptions have had a sig-
against future disruptions. This also presents the nificant negative impact on women’s employment.
possibility of nearshoring or reshoring production, Moreover, when lockdowns kept men home from
or reorganizing supply chains, with significant work, and children home from school, they added
labour market implications for trade-dependent to household care burdens, of which women bore
emerging and developing economies. These shifts a disproportionate share (ILO 2020a).
could include a higher degree of automation when
Given that women are more likely than men to
those activities shift to countries with a different
spend resources on supporting their families and
trade-off in the costs of labour and capital.
communities, an adverse impact on women’s
Finally, the unprecedented pace and scale of employment has a cascading impact on the welfare
technological change, adoption and usage and of households, communities and economies (World
the data generated are fuelling a concentration Bank 2012).
Learning loss that affects the The informal economy comprises informal, or
unregis tered, enterprises that may choose to
long-term trajectories of students remain outside the formal economy because they
The closure of schools, colleges and skills- do not have the capacity, know-how or will to deal
training institutions for prolonged periods in with social contributions, compliances, or licensing
many countries has weakened learning out- requirements. This is why informal enterprises tend
comes to an extent that will have cascading to be micro or small businesses. Not only have these
long-term implications for employment. Almost businesses had fewer capital reserves to withstand
all respondents in an ILO and World Bank survey the economic shocks brought on by the pandemic,
of technical and vocational education and training but, by virtue of their informality, they have also been
(TVET) stakeholders in 126 countries reported unable to avail themselves of government support.
complete closure of TVET centres in their countries. Informal employment also includes individuals
Similarly, 98 per cent of respondents reported a dis- who are working in the formal sector but are not
ruption of work-based learning owing to the closure covered by social protection and are beyond the
of enterprises, and 78 per cent reported postpone- purview of most labour protections. Two billion
ment, and in some cases cancellation, of exams and people, or 60 per cent of the globally employed,
assessments. As the pandemic persisted, it became were in informal employment in 2019. Informal
clear that August 2020 estimates (UNICEF 2020) of employment is characterized by low productivity
69 per cent of all children potentially being reached and low wages (ILO 2021a; Dewan and Peek 2007).
through online and broadcast media were overly
optimistic. Those children who could access online In the initial stages of the pandemic, informal
learning had an advantage over those who could employees were three times more likely than
not, which has exacerbated inequalities between formal employees to lose their jobs. As the
the haves and have-nots and created further obs- pandemic has gone on, formal wage workers
tacles to inclusive development. The loss of foun- have managed to return to employment, while
dational abilities in literacy and numeracy, and in informal waged employment has remained stub-
other subjects, will have a direct impact on all future bornly below its pre-crisis level in a sample of ten
learning of the students in question and thus on middle-income countries (figure 1.7). This suggests
their preparedness for life and work. that formal enterprises have managed to weather
the crisis better than informal ones. The informally
self-employed, who experienced the largest
Flexibility 2.0: Changes in employment drop in the second quarter of 2020
(2020 Q2), have recovered relatively fast: there was
informality and patterns of work a significant narrowing of their jobs deficit by 2021
Every economic crisis since the 1990s has under- Q2. This suggests that some workers who have lost
scored the importance of building resilience their job are entering informal work arrangements
through investments in social protection, while in order to stay afloat financially. This dynamic may
also raising questions about how to strike a be reducing joblessness but does raise concerns
balance between labour market flexibility and about the quality of employment creation during
labour protections. Yet, over the last three decades, the recovery (see Chapter 2).
major transformations arising from technology, A large share of the informally employed are also
climate change and the pandemic have restructured own-account workers who operate their own
labour markets and given rise to new trends in work economic enterprises, or engage independently
that are recasting notions of flexibility. in a profession or trade, but hire no employees.
Contributing family workers participate in such
Shifts in informality family-owned activities without any contract or
pay, and so they are informal by definition. The
In developing countries with a large informal faltering of the labour market has pushed a lot of
economy, the efficacy of labour market regula- workers into contributing to family enterprises. The
tions is limited. With a majority of workers in the incidence of own-account and contributing family
informal economy, employment and wage flexibility work increased in 2020, counteracting a long-term
are high, at the cost of a loss of productive potential. trend of decline (figure 1.8).
X
X Figure 1.7 Change in employment by formality and status, relative to the same quarter in 2019,
2020 Q2 to 2021 Q2 (percentages)
Employees Informal Formal

2020|Q2 –20.8 –5.9
2020|Q3 –19.3 –2.3
2020|Q4 –12.3 –1.6
2021|Q1 –10.4 0.3
2021|Q2 –8.1 0.7
Self-employed Informal Formal

2020|Q2 –23.9 –11.2
2020|Q3 –9.7 –10.2
2020|Q4 –5.0 –8.0
2021|Q1 –4.8 –4.5
2021|Q2 –4.0 –5.2
Note:The figure shows the median employment relative to the same quarter of 2019 for a sample of ten countries with
available data for all time periods.
Source:Authors’ calculations based on ILOSTAT.
Evidence suggests that the pandemic is fuelling

X Figure 1.8 Share of own-account and contributing a rise in gig work that is expanding the pool of
family work in total employment (world), 2017–21 self-employed contractors. In many developing
(percentages) countries, self-employment already accounts for
close to 50 per cent of employment. Continuing
44.2 expansion of gig work could raise this share,
not least in reaction to the crisis as workers who
44.0 have lost their jobs enter gig work – a sector with
43.8
lower barriers to entry. In developed countries,
workers often do gig work to earn supplemen-
43.6 tary income whereas in developing and emerging
23 million economies gig work is the main source of income.
43.4 additional workers
Different kinds of gig work offer varying degrees
43.2 of autonomy and flexibility (Bester, van der Linden
43.0
and Dewan 2020). This form of work also breaks
traditional work into smaller tasks and spreads it
42.8 across more people. In developing economies, gig
workers often subscribe to multiple platforms to
42.6
2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 try to access enough gigs and so piece together
Estimates Pre-crisis trend
an income. The uncertainty of whether one will
get enough gigs, among other factors, makes this
form of work insecure (ILO 2021f).
Note:The estimated number of additional workers is based
on the difference between the estimated share in 2020 and
the pre-crisis trend, multiplied by total employment in 2020.
Source:ILOSTAT, ILO modelled estimates, November 2021;
authors’ calculations.
Temporary work load of domestic responsibilities that fall to women,

intensifying their time poverty. Workers with access
Temporary employment as a proportion of to technology and higher skills, who tend to work in
total employment has been increasing over larger businesses, will have options to participate
time, though not uniformly across sectors and in remote work while those who do not will not be
countries, but the incidence of temporary work able to do so. This is widening the chasm between
has remained relatively stable throughout the the haves and have-nots.
pandemic. Temporary work is by nature more
flexible, allowing employers to hire and fire more
easily and to respond to volatility in demand in
The changing geography
the wake of a crisis. The consequence is that many of work
temporary workers lost their job at the beginning
of the pandemic but that economies have since The pandemic has cast a spotlight on the risks
seen a rise in new temporary jobs (see Chapter 3). associated with fragmented supply chains
The net effect of these two trends is that the in- spread over multiple countries. Employers who
cidence of temporary work has remained stable are considering how to hedge their risks may con-
throughout the pandemic. More importantly, over sider moving from “just-in-time” to “just-in-case”
a quarter of those in temporary work in the early production, diversifying their base of potential sup-
part of 2021 had previously been in non-temporary pliers. But another impact of the pandemic is that
jobs, which highlights the underlying economic it is providing renewed impetus for nearshoring
uncertainty and the employment insecurity it has or reshoring. “Nearshoring” is when companies
brought. This finding also provides evidence for offshore production to locations closer to the
the hypothesis that the pandemic is prompting final customer in order to better accommodate
structural change in labour markets. contingencies ensuing from unexpected shocks.
“Reshoring” means a shift back to domestic pro-
The shifting patterns of work – through changes duction, especially in manufacturing.
in informality, self-employment and temporary
work – have implications both for the efficacy Where countries once traded in primary com-
of labour protections and for workers’ access modities, or simple finished goods, that were
to social dialogue and even to basic social produced close to where they would be consumed,
security. The more that welfare is delinked from the coming of cheaper technology and transpor-
employment, the greater the need for government tation enabled fragmented global supply chains in
provision of social protection financed through, which multinational firms from developed coun-
among other mechanisms, tax systems that hold tries outsourced certain production functions to
all actors accountable. developing and emerging economies (Dewan and
Suedekum 2017). This form of offshoring has been
an important source of employment and growth
The rise of remote work for many countries where it has capitalized on the
availability of surplus, low-cost labour. However,
Against a backdrop of the pandemic-induced
fragmented production chains and complex sup-
waxing and waning of different sectors, the
plier networks have also had negative implications
crisis is changing not only the kind of work
for decent working conditions, something that the
that exists but also where and how work is
ILO, governments and social partners have been
performed. Remote work offers greater flexibility
working hard to rectify.
but also threatens to exacerbate inequalities of
various kinds. In businesses where remote work In recent years, increasingly affordable tech-
is possible, a larger pool of work and employees nology has been enabling a reshoring of work;
is available, since physical proximity is no longer a trend the pandemic is likely to accelerate,
a constraint. The flexibility of remote work offers though to what extent remains uncertain.
the opportunity to better balance domestic re- Reshoring deals a double blow to the quantity
sponsibilities with income generation, which has of employment. It reverses the offshoring of
important ramifications when women carry a production that has been a significant driver of
disproportionate burden of household work. Yet, job creation and growth in many developing and
the pandemic has also expanded the already heavy emerging economies. But, because this strategy
X
is technology enabled and capital intensive, new Offshoring, reshoring and nearshoring all under-
job creation in the home country is also likely to score the fact that technology encourages foot-
be limited. Reshoring offers the prospect of a loose industries, that is, industries that can relocate
world in which there is a consolidation of supply more easily to maintain their costs of production
chains, production is less fragmented and supply and their bottom line. Such geographic shuffling
chains generate less employment than previously. of economic activity not only weighs on where and
The extent of reshoring is unclear because firms what kinds of employment are created and lost,
may still want to locate production close to new but also limits the bargaining power of workers
consumers in emerging markets. (Dewan 2018).
X What governments are doing
The post-pandemic policy become a global shorthand for treating pandemic

recovery measures as an opportunity to address
context: From emergency long-term challenges that the pandemic continued
assistance to “building back to intensify throughout 2021.
better” The ILO Centenary Declaration for the Future of

Work provides a blueprint for a human-centred
In 2020, immediate policy responses to the agenda to overcome the crisis, address existing
COVID-19 pandemic reflected the urgency of challenges and lead to a better future. The Global
the crisis and the consensus among national Call to Action (ILO 2021g) represents a commitment
governments and multilateral institutions by governments, employers and workers to accel-
that a swift expansion of social protection was erate the implementation of the human-centred
necessary to curb the most calamitous impacts agenda outlined in the Centenary Declaration. Its
of the pandemic. Around the world, nearly all successful implementation will rely on four pillars:
countries sought to provide households with relief (a) inclusive economic growth and employment;
through unemployment insurance, expanding (b) protection of all workers; (c) universal social
the pool of workers eligible for unemployment protection; and (d) social dialogue.
benefits, increasing the level of benefits, enhancing
This renewed emphasis on tackling inequality
the speed of delivery of assistance and‌/‌or even
while addressing global existential threats
launching new cash transfer programmes (ILO
2020d). In addition, many countries gave direct as- through substantial public investment stands
sistance to businesses to keep workers on payrolls in contrast to the policy response to the global
and mitigate the loss of small businesses. financial crisis of 2008. On that occasion, stimulus
measures in most economies were quickly drawn
As the global public health crisis has persisted, down; in 2021, there was greater interest, particu-
the initial policy response aiming to provide larly among the wealthiest economies, in main-
emergency assistance has evolved into a more taining robust government spending alongside
profound paradigm shift in global economic accommodative monetary policy.
policymaking. Among most of the world’s
major economies and multilateral institutions, As governments and multilateral institutions
a consensus has emerged around the concept seek to utilize the post-pandemic recovery to
of “building back better”, that is, rebuilding the tackle structural and long-term concerns, a
economy in ways that address systemic and struc- few priority areas of policy are emerging. First,
tural inequalities and other long-term social and governments around the world are seeking to
economic challenges, such as climate change, that encourage job and income growth for low- to mod-
pre‑dated COVID-19 (UNCTAD 2021). Initially used erate-income segments of their population. The
in the context of the pandemic by the new Biden pandemic has exposed and exacerbated deep in-
administration in the United States, this phrase has equalities in nearly every society around the globe,
inspiring greater focus on tackling labour market must be structured in ways that address long-
inequality. In the initial stages of the pandemic, standing problems of inequality and poor-quality
governments emphasized the rapid expansion of jobs, among other major challenges such as inac-
social protection systems, especially unemployment tion on climate change, there are major obstacles
insurance (ILO 2020d). As the pandemic has con- to ensuring that low- and lower-middle-income
tinued and economies have reopened, countries are countries are not left behind in this process.
now seeking ways to facilitate workers’ return to High-income countries have the resources and
the labour market and at the same time to enhance capacity for debt financing to enable them to make
job quality. Given that the pandemic is not over, the large public investments to reduce inequality.
challenges in this endeavour are significant. Many However, the pandemic has made it even more
workers are seeking to change careers, having been challenging for low- and lower-middle-income
scarred by the difficulties of working in essential countries to finance these sorts of programmes;
sectors during a global public health crisis, and most have experienced net negative capital outflow
others continue to face barriers to returning to owing to the uncertainties created by the crisis.
work, such as increased care responsibilities and Thus, high-income countries have been able to
the unavailability of childcare. To address these sustain pandemic-related stimulus measures,
issues, developing and developed countries such as enhanced unemployment benefits, for
are turning to a range of employment policies, much longer than low- or lower-middle-income
including active labour market policies (ALMPs) countries. Moreover, analyses have shown that
such as investments in training, public employment about 60 per cent of the additional revenue from
programmes, employment subsidies, start-up in- proposed changes to global taxation policy would
centives and labour market services (ILO 2020b). accrue to G7 countries (UNCTAD 2021). The vaccine
roll‑out, crucial to rejuvenating economic activity, is
In order to curb inequality and shore up the
another example of how disparities have widened
resources necessary to fund public investment,
between lower- and higher-income countries.
there is growing momentum towards global
Without sustained, robust multilateral initiatives,
coordination on corporate taxation. This con-
and international commitments to financing im-
stitutes one of two cornerstones of a global “build
portant interventions in the service of high-quality
back better” agenda. In July 2021, 131 member
job creation and a low-carbon future in low- and
jurisdictions of the G20/OECD Inclusive Framework
lower-middle-income countries, chances are high
on Base Erosion and Profit Shifting, which together
that “building back better” will be a privilege af-
account for over 90 per cent of global GDP, joined
forded to only the world’s wealthiest countries
an agreement to coordinate on taxation policy on
(ILO 2021h).
the basis of two pillars: first, a fairer distribution
of profits and taxing rights as they relate to the Fiscal space is limited in many countries, even
largest multinational enterprises; and, second, a more so following stimulus measures. But fiscal
global minimum corporate tax rate (OECD 2021b). space depends on the ability to borrow internation-
This agreement is a major step forward in multi- ally, which could also come under pressure should
lateral coordination on taxation, which has become central banks in advanced economies decide to act
especially complex because of the trend towards aggressively against inflationary threats.
digitalization that has only been accelerated by the
COVID-19 has forced countries on a journey that
pandemic. A third element in the emerging “build
many did not anticipate or prepare for. Countries
back better” agenda is to accelerate investment in
will need to become more resilient by ensuring they
a green economy, which policymakers increasingly
have sufficient capacity in the provision of public
agree is necessary to curb the global rise in tem-
goods to cope with an increasingly uncertain and
peratures while also creating scope for new and
fragile global economy (Ernst 2021). To build up
better forms of employment.
resilience, governments, employers and workers
Despite the consensus among governments need to follow through on the Global Call to Action
around the world that the post-pandemic recovery to prepare for the future of work.
X
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2
X Overview
Employment
and social trends
by region
This chapter provides an analysis of the impacts of the COVID-19

crisis since its onset, and of the divergent courses of recovery
initiated across the world’s regions in 2021, as determined
by the incidence of new waves of the virus, vaccine roll-out,
renewed containment measures, fiscal policies and other
macroeconomic factors. It presents updated data on key labour
market indicators alongside an assessment of economic and social
trends for each region. The chapter’s five sections correspond to
broadly defined regions of the world:1 Africa, the Americas, the Arab
States, Asia and the Pacific, and Europe and Central Asia. Within
each section, the analysis goes down to the level of subregions,
comprising countries that are geographically close to one another
and in many cases economically close as well. The analysis for each
region is self-contained and can be read independently of other
sections. Each section contains a table presenting the same set of
labour market indicators and projections for the years 2019–23,
to illustrate the developments since the onset of the pandemic
and convey the uneven recovery taking place across the regions.
1 The countries and territories belonging to each region are listed in Appendix A.
X
Before the pandemic, the world was already char- Another key factor underlying the divergence in
acterized by growing inequalities as reflected in the recovery paths is policy support. The continuation
declining share of global income earned by workers, of large-scale measures and the commitment of
disparities in workers’ earnings, stagnation in financial resources vary across countrises. Whereas
real wages, and heightened income insecurity recovery in advanced economies has been initiated
(ILO 2021a, 2021b). The World Employment and Social and supported by monetary policy and sizeable
Outlook: Trends 2021 report (ILO 2021a) highlighted the fiscal packages, fiscal space is far more limited in de-
ways the crisis has further exposed and exacerbated veloping countries, where governments could face
structural challenges and decent work deficits across increased pressures to keep their deficits in check
and within regions and countries. The present report and cut public services, with major implications for
builds on the previous one, taking up in thematic sub- inequality (UNCTAD 2021). A substantial “stimulus gap”
sections the structural issues the pandemic has made has emerged between low- and lower-middle-income
more urgent. The analysis focuses on the challenges of countries, on the one hand, and high-income countries
realigning growth and the creation of decent work in on the other (ILO 2020a).2 The gap remains wide, since
Africa, initiating structural change and private sector only a limited share of the various financial packages
development in the Arab States, curbing growing announced by international financial institutions and
capital–labour imbalances in North America, intensi- development partners to help low-income countries
fying formalization in Latin America and the Caribbean, address the socio-economic fallout of the crisis has so
improving working conditions and productivity in the far been effectively approved and allocated in the areas
rapidly growing services subsectors in Asia and the of health and social protection (ILO 2021b).
Pacific and facilitating labour market entry and labour
Long-standing fault lines, in the form of decent
force participation in Europe and Central Asia. Each
work deficits across the world, cast a shadow over
thematic focus should not be interpreted as pertaining
the prospects of a sustainable recovery in many
to only the one region or subregion, since most of the
regions. Throughout the next stages of the crisis, and
issues are pertinent to many regions.
over the recovery period, macroeconomic policies must
Towards the end of 2021, the picture emerging was shift from a short-term (stabilization) role to also target
of widening gaps in recovery and outlook across the long-term objectives. Fiscal policies must not only
world’s regions. Access to vaccines was a critical fault aim to protect jobs, wages and incomes (relief), and
line. Whereas some countries and regions (primarily, restore pre-pandemic employment levels (stimulus),
advanced economies) were already in the recovery but also address structural challenges and root causes
stage, others faced a protracted crisis, with resurgent of decent work deficits across the world. Depending
COVID-19 cases and deaths (UNCTAD 2021; IMF 2021a). on the constraints and priorities in each country, this
New waves and variants of the virus are causing much will involve a mix of fiscal policies targeting large-scale
concern, and death rates remain high in much of Latin generation of opportunities for decent work, together
America. Unequal access to vaccines has exacerbated with industrial policies, skills development and ALMPs
differences in regions’ and countries’ abilities to re- and sustained investment in social protection. This has
spond to the pandemic – differences relating to health become even more critical because the pandemic’s
and social infrastructure, institutional capacity, fiscal interaction with technology and other “megatrends”
space, and economic and labour market structures, threatens to further widen inequalities across and
among other factors. As described in Chapter 1, uncer- within economies (see Chapter 1). The strengthening
tainty remains high everywhere. The global outlook of social dialogue remains crucial to the design and
depends on various factors, including expectations implementation of effective and inclusive economic
of inflation in developed economies and hence faster and social policies. Multilateral action and global soli-
rises of interest rates and a tightening of financing darity – including with respect to vaccine access, debt
conditions for emerging and developing economies. restructuring3 and facilitating a green transition – are
Equitable access to vaccines is crucial to ensuring a more important than ever to reverse these trends.
human-centred recovery across the world’s regions Failure to achieve these important policy changes would
(ILO 2021a, 2021b). amount to yet another missed opportunity to set the
world on a more equitable and sustainable trajectory.
2 This gap represents the quantity of resources needed to match the average level of stimulus relative to working hour losses in high-
income countries. It was estimated to be US$45 billion (less than 1 per cent of the total value of fiscal packages announced by high-income
countries) and US$937 billion, respectively, for low- and lower-middle-income countries (ILO 2020a).
3 Debt levels have significantly increased since the onset of the pandemic, and some countries are in debt distress.
X Africa
Against the backdrop of major decent work workers in the moderate working poor and near
deficits in Africa, the pandemic has hit the poor categories deeper into poverty. The African
region hard, reversing some of the progress in Development Bank (AfDB 2021) has estimated that
poverty reduction achieved in recent decades. more than 30.4 million Africans fell into extreme
Before the pandemic, Africa’s labour markets were poverty in 2020 as a direct consequence of the
characterized by widespread informality, working pandemic, and another 38.7 million may have
poverty, underemployment and the prevalence of done so in 2021.
low-productivity work. These structural features,
GDP in Africa recovered in 2021, growing by an
as well as institutional constraints, including limited
estimated 4.9 per cent. The recovery suffered
government capacity and weak social protection
setbacks in the second half of the year as a new
systems and social dialogue processes, meant that
wave of COVID-19 – the Delta variant – took its toll,
large shares of the population were extremely vul-
bringing a revival of lockdowns and containment
nerable to the pandemic. World Employment and
measures. Against the backdrop of slow vaccin
Social Outlook: Trends 2021 (ILO 2021a) describes the
ation progress, the possibility of further COVID-19
effects of the crisis’s interaction with these struc-
waves – including the most recent Omicron variant,
tural issues on workers and enterprises in Africa.
which has prompted flight cancellations and travel
The region’s GDP is estimated to have declined bans from Southern Africa – could protract the crisis
by 1.9 per cent in 2020, with significant hetero- yet further. Other factors that will determine the
geneity across subregions and country groups, economic outlook over the medium term include
largely determined by structural characteristics. the continuing implementation of fiscal stimulus
Tourism-dependent countries were hit hardest, fol- packages across the continent (or, alternatively,
lowed by resource-intensive economies (dependent high debt and liquidity shortfalls that would tighten
on metals and minerals) and oil exporters; the financing conditions and constrain investment), the
relatively more diversified non-resource-intensive recovery of tourism, remittances and commodity
economies were the least affected in 2020 (AfDB prices, and the incidence of conflicts or natural
2021). The employment impact of the pandemic in disasters (AfDB 2021).
2020 is estimated to have amounted to a deficit of
Even if economic growth picks up, a return
15 million jobs in Africa as a whole.4 Added to this
to the pre-crisis baseline for Africa’s labour
are increases in labour underutilization, declines in
market will not be sufficient to repair the
income and an increase in working poverty.
damage caused by the pandemic, including the
The most recent ILO estimates show that in reversal of gains with respect to international
this region in 2020 nearly 5 million additional labour standards. In particular, the pandemic
workers and their households fell below the has exacerbated some of the root causes of
extreme working poverty line, increasing the child labour and forced labour – namely, poverty,
extreme poverty rate by 1.3 percentage points social marginalization, the lack of universal quality
(see box 1.1). These figures only partially reflect the education, and weak social dialogue (ILO 2020b).5
poverty impact of the pandemic, however, since As the thematic section below argues, policies
working poverty figures do not fully account for need to address long-standing structural issues
the many poor and near poor individuals who have in Africa, especially the disconnect between GDP
lost their jobs. The net increase in the number of growth and employment growth, if the region is
extreme working poor in 2020 partially offset the to see significant and sustained improvements
net decline in the moderate poor, near poor and in living standards and reduce its vulnerability to
non-poor categories. This suggests that income future crises.
losses from the pandemic have pushed some
4 The deficit is the difference between the actual employment level and the employment level that would have occurred if the EPR
had remained at its 2019 level in 2020.
5 For instance, an increase in poverty, compounded by school closures and difficulties in labour law enforcement during lockdowns,
has resulted in an increase in child labour in Uganda’s construction sector (Oprong 2021).
X
Labour market trends subregion’s workforce, and also to offsetting

effects; while some women left the labour force
in North Africa after losing their jobs, other women entered
North African labour markets are marked by it to compensate for lost household income.
high levels of labour underutilization, par- Women, who represent only 21 per cent of workers,
ticularly for youth, and by substantial gender accounted for 36 per cent of net job losses in the
gaps in labour market outcomes. Since 2010, the subregion in 2020. This equates to a 6.0 per cent
subregion’s low LFPR has remained generally flat, decline in female employment, compared with a
and the gender gap has narrowed slightly, owing 2.6 per cent decline for men (Appendix C, table C7).
to a small decline in the participation of men and Labour force exits accounted for 59 per cent of
a small increase in that of women (ILO and ERF women’s net job losses, compared with 42 per cent
2021a). The decline for men has been driven by for men, who were more likely to transition to
youth and is more likely attributable to extended unemployment. Differential gender impacts have
school-to-work transitions and discouragement been confirmed through rapid labour force sur-
than to increased school enrolment (ILO and ERF veys conducted by phone in Egypt, Morocco and
Tunisia since the onset of the crisis (ILO and ERF
2021a). Female participation, on the other hand,
2021b, 2021c, 2021d, 2021e). Although women in
has been primarily driven by a shift of the compo-
Egypt who lost their jobs were indeed more likely
sition of the working-age population towards more
to exit the labour force than men between February
educated groups, which generally have higher par-
and June 2020, in the second half of 2020 and
ticipation rates than less educated groups among
throughout 2021 both men and women experienced
North African women.
an increase in economic activity, and in Morocco
In this subregion the pandemic resulted in sub- the employment recovery was largely driven by
stantial losses in working hours in 2020, and a more women entering employment. In Tunisia the
net decline in employment of over 2.1 million significant increase in labour force participation in
(table 2.1). Youth (people aged 15–24) accounted for 2021, coupled with a contraction in wage earnings,
nearly a third of net job losses in the region, despite suggests that the growth in employment consisted
accounting for only 11 per cent of employment partly of “distress employment”, in which additional
(Appendix C, table C7). As in many other regions household members joined the labour force to
of the world, the COVID-19 crisis has constituted compensate for lost household income (ILO and
a triple shock for North Africa’s young people. In ERF 2021d). A similar “additional worker effect” can
addition to job and income losses and the risk of also be observed in Morocco, where the female
deteriorating rights at work, the pandemic has employment rate in April 2021 exceeded its pre-
disrupted education and training – with potential crisis level (ILO and ERF 2021c).
long-term implications – and posed extra obstacles
The pandemic also had differential impacts
to finding work, re-entering the labour market or
across workers according to the sector of
transitioning to better jobs. All of this brings con-
employment, skill level, status in employment,
cerns about “scarring effects” on youth and the
and contractual or working arrangement,
long-term implications for a “lockdown generation”
among other factors. Rapid labour force surveys
(ILO 2021a, 2020c). Although these effects are not
in Egypt found a heavier toll in lost employment
unique to North Africa, they carry a particularly
among lower-skilled workers and workers in
heavy weight in this subregion, which has the
accommodation and food services and that two
world’s highest youth unemployment rate and
thirds of informally employed wage workers and
highest total labour underutilization rate6 among
self-employed workers reported income losses,
youth (ILO 2021a).
compared with 21 per cent of formally employed
The pandemic’s disproportionate impact on wage workers. Two thirds of surveyed informal
women is not immediately clear in North Africa, workers feared losing their job, compared with one
owing to their under-representation in the third of formal workers (ILO and ERF 2021b, 2021e).
6 The total labour underutilization rate refers to the composite measure of labour underutilization (LU4), obtained by expressing
the sum of the unemployed, the potential labour force (including individuals who are either looking for a job or available to work
but do not meet both criteria to be considered unemployed) and individuals in time-related underemployment as a share of the
extended labour force (the sum of the labour force and the potential labour force).
X Table 2.1 Estimates and projections for working hours, employment, unemployment and labour
force, regional and subregional, Africa, 2019–23
Region/subregion Ratio of total weekly hours worked Total weekly working hours in full-time
2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023
Africa 23.9 22.1 22.7 23.3 23.7 364 346 365 386 403
North Africa 18.8 16.8 17.5 18.2 18.4 58 53 56 59 61
Sub-Saharan Africa 25.2 23.4 24.0 24.6 25.0 306 293 309 327 342
2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023
Africa 58.4 56.5 56.7 57.3 57.8 454 451 466 484 502
North Africa 39.3 37.3 37.4 37.9 38.2 64 62 63 65 67
2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023
Africa 7.0 7.8 8.1 8.0 7.7 34.1 38.0 41.1 41.9 41.6
North Africa 11.1 12.8 12.9 12.6 12.1 8.0 9.1 9.4 9.4 9.3
Sub-Saharan Africa 6.3 6.9 7.3 7.2 6.9 26.1 28.9 31.7 32.6 32.3
2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023
Africa 62.8 61.2 61.7 62.3 62.6 488 489 507 526 543
North Africa 44.2 42.8 43.0 43.4 43.5 72 71 73 75 76
Labour market recovery in North Africa will lag Labour market trends
behind economic recovery in the coming years.
The subregion’s economy, which saw a 2.1 per cent in sub-Saharan Africa
decline in GDP in 2020, is estimated to have had a
strong rebound, with 7.1 per cent growth in 2021. Sub-Saharan Africa saw a real GDP decline
Employment growth is expected to have recovered of 1.8 per cent in 2020, but with significant
to 2.7 per cent in 2021, to intensify in 2022 and to heterogeneity across its subregions. Southern
slow down again in 2023. The unemployment rate, Africa was the subregion hardest hit, with a GDP
which increased to 12.8 per cent in 2020, remained contraction of 7.0 per cent in 2020, followed by
generally stable in 2021 as many who had exited Central Africa with 2.1 per cent and West Africa with
the labour market returned. The unemployment 0.7 per cent. East Africa’s economy was the least
rate is expected to start declining in 2022 but to affected, maintaining positive economic growth
remain above its pre-crisis level of 11.1 per cent in of 0.6 per cent. East Africa’s resilience is largely a
2023. The EPR and LFPR, meanwhile, are expected result of lower dependence on commodities and
to remain below their 2019 levels. greater economic diversification (AfDB 2021).
X
The 2.0 percentage points decline in the EPR in which is alarming given the long-term trends in
2020 in sub-Saharan Africa largely understates the region before the pandemic, as discussed in
the labour market impact of the crisis, which the thematic section below.
resulted in working hour losses equivalent to
The COVID-19 crisis has highlighted the im-
13.5 million full-time jobs and pushed more
portance of fiscal space to enable countries to
than 4.9 million workers and their families into
implement even minimal fiscal measures in line
extreme poverty (table 2.1; see also box 1.1). In
with their circumstances, not only to support
contrast with most other regions, sub-Saharan
their own recovery but also to contribute to the
Africa’s labour force continued to grow in 2020,
financial stability that the recovery of the global
driven by population growth (see the thematic sec-
economy requires (UNCTAD 2021; ILO 2021a). In
tion below), although at a much slower rate than it
sub-Saharan Africa, despite the implementation
would have done in the absence of the pandemic.
of relatively limited fiscal packages, total gross
New labour market entrants transitioned to un-
government debt as a percentage of govern-
employment or to low-productivity work, while dis-
ment revenue reached unprecedented levels
placed workers also transitioned to unemployment
(364 per cent), erasing any progress that had been
or to lower-productivity work or exited the labour
achieved through multilateral debt relief initiatives
force. These countervailing effects resulted in a
in the 1990s and early 2000s (UNCTAD 2021). High
modest net decline in employment (0.3 million)
public debt ratios are expected to persist, along
and an increase in unemployment of 2.8 million
with balance of payments constraints, further
people. Women accounted for the lion’s share of
limiting fiscal space in many countries (UNCTAD
net job losses in the region, partly because of their
2021). However, as significant additional financing
over-representation among informal workers, who
is needed to initiate and sustain recovery in sub-
were heavily affected by lockdowns and workplace
Saharan Africa, an aggressive fiscal consolidation
and border closures (ILO 2021a). Other vulnerable
agenda could be detrimental to long-term growth,
groups in the region include migrant workers and
with lasting impacts on health and education
cross-border traders, both of whom have been
outcomes (Zeufack et al. 2021). The recognition
heavily affected by border closures.
of these challenges and their implications for re-
The recovery in sub-Saharan Africa remains gional and global stability prompted some efforts
highly uncertain. Owing to limited vaccine to improve debt sustainability at the multilateral
roll-out, a third wave of the virus took its toll from level, but these efforts have fallen short of what
June 2021 and a new variant increased downside is needed (UNCTAD 2021). Moreover, though debt
risks, particularly in Southern Africa, towards the management has a key role to play, to increase
end of the year. Food prices remain high, exacer- fiscal space it will be crucial to improve domestic re-
bating hunger in some countries. Renewed social source mobilization – by improving tax regulation,
conflict in some areas (Central African Republic, management, collection and control, in particular
Eswatini, Ethiopia, Mozambique, the Sahel region with respect to mineral rents – and to eliminate
and South Africa) threatens to have lasting social all forms of public resource leakage and illicit
and economic consequences (UNCTAD 2021). The financial flows (Isaacs 2021; AfDB 2021; UNCTAD
unemployment rate is estimated to have increased 2020).7 Efforts to formalize the economy – be-
in 2021 to 7.3 per cent as employment growth fell sides reducing the vulnerability of workers and
short of labour force growth, the latter driven by enterprises – may also help to expand the fiscal
both new entrants and re-entrants into the labour space available to provide social protection, by
market. A modest decline in the unemployment increasing the contribution base (Ortiz et al. 2019).
rate is expected, to 7.2 per cent in 2022 and 6.9 A number of examples and best practices exist for
in 2023 (table 2.1). The EPR ratio is projected to the formalizing of enterprises and their workers in
remain well below its pre-crisis level through 2023, the African context (see, for example, ILO 2018).
7 As much as US$88.6 billion – equivalent to 3.7 per cent of Africa’s GDP – is estimated to leave the continent every year, an amount
that exceeds annual inflows of official development assistance and foreign direct investment – approximately US$48 billion and
US$54 billion, respectively (averages for 2013–15) (UNCTAD 2020).
Underemployment and near absence of social protection coverage, most

working-age individuals cannot afford to be jobless
expansion in low-productivity (unemployed or out of the labour force). In the
work in Africa: Decent work decade preceding the pandemic, the correlation
of employment growth with GDP growth was far
deficits and the decoupling weaker than the correlation of employment growth
of GDP from labour markets with population growth (figures 2.1 and 2.2).
Even if employment recovered to pre-crisis For many countries in the region, the weak asso-
levels and trends, employment growth in Africa, ciation between GDP growth and employment
let alone growth in decent work, would remain creation is a result, in part, of heavy reliance on
limited and decoupled from economic growth. resource exports, with limited linkages across
Much of the region’s employment growth in recent other more labour-intensive economic sectors.
decades has consisted of subsistence agriculture Using natural resource rents as a percentage of
and self-employment, often in the informal sector, GDP as a proxy, we find that, for Africa as a whole
as evidenced by high underemployment and and most subregions, resource dependence was
working poverty rates. As the creation of decent lower, and employment elasticities of growth
work and the expansion of higher-productivity higher, during the 2010–19 period than in the pre-
work in the formal private sector have continued vious period (figure 2.3). During the more recent
to fall short of population growth, and given the period, a slowdown in economic growth owing to
X Figure 2.1 Correlation between working-age X Figure 2.2 Correlation between GDP growth
population growth and employment growth and employment growth across Africa’s subregions,
across Africa’s subregions, 2010–19 (percentages) 2010–19 (percentages)
55
growth
populationgrowth
growth
GDPgrowth
Working-agepopulation
55
RealGDP
Working-age
Real
00 11 22 33 44 55 00 11 22 33 44 55
Employmentgrowth
Employment growth Employmentgrowth
Employment growth
CentralAfrica
Central Africa EastAfrica
East Africa WestAfrica
West Africa CentralAfrica
Central Africa EastAfrica
East Africa WestAfrica
West Africa
NorthAfrica
North Africa SouthernAfrica
Southern Africa NorthAfrica
North Africa SouthernAfrica
Southern Africa
Note:Growth rates refer to compound average annual rates Note:Growth rates refer to compound average annual rates
over the reference period. Sample includes all countries with at over the reference period. Sample includes all countries with at
least two data points (annual employment figures) that are not least two data points (annual employment figures) that are not
estimated. estimated.
Source:ILOSTAT, ILO modelled estimates, November 2021 and Source:ILOSTAT, ILO modelled estimates, November 2021 and
World Development Indicators. World Development Indicators.
X
declining commodity prices was not reflected in

X Figure 2.3 Resource dependence and employment lower employment growth, which continued to be
elasticities of growth in Africa and its subregions, primarily driven by working-age population growth
2001–09 and 2010–19 along with the widespread necessity to engage
in some form of economic activity. If we consider
Central Africa wage andAfrica
Central salaried work as a proxy – even if highly
0 0.5 1.0 imperfect – for decent work,
Agriculture elasticities areServices
Industry higher
2001–09
and follow
2001–09
the same0.35
patterns, lower
0.34
resource de-0.36
pendence being associated with higher wage and
2010–19 salaried
2010–19employment 0.40 elasticities. The difference
0.31 0.84
between wage and salaried employment elastici-
East Africa ties and overall employment elasticities is smaller
East Africa
0 0.5 1.0
for Southern Africa, where wage employment
Agriculture Industry Services
constitutes a larger share of employment.
2001–09
2001–09 0.44 0.27 0.33
Even in Southern Africa and East Africa, the less
2010–19
resource-dependent
2010–19 0.45subregions,
0.73 growth has1.25 by
and large been accompanied by employment
North Africa creation in low-productivity service sectors. In
North Africa
0 0.5 1.0 these two subregions (and in Central Africa, where
2001–09
the employment elasticity of growth was relatively
high in 2010–19) the employment
2001–09 0.69 0.88elasticities have 0.54
2010–19 been far higher in services than in industry or
2010–19 –0.40 0.51 0.44
agriculture (figure 2.4). Moreover, the very high
Southern Africa (above 1.0) employment elasticities in the services
0 0.5 1.0
sector point
Southern to a decline in labour productivity and
Africa
imply that much of the employment
Agriculture Industry created has
Services
2001–09
been in
2001–09
low-productivity
–0.21
work. The
0.68
limited indus-
1.10
2010–19 trial transition, sometimes discussed in the context
of 2010–19
“premature de-industrialization”,
0.20 0.81 has reinforced1.23
African countries’ peripheral position in the global
West Africa
division of labour and contributed to major decent
0 0.5 1.0 West Africa
work deficits (UNCTAD 2021).
2001–09
Although the importance of oil and other min-
2001–09 0.15 0.35 0.81
2010–19 eral revenues has declined in many countries
since 2010, the–0.07
2010–19 legacy of dependence
0.67 on these
0.62
Africa – Total sectors and other sources of rents continues
0 0.5 1.0
to shape these countries’ economies (ILO and
ERF 2021a). In particular, it has led to employment
2001–09
growth in construction, transportation and storage,
2010–19 wholesale and retail trade, and accommodation and
food services – sectors with high shares of informal
Natural resource rents as a share of GDP
employment – at the expense of other tradable and
higher-productivity sectors. This is partly because of
Employment elasticities of growth
“Dutch disease”8 and limited incentives for “rentier
states” to implement policies that are conducive
Note:A share of GDP of 0.5 equals 50 per cent. to innovation, competitiveness and private sector
Source:ILO modelled estimates and World Development development in general. Employment growth in
Indicators. more productive sectors – including manufacturing,
finance and insurance, and information and com-
munications – was generally from a low base and
nowhere near enough to change the employment
structure in these countries (ILO and ERF 2021a).
8 “Dutch disease” refers to the phenomenon whereby large inflows of foreign currency, particularly during episodes of high com-
modity prices, lead to an increase in demand for the domestic currency and contribute to its overvaluation, thus weakening the
competitiveness of export-oriented industries (UNCTAD 2017).
sector and other sectors must focus on higher-

X Figure 2.4 Sectoral employment elasticities value-added industries in both manufacturing and
of growth in Africa’s subregions, services. This could be through a mix of measures,
2001–09 and 2010–19 including fiscal and financial incentives, policies to
improve the business environment, and enhanced
Central Africa skills development and education to address cur-
Agriculture Industry Services rent and future skill needs. Targeted policy actions
to reduce tax avoidance by multinational enter-
2001–09 0.35 0.34 0.36
prises (MNEs) in the mining sector are needed.
2010–19 0.40 0.31 0.84 An International Monetary Fund (IMF) study has
estimated that governments in sub-Saharan Africa
lose between US$450 million and US$730 million
East Africa
annually in corporate tax revenue as a result of
profit-shifting by MNEs in the mining sector (IMF
2001–09 0.44 0.27 0.33 2021b).9 Another challenge is regional tax compe-
tition, whereby countries reduce taxes to attract
2010–19 0.45 0.73 1.25
investment. The recent global agreement on
imposing a minimum effective corporate tax rate
North Africa of 15 per cent on MNEs, from 2023, is a positive
Agriculture Industry Services development to address this (IMF 2021b).10
2001–09 0.69 0.88 0.54 The pandemic has heightened the urgency
of creating more decent work in Africa and
2010–19 –0.40 0.51 0.44
signalled the need to rethink macroeconomic
and sectoral policies in order to realign them
Southern Africa with employment creation. It is now widely
Agriculture Industry Services recognized that policies targeted on diversifica-
tion and shifting production structures towards
2001–09 –0.21 0.68 1.10
new sources of growth are key to transitioning
2010–19 0.20 0.81 1.23 from rural underdevelopment to post-industrial
societies (UNCTAD 2021). Recent studies suggest,
however, that diversification is not by itself suf-
West Africa
ficient for decent work to be created and that it
must be accompanied by targeted investment and
2001–09 0.15 0.35 0.81 strategies.11 Moreover, as agriculture remains a
significant source of employment in the region, it
2010–19 –0.07 0.67 0.62
remains vital to improve productivity and working
conditions in this sector, including the eradication
Source:Authors’ calculations based on ILO modelled of child labour. The impact of climate change on
estimates and World Development Indicators. agriculture together with increasing food prices
call for proactive policies to make agriculture
sustainable while ensuring decent employment
for workers and farmers, including through tech-
African countries, and resource-dependent nology adoption. Lack of water and energy (at least
ones in particular, have much to gain in terms at an affordable price) means that the choice of
of decent work and development outcomes crops and the methods of farming need to adapt.
from greater spillover effects from the natural Although Africa bears the least responsibility for
resource sector to the rest of their economy. the climate crisis, it also bears the largest brunt
Policies to enhance linkages between the extractive (Zeufack et al. 2021).
9 The same study estimated that in a sample of 15 resource-intensive sub-Saharan economies, mining exports represented on
average 50 per cent of exports, and were the main source of foreign direct investment, but mining revenues accounted on average
for only approximately 2 per cent of GDP (IMF 2021b).
10 See https://www.oecd.org/tax/international-community-strikes-a-ground-breaking-tax-deal-for-the-digital-age.htm?utm_medi-
um=email&utm_source=govdelivery.
11 For instance, even in the more diversified economies of the Southern African Development Community, a recent study has
found that exports have a limited impact on employment growth, relative to investment spending complemented by government
spending (IEJ 2020).
X
X Americas
The macroeconomic situation pre-dating the to zero (ILO 2021a; ILO and OECD 2020).12 In the
pandemic differed considerably between Latin United States, the number of the unemployed
America and the Caribbean, on the one hand, and peaked early on in the crisis at over 23 million
North America, where growth had been steady (April 2020) and gradually decreased thereafter
and strong, and thus the two subregions were (OECD 2021a). On average, an additional 7.9 million
differently positioned to face the crisis. Growth people joined the ranks of the unemployed in North
plummeted in 2020 in both subregions, accom- America in 2020, and another 2.6 million exited the
panied by major employment losses, increases in labour force (table 2.2). The combination of these
unemployment, and massive exits from the labour effects led to the unemployment rate reaching
force. Across the Americas, governments intervened 8.2 per cent in 2020, more than twice as high as
massively to protect jobs and incomes. In the United its pre-pandemic level.
States and Canada, significant budget amounts
were allocated to support unemployed workers. The pandemic has restructured labour markets
In Latin America and the Caribbean, substantial in North America, with lasting implications for
progress was made in extending social protection firms and workers. There was a compositional
to informal workers on a large scale (ILO 2021a). shift in the occupational structure of employment
in 2020 because low-wage workers – many of
The divergence in recovery prospects and whom were employed in heavily hit sectors, where
outlook between the two subregions in 2021 the possibility of remote work was limited – were
is a result of differences in vaccine roll-out, disproportionately affected by job losses. Mirroring
prospects of maintaining an accommodative the differential effect of the pandemic on workers
monetary policy, and fiscal policy support in a was a heterogeneous effect on enterprises.
context of growing inflation concerns and finan- A survey undertaken in the United States found
cial constraints. In the United States, large-scale that 43 per cent of small businesses had tempor
fiscal support was announced for the second half arily closed within weeks of the onset of the pan-
of 2021 to increase infrastructure investment and
demic, largely owing to a decline in demand and
strengthen social safety nets (IMF 2021a). In con-
to employee health concerns (Bartik et al. 2020).
trast, some Latin American economies, including
The share of small businesses reporting a decline in
Brazil and Mexico, have started rebuilding fiscal
employment was lower in industries where the shift
buffers and normalizing monetary policy to ward
to remote production was easier. As the pandemic
off inflationary pressures (IMF 2021a).
went on, the number of business closures that
became permanent increased steadily, reaching
Labour market trends 60 per cent of closed businesses by September
in North America 2020 (Sundaram 2020).
In North America, unemployment has increased North America’s economy rebounded in 2021
far more than during the global financial crisis with an estimated 5.9 per cent real GDP growth,
of 2008 and more than in other advanced econ- thanks to rapid vaccination campaigns and a
omies. This is partly because the policy approach considerable and sustained fiscal response.
in the United States and Canada centred on the Fiscal packages implemented in 2020 were equiva-
provision of unemployment benefits to laid-off lent to 25.5 per cent of GDP in the United States and
workers, whereas most European countries intro- 14.6 per cent in Canada (IMF 2021a). In Canada, in
duced employment retention schemes, which al- addition to the effect of social protection spending,
lowed employment relationships to be maintained rapid US growth is expected to have a pull effect
even if working hours were decreased or reduced and accelerate the recovery.
12 Other factors may affect the cross-country or cross-region comparability of unemployment rates during the pandemic, including
differences in definitions or classification (for example what constitutes short-term work, or what is considered a temporary lay-off)
between countries and over time, and differences in sampling and other technical issues linked to undertaking surveys during a
pandemic (see OECD 2021a, box 1.1, for more detail).
X Table 2.2 Estimates and projections of working hours, employment, unemployment

and labour force, regional and subregional, Americas, 2019–23
2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023
Americas 26.5 22.9 25.2 26.2 26.4 372 324 359 374 380
Latin America 26.0 21.8 24.6 25.5 25.8 235 199 226 237 241
and the Caribbean
North America 27.5 25.0 26.4 27.3 27.7 137 125 132 137 139
2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023
Americas 58.7 53.6 55.5 56.5 56.9 463 428 448 460 469
Latin America 57.8 52.0 54.2 55.3 55.8 283 258 272 281 287
and the Caribbean
North America 60.1 56.2 57.7 58.5 58.8 180 170 176 179 182
2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023
Americas 6.4 9.3 8.3 7.4 7.0 31.6 44.0 40.7 37.0 35.4
Latin America 7.9 10.1 10.0 9.3 8.8 24.3 28.8 30.1 28.8 27.6
and the Caribbean
North America 3.9 8.2 5.7 4.3 4.1 7.3 15.2 10.6 8.2 7.7
2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023
Americas 62.7 59.1 60.6 61.0 61.2 495 471 489 497 504
Latin America 62.7 57.8 60.2 61.0 61.2 307 287 302 310 315
and the Caribbean
North America 62.6 61.2 61.2 61.1 61.3 187 185 186 187 189
Labour market slack remains significant in The lag in labour market recovery arises from
North America – as reflected in unemployment, various factors, including the impact of the
low participation and those wanting more work, ongoing health crisis on both labour demand
despite reported shortages and hiring difficul- and labour supply. On the demand side, the crisis
ties, particularly in some sectors (IMF 2021a). The prevents a full reopening of the economy, and the
EPR has increased from 2020 levels, but remained continuing uncertainty makes firms reluctant to
below pre-pandemic levels in 2021 and is expected hire. The gradual and uneven reopening of the
to remain below them through 2023 (table 2.2). The economy along with shifts in consumer prefer-
LFPR, which remained constant in 2021, is expected ences are also influencing labour demand trends.
to increase only slightly in 2023 and remain below On the supply side, the fear of contracting the
its 2019 level. The unemployment rate saw a large virus deters many from re-entering the labour
drop in 2021 and is expected to decline further in market. In particular, in sectors and occupations
2022, but is unlikely to have returned to its 2019 where potential exposure to the virus is high, for
level by 2023. example food service, many employers are finding
X
it difficult to attract workers at pre-pandemic pay Canada (IMF 2021a). As economies recover, private
rates, since the fear of contagion increases reser- spending – partly drawing on these savings – is
vation wages (Wolf 2021). It has also been argued expected to increase, which will strengthen the
that although policy – specifically unemployment recovery but also result in temporary inflation
insurance and transfers – has played an essen- pressures. Adding to these pressures will be the
tial role in offsetting income losses, it may have impact of monetary policy (quantitative easing and
also delayed re-entry to the labour market for low interest rates), which has led to rapid asset price
some low-skilled workers. Some evidence from rises, especially of houses and stock. Growth in the
the United States, however, suggests that en- first half of 2021 was led by private consumption,
hanced unemployment benefits have had only a particularly of durable goods, as well as residential
limited disincentive effect, decreasing the share investment and professional services (UNCTAD
of workers who would accept a job offer from 2021). The increase in real estate prices, and the fact
25 per cent to 21.4 per cent (Petrosky-Nadeau that much of the increase in savings seems to have
and Valletta 2021). Early evidence suggests that come from capital gains on existing assets, implies
the pandemic may have driven some workers to that inequality may have been exacerbated by fiscal
shift careers and turn to other ventures13 – what and monetary measures (UNCTAD 2021). Chapter 1
has been referred to as the “Great Resignation” has described how accommodative monetary policy
(see Chapter 1). Accommodative monetary policy may have fostered a relationship between interest
has also helped sustain stock market valuation, rates and wages that favours capital accumulation
with a positive impact on pension wealth that has and rent-seeking at the expense of productive
encouraged older workers to withdraw, possibly investment and employment creation – dispropor-
permanently, from the labour market, thus further tionately benefiting shareholders and large corpor-
reducing labour supply.14 ations over workers and small and medium-sized
enterprises (SMEs).
The only labour market indicator expected
to recover to its pre-pandemic levels by 2023 Thus far, inflationary pressures are expected to
is the ratio of weekly hours worked to prime be temporary, reflecting post-pandemic support
age population (table 2.2). The faster recovery for aggregate demand, as well as transitory
of this indicator points to a greater reliance on supply–demand mismatches. In most countries,
the intensive margins of adjustment (increasing inflation is expected to revert to pre-pandemic
working hours of those in employment) during the trends by 2022 (IMF 2021a). A more permanent
recovery – a reaction to the slow recovery of labour increase in inflation rates would require a change in
force participation in times of strong demand. expectations regarding inflation among businesses
and consumers, and wage pressures that could
Post-COVID-19 dynamics set in motion a wage–price spiral. In particular,

a sluggish recovery in LFPRs could strengthen
in North America: Inflation, wage-bargaining power and yield a more persistent
wages, and market power rise in inflation. If such a situation were to arise,
central banks would be in the uncomfortable pos-
A key feature of the recovery from the pan- ition of having to tighten monetary policy quickly
demic has been the accumulation of savings in amid high levels of public debt. Innovative solu-
countries where significant financial support tions would need to be found, such as differential
has limited household income losses. In North interest rates and the use of macro-prudential
America, cumulative excess savings since the tools to tighten the (private sector) credit cycle.
first quarter of 2020 have been estimated to be Central banks are aware of these risks and have
136.2 per cent of expected savings for the United already started to scale back their buying up of
States and 226.5 per cent of expected savings for sovereign bonds.15
13 According to a survey undertaken in the United States in January 2021, two thirds of unemployed adults had “seriously considered
changing their occupation or field of work” and one third had already taken steps to reskill (Parker, Igielnik and Kochhar 2021).
14 See https://www.conference-board.org/topics/labor-markets-charts/labor-market-status-people-not-working.
15 For instance, the Federal Reserve announced a stoppage of extraordinary support measures in June 2021 and the Bank of
Canada scaled back its asset purchase programme in April and July 2021 (IMF 2021a).
X Figure 2.5 Annual growth in real average wages, X Figure 2.6 Real hourly minimum wages
Canada and the United States, 2002–20 (percentages) in Canada and the United States, 2001–20 (US$)
44 10
10
33
99
22
88
11
00
77
–1
–1
66
2005
2005 2010
2010 2015
2015 2020
2020 2005
2005 2010
2010 2015
2015 2020
2020
Canada
Canada United
UnitedStates
States Canada
Canada United
UnitedStates
States
Note:Statutory minimum wages are converted into an hourly

pay period. The resulting estimates are deflated by national
Note:Average wages are measured in 2020 US dollars PPP consumer price indices (CPI), then converted into a common
(purchasing power parity). currency unit (2020 US dollars PPP).
Source:OECD: https://stats.oecd.org/Index. Source:OECD: https://stats.oecd.org/Index.
aspx?DataSetCode=AV_AN_WAGE. aspx?DataSetCode=RMW.
The real wage growth acceleration observed digitalization and automation, may have been
in 2020 in the United States is largely caused intensified by the pandemic (IMF 2021a; UNCTAD
by compositional effects and, as such, pro- 2021). Structural factors, and their interaction, can
vides only limited information on inflationary offset upward pressures on wages. In the context
pressures. High real wage growth in the United of the COVID-19 recovery, these factors include
States started before the pandemic (figure 2.5), a decline in labour market efficiency, common in
after 35 years of stagnation (UNCTAD 2021). It the early stages of a recovery when demand for
accelerated for statistical reasons at the height higher-skilled labour cannot be met by the pool
of the pandemic when many low-wage earners of jobseekers consisting largely of lower-skilled
had lost their jobs, which pushed average wages workers. The decline in labour market efficiency
up. This same composition effect can work in the may be aggravated by the accelerated shift to
opposite direction, dampening wage pressures digitalization (requiring new skill sets not widely
when more low-paid workers re-enter the labour available) and by the uneven removal of lockdown
force. Nevertheless, as described in Chapter 1, if measures and the persistent restrictions on mo-
labour shortages should persist they could shift bility that prevent labour reallocation. Another
labour market power away from firms, paving key factor is labour’s loss of bargaining power,
the way for wage hikes. So far, wage growth has attributable to a decline in union density over time,
remained broadly stable in Canada and other a rise in new and diverse forms of employment,
advanced economies (IMF 2021a). and an increased market concentration resulting
in monopsonistic labour markets (ILO 2016;
The return to pre-pandemic inflation trends is
UNCTAD 2021).16
expected in part because the structural factors
that limited the sensitivity of prices to changes The long-term shift in market power away from
in labour market slack persist, and some, like workers is reflected in a declining labour share
16 Monopsonistic labor markets are characterized by the ability of employers to set wages below competitive levels, for a variety
of reasons, including high market concentration, barriers to labour mobility, and search frictions (Bahn 2018).
X
of income in both Canada and the United States 2020 (see thematic section below). The pandemic
since the 1970s.17 In the COVID-19 recession, the has highlighted the close links in the subregion
labour share in the United States increased in the between informality, low household income and
first half of 2020 and has had a downward trend inequality (ILO 2021c).
since then (UNCTAD 2021).18 The low pre-pandemic
labour share in comparison with historical levels, The closure and disappearance of millions of
and conversely the high capital share, means that MSMEs across the subregion have suggested
profit margins are sufficiently wide to accommo- that employment recovery will lag behind the
date a real wage increase without raising inflation resumption of economic growth and that the
(UNCTAD 2021, 10). Underlying these aggregate quality of employment could deteriorate. Data
figures, however, lies significant heterogeneity on 26 countries presented in the eighth edition
across firms and workers. The pandemic has ex- of the “ILO Monitor” (ILO 2021d) show dispropor-
posed the financial fragility of many SMEs that have tionate job losses and declines in working hours
faced severe liquidity constraints and insolvency among smaller firms in comparison with larger
(Bartik et al. 2020; OECD 2020a). There are signs of firms. Besides MSMEs and informal workers, sev-
increased inequality among workers, reflected in eral other groups of workers have experienced
an increasing wage premium between high-skilled the crisis more intensely, including women and
and low-skilled workers. Real minimum wages youth – both of which have accounted for a dispro-
have fallen steadily in the United States since 2010 portionate share of job losses relative to their share
(figure 2.6). Although some leading employers have in employment – as well as workers with lower
initiated wage increases, the momentum in early qualifications and migrant workers (ILO 2021c).
2021 for direct policy intervention to raise minimum The subregion’s economy rebounded in 2021
wages seems to have subsided (UNCTAD 2021). with an estimated GDP growth of 6.0 per cent,
partly driven by favourable terms of trade for
Labour market trends in Latin Brazil, and spillover to Mexico from growing
demand in the United States (IMF 2021a).
America and the Caribbean Brazil’s recovery is expected to pull the economy
Latin America and the Caribbean was the most back above its pre-crisis GDP, thanks to higher
severely hit subregion in 2020, with high levels commodity exports, but also thanks to larger
of contagion and mortality, the sharpest de- and b etter-targeted fiscal measures than in
cline in GDP (7.5 per cent) and a drop in working both Mexico, which had a deeper recession, and
hours equivalent to 36 million full-time jobs Argentina, which struggled with financial con-
(table 2.2). In 2020, the subregion registered net straints resulting from significant external bor-
employment losses of approximately 25 million, rowing before the pandemic (UNCTAD 2021). Chile,
of which as many as 82 per cent translated into Colombia, Ecuador and Peru were similarly hard hit
exits from the labour force. As the crisis affected by the crisis but are expected to have recovered in
all economic sectors, containment measures and 2021, with the exception of Ecuador, where fiscal
mobility restrictions prevented labour reallocation and monetary policy have been constrained by
to informal employment, which had previously the currency peg (UNCTAD 2021). The recovery
been a key mechanism of labour market adjust- of tourism-dependent Caribbean economies,
ment in the subregion (ILO 2021a). Rather than many of which had double-digit GDP declines in
becoming unemployed or shifting to informal 2020, will depend to a significant extent on vac-
jobs, as in previous crises, laid-off employees and cine roll-out and the lifting of international travel
self-employed workers alike left the labour force. A restrictions. In many countries of Latin America
disproportionate impact on informal workers was and the Caribbean, currency depreciation and
reflected in a decline in the informal employment commodity price increases in 2021 have pushed
rate in some countries at the height of the crisis in inflation up (UNCTAD 2021).
17 Based on Share of Labour Compensation in GDP at Current Prices, Canada and US data series (1960–2020) from the Federal
Reserve Bank of St Louis.
18 This is consistent with the tendency of the labour share of income to increase initially in recessions, as profits drop, and then
to decline thereafter as losses are passed on to workers.
Although economic growth in the subregion

resumed in 2021, employment growth re- X Figure 2.7 Change in informal employment share
mains limited and has been largely driven by in selected Latin American countries, 2010–19
informal work (see thematic section below). (percentage points)
As many of those who had exited the labour
market in 2020 re-entered in the course of 2021, Countries where formalization was sustained
the unemployment rate remained elevated at

10.0 per cent but is expected to decline in 2022 Paraguay
and 2023 (table 2.2). Employment and labour

Peru
force participation levels are expected to remain
below, and the unemployment rate above, their Guatemala
pre-pandemic levels through 2023.
–15 –10 –5 0
Drivers and risks of post- Countries where formalization slowed down or stalled
COVID‑19 “deformalization” Colombia
or “informalization” in Latin Mexico

America and the Caribbean
Uruguay
The transition to formal employment under
way in many Latin American and Caribbean –15 –10 –5 0
economies was interrupted before the pan- Countries where formalization reversed
demic. For much of the 2000s, the informality
rate was going down in many countries across the Brazil
subregion. This downward trend was driven by a
number of factors, including a dynamic demand Argentina
for labour in the context of economic growth,
and a stable macroeconomic context, aided by Ecuador
specific policies to strengthen the formalization
Panama
process (ILO 2021c). From 2015 until the onset of
the pandemic, however, the shift from informal to
–15 –10 –5 0
formal work either reversed (in Argentina, Brazil,
Ecuador, Panama) or stopped (in Uruguay) or 2010–15 2015–19
slowed down (in Colombia, Mexico). In only a few
countries (for example Paraguay, Peru) was the Note:Data for Argentina refer to urban areas only.
process sustained (figure 2.7). Source:Authors’ calculations based on ILOSTAT.
The early stages of the pandemic had an un-
precedented effect on the subregion’s labour
markets, partly because informal employment
which have struggled to survive longer periods
could not play its traditional countercyclical
of inactivity and have had less access to support
role of absorbing displaced workers from the
measures, including worker retention schemes.
formal sector. Informal employment was dispro-
portionately affected in most countries, initially, Beyond this critical stage of the crisis, however,
for several reasons: the fact that widespread infor- as containment measures have gradually been
mality is found in heavily affected sectors where relaxed and economies have reopened, informal
lockdown and containment measures prevented employment has had the strongest rebound.
informal workers from engaging in their activities, Informal jobs have accounted for over 70 per cent
and where the possibility of telework is limited; the of net job creation since mid-2020 in many Latin
relative ease of terminating informal employment American countries, including Argentina, Mexico
relationships (ILO 2021c); and the fact that informal and Peru, and for over half of job growth in Chile
workers are often employed in smaller enterprises, and Costa Rica (figure 2.8).
X
the permanent closure of SMEs suggests that

X Figure 2.8 Informal share of net job destruction some laid-off employees will turn to informal
(2020 Q1 to 2020 Q2) and net job creation (2020 Q2 self-employment at least temporarily – and the
to 2021 Q2) (percentages) resumption of the countercyclical role of informal
employment. Continuing uncertainty could affect
Argentina firms’ decisions, delaying investment and hiring
(particularly of formal workers), which could
Brazil increase the demand for informal work at the ex-
pense of formal work. Since mid-2020, flows out
Chile
of the labour force from formal employment have
Costa Rica trended downwards, whereas flows from formal to
informal work have remained stable or increased,
Mexico
suggesting that the informalization of previously
Peru
formal employment is a significant latent risk in the
subregion, particularly when experience from past
0 50 100 crises is taken into account (ILO 2021c).
Informal share of net job destruction (2020 Q1 to 2020 Q2) Near the end of 2021, employment recovery
Informal share of net job creation (2020 Q2 to 2021 Q2) in Latin America and the Caribbean remained
incomplete, and both formal and informal
Note:For Argentina and Peru, job creation covers the period employment remained below their pre-
2020 Q2 to 2021 Q1. Data for Argentina refer to urban areas only. pandemic levels in most countries.19 It is critical
Source:Authors’ calculations from ILOSTAT, short-term labour that policies now focus on generating formal
force statistics. employment on a sufficient scale not only to
absorb the rebounding labour force but also to
fend off any risk of deformalization. This applies
to policies that support MSMEs, ensuring they
Two effects are driving the strong rebound in reach the minimum level of efficiency and profit-
informal employment early in the recovery: ability required for the creation of decent work,
transitions from outside the labour force into and policies that encourage “e-formalization” and
informal employment, and transitions from facilitate the transition of enterprises – including
formal to informal employment. The first effect many new digital enterprises – to formality (ILO
is to be expected, since many informal job losses 2021c). It is also crucial that a comprehensive
consisted of labour market exits by informal employment strategy be an integral part of the
self-employed workers, who will readily re-enter economic recovery strategy. Finally, although
when containment measures allow it. There is also countries in the subregion have made significant
the “additional worker effect” in which previously effort to fill social protection gaps and tempor
economically inactive family members enter the arily extend coverage to workers who would not
labour market to compensate for household otherwise have been covered, a key challenge is to
income losses and are likely to be absorbed into channel such effort towards building strong and
informal work, particularly given the limited sustainable social protection systems, including
formal employment opportunities. The second more permanent income guarantees and social
effect involves labour reallocation – for instance, protection floors.
19 Based on quarterly Labour Force Statistics, ILOSTAT.

X Arab States
Despite significant differences in wealth these countries, and the moderate poverty rate
and economic structures across the Gulf by 0.7 percentage points. This is equivalent to
Cooperation Council (GCC) and non-GCC sub- over 640,000 additional workers falling below the
groups, Arab States faced common labour extreme poverty line and approximately 125,000
market challenges even before the pandemic. others falling below the moderate poverty line.
These challenges included low LFPRs and EPRs Note that working poverty figures understate the
and high unemployment and labour under- poverty impact of the crisis, owing to significant
utilization rates, especially among the educated. job losses among low-wage workers (see box 1.1).
Youth and women were particularly disadvantaged
In addition to the economic effect that the crisis
with respect to labour market outcomes. These
has had on their own economies, non-GCC coun-
long-standing decent work deficits arise partly
tries have also suffered from the spillover effect
from the limited structural transformation and
of the economic contraction in the GCC coun-
shortage of employment opportunities in the
tries. That effect has mainly been felt through a
formal private sector, as will be described below.
drop in remittances, which represent a substantial
share of GDP in many countries and play a crucial
Labour market trends role in sustaining incomes and livelihoods and
reducing poverty (ILO 2021a). Migrant workers, as
The pandemic, along with the decline in the price well as the refugees and forcibly displaced persons
of and demand for oil, had a massive impact on who constitute a significant share of the region’s
the Arab States region, where GDP contracted population – particularly in some countries, like
by 6.0 per cent in 2020. In GCC countries, the EPR Jordan, Lebanon and Yemen – were among the
declined by 1.2 percentage points in 2020, most most vulnerable to the impact of the crisis (ILO
laid-off workers transitioning to unemployment 2021a, 2020d, 2020e).
(table 2.3). The pandemic led to large-scale job
The COVID-19 pandemic has compounded the
losses, particularly in construction and in services
impact of other ongoing crises in the Arab States
that employ large shares of migrant workers (ac-
region (particularly in non-GCC countries) – in-
commodation and food services, wholesale and
cluding protracted conflict, war and displace-
retail trade, and other services, including domestic
ment, and economic and financial instability.
work and other personal services). Some of the in-
In non-GCC countries, poor infrastructure, weak
creased number of unemployed people, however,
institutional frameworks and limited fiscal space
were new female labour market entrants unable to
have significantly curtailed countries’ abilities to
find employment because of the crisis. The female
respond to the pandemic. Response to the pan-
LFPR in GCC countries increased by 2.3 percentage
demic is estimated to have increased fiscal deficits
points in 2020 (Appendix C, table C12). This is largely
significantly across the Arab States region, at a time
because of recent economic reforms, including
when fiscal revenues have been greatly reduced,
“Saudization” policies that have led to Saudi Arabia’s
and these deficits are likely to be financed through
female LFPR doubling to 33 per cent in the course
increased borrowing (ILO 2020f). This implies a
of four years, and young nationals taking on pri-
greater debt burden for many countries where
vate sector work in retail, hotels and restaurants
the debt-to-GDP ratio is already unsustainable.
as well as other positions that would previously
In addition to emphasizing the need to expand
have been filled by expatriates (England 2021).
social protection coverage across the region, the
In non-GCC countries, where informality and COVID-19 crisis has underscored the urgency of
working poverty were already prevalent and structural transformation and economic diversi-
social protection was limited, the impacts of fication to reduce the vulnerability of the region
the crisis have been felt most in the deterior and its people to future crises (see thematic section
ation of incomes and living conditions (ILO below). The pandemic has also highlighted the need
2021a). In 2020, the pandemic raised the extreme to invest in information technology infrastructure
working poverty rate by 2.8 percentage points in and promote investment in the care economy.
X

and labour force, regional and subregional, Arab States, 2019–23
2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023
Arab States 22.1 19.9 20.5 21.2 21.5 49.8 45.9 48.3 51.1 53.0
GCC 30.5 27.5 28.5 29.6 30.0 27.6 25.3 26.5 27.9 28.7
Non-GCC 16.5 14.9 15.3 15.8 16.1 22.2 20.7 21.7 23.1 24.3
2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023
Arab States 47.1 45.7 45.7 46.4 46.8 53.5 53.2 54.5 56.6 58.6
GCC 64.3 63.1 63.1 64.1 64.9 28.9 28.9 29.4 30.4 31.2
Non-GCC 35.8 34.4 34.5 35.1 35.6 24.6 24.3 25.1 26.3 27.4
2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023
Arab States 8.2 9.5 9.6 9.2 8.7 4.8 5.6 5.8 5.7 5.6
GCC 3.7 5.2 5.2 4.8 4.5 1.1 1.6 1.6 1.5 1.5
Non-GCC 13.0 14.2 14.3 13.8 13.1 3.7 4.0 4.2 4.2 4.2
2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023
Arab States 51.3 50.5 50.6 51.0 51.3 58.3 58.8 60.3 62.3 64.2
GCC 66.8 66.5 66.6 67.3 67.9 30.1 30.5 31.0 31.9 32.6
Non-GCC 41.1 40.1 40.3 40.7 41.0 28.3 28.3 29.3 30.5 31.6
The recovery in the Arab States region in is expected to remain below its 2019 level through
2021 is estimated to have been weak – with 2023 in non-GCC countries, where it was particu-
a 2.2 per cent GDP growth rate – and uneven: larly low to begin with, owing to significant barriers
labour markets in the GCC countries have to female labour market participation. Similarly,
recovered faster than in non-GCC countries the EPR is expected to increase gradually over the
owing to strong commodity price rises. Although coming years in both GCC and non-GCC countries,
labour force participation is expected to surpass surpassing its pre-crisis level in the GCC coun-
its pre-crisis level by 2022 in the GCC countries, it tries by 2023, but not in non-GCC countries.
Resource dependence the non-GCC countries; (3) capital–labour imbal-

ances, not only in the extractive sector and in
and labour markets: Rentier oil-dependent countries, but in most sectors and
economies and limited economies; (4) low levels of total factor product-
ivity (TFP) in formal private sector firms, and low
structural transformation employment elasticity, both linked to weak pro-
and private sector development duction infrastructure and poor governance; and
(5) significant gender inequality in labour market
Long-standing decent work deficits in the Arab outcomes (ILO 2020f; ILO and ESCWA 2021; EBRD,
States region are reflected in a weak relation- EIB and World Bank 2016).
ship between economic growth, employment
The dependence on oil rents in the GCC coun-
and poverty (ILO 2020f). Even in periods of high
tries in particular has given the public sector
economic growth and lower levels of conflict and
an oversized role in job creation, particularly
instability, the region has failed to generate decent
for nationals. The public share of employment
and productive formal private sector employment.
is relatively high in some non-GCC countries and
Jobs have instead been created either in the public
territories as well, equating to approximately one in
sector – oversaturating the latter over recent
four workers in Jordan and the Occupied Palestinian
years – or in the informal private sector, where
Territory (figure 2.9). In figure 2.9 the public share of
decent working conditions, including decent wages,
employment refers to total employment, including
are lacking. This failure stands in contrast with the
both nationals and non-nationals. It is in fact much
aspirations of the increasingly educated youth in
higher for nationals in GCC countries, where the
the region.
sector is often perceived as the employer of first
The literature examining the structural barriers and last resort (ILO 2021a; Carvalho, Youssef and
to the creation of decent work in the region’s Dunais 2018). The main concern about the public
countries points to several factors. These in- sector in the region, beyond its size or its share of
clude: (1) the political economy and dynamics of employment, is its inability to implement policies
rentier economies; (2) poor regulatory frameworks conducive to structural transformation and private
and the prevalence of informality, especially in sector development (ILO and ESCWA 2021).
X Figure 2.9 Oil dependence, labour share of income, and public sector share
of employment in the Arab States
60
Labour share of income (%)
Oman
Lebanon
OPT Yemen
40 United Arab Emirates
Jordan
Kuwait
Bahrain
Saudi Arabia Iraq
Qatar
20
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Oil rents (% of GDP)
GCC countries Non-GCC countries
Note:The size of each circle indicates the public sector share of employment, ranging from 9.3 per cent in Qatar
to 38.3 per cent in Iraq. The reference year for the labour share and oil rents (percentage of GDP) is 2017 for all
countries; for the public share of employment, it is 2019 for all countries except Bahrain and Iraq (2012), Yemen
(2014), Kuwait (2016) and Oman and Saudi Arabia (2018). OPT = Occupied Palestinian Territory.
Source:ILOSTAT and World Development Indicators.
X
X Figure 2.10 Labour income share as a percentage of GDP, world’s regions, 2010–17
65
60
Americas
55 Europe and Central Asia
World
50
Asia and the Pacific
45 Africa
40
35
Arab States
30
25
20
15
10
2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017
Source:ILOSTAT, ILO modelled estimates, July 2019.
In addition to crowding out by the public sector, ownership among the most affluent. The
there are a number of reasons why formal pri- labour share of income for the Arab States region
vate sector employment growth remains elu- remained 20 percentage points lower than the
sive in the Arab States region. Weak regulatory global average between 2010 and 2017; its most
frameworks and limited state capacity for policy notable increase, in 2015, may be attributed to the
implementation and monitoring, as well as political oil price shock and resulting decline in oil rents
instability, constrain investment and diminish TFP. (figure 2.10). Although there is a negative correl-
A recent study (ILO and ESCWA 2021) found that ation between oil dependence and the labour share
firms in the Arab States have on average lower of income (Oman being an exception), non-GCC
employment elasticities and lower TFP than firms members that are not oil dependent have labour
in other countries in the same income groups, and shares that are somewhat higher, but still below
that TFP tends to be particularly low for SMEs in the the global average (figure 2.9).
region. The study also found that, among formal
In non-GCC countries, dependence on remit-
private sector firms, wage shares in output are
tances has been shown to create labour market
low in comparison with capital shares and that
dynamics similar to those associated with oil
the wage shares in manufacturing are particu-
rents in GCC countries. Despite their important
larly low.20 This is partly because of the duality of
role in sustaining incomes and livelihoods and re-
labour markets in these economies, where many
ducing poverty, remittances can have unintended
sectors are dominated by migrant workers whose
consequences on the labour market. They can
reservation wage levels are generally lower than
affect both labour supply – by affecting work incen-
those of their national counterparts. Moreover,
tives, labour force participation, reservation wages
specific policies like subsidized energy prices in
and occupational choices – and labour demand, by
GCC countries favour capital-intensive production.
favouring employment in the non-tradable sector
In general, the imbalance between returns to at the expense of the tradable sector (Chami et al.
capital and labour is fuelling income inequality 2018). The labour market impacts of remittances
because of the high concentration of capital are complex, and particularly so in fragile States,
20 In contrast, in other countries with similar income levels in Asia and Latin America wage shares in manufacturing are higher
than average.
X Figure 2.11 Female share of employment X Figure 2.12 Public sector share of employment
by institutional sector in the Arab States region, by sex in the Arab States region, latest year
latest year available (percentages) available (percentages)
GCC
GCC countries
countries GCC
GCC countries
countries
Bahrain
Bahrain (2012)
(2012) 10
10 13.7
13.7 47
47 Saudi
Saudi Arabia
Arabia (2018)
(2018) 28
28 31
31 46
46
Kuwait
Kuwait (2016)
(2016) 20
20 24
24 42
42 Bahrain
Bahrain (2012)
(2012) 66 10
10 33
33
Oman
Oman (2018)
(2018) 13
13 16.2
16.2 41
41 Kuwait
Kuwait (2016)
(2016) 14
14 19
19 33
33
Qatar
Qatar (2019)
(2019) 12
12 13.4
13.4 28
28 Oman
Oman (2018)
(2018) 77 10
10 27
27
United
United Arab
Arab Emirates
Emirates (2019)
(2019) 22
22 24
24 Qatar
Qatar (2019)
(2019) 88 99 19
19
Saudi
Saudi Arabia
Arabia (2018)
(2018) 10
10 13
13 20
20 United
United Arab
Arab Emirates
Emirates (2019)
(2019) 99 11
11
10
10
Non-GCC
Non-GCC economies
economies Non-GCC
Non-GCC economies
economies
20
20 40
40 20
20 40
40
30.5
30.5
Lebanon
Lebanon (2019)
(2019) 28
28 31
31 Iraq
Iraq (2012)
(2012) 36
36 38
38 53
53
Occupied
Occupied Palestinian
Palestinian Occupied
Occupied Palestinian
Palestinian
12
12 15.8
15.8 27
27 20
20 24
24 40
40
Territory
Territory (2019)
(2019) Territory
Territory (2019)
(2019)
Jordan
Jordan (2019)
(2019) 12
12 14.3
14.3 22
22 Jordan
Jordan (2019)
(2019) 22
22 24
24 37
37
19
19 21
21
Iraq
Iraq (2012)
(2012) 11
11 20
20 Yemen
Yemen (2014)
(2014) 19
19
14.1
14.1
Yemen
Yemen (2014)
(2014) 77 88 Lebanon
Lebanon (2019)
(2019) 13
13 15
15
14
14
Private
Private Public
Public Total
Total Female
Female Male
Male Total
Total
Note:Data from the 2020 Labour Force Survey (LFS) Note:Data from the 2020 Labour Force Survey (LFS)
for Saudi Arabia are not reflected in this figure. for Saudi Arabia are not reflected in this figure.
Source:ILOSTAT. Source:ILOSTAT.
where remittances can be a lifeline for many but at the world of work, the Arab States region will
the same time contribute to perpetuating some of urgently have to address structural barriers to
the weak institutions that characterize such States the creation of decent work. A number of relevant
(see, for example, Abdih et al. 2012). findings from the ILO and ESCWA (2021) study are
worth reiterating: that technology seems to be sub-
The striking gender inequality in labour mar-
stituting labour and complementing capital in the
kets is not unrelated to the limited private
Arab region, which implies that policy interventions
sector employment growth in the Arab States
in several areas (skills development, redistributive
region. Figure 2.11 shows that women’s share
policies) are needed to prevent further widening of
of employment in these countries is extremely
inequalities; that manufacturing in its current state
low – ranging from 7 per cent in Yemen to
may not be optimally absorbing the increasingly
30 per cent in Lebanon among the countries with
educated workforce, in the absence of adequate
available data – and that this employment gap is
investment in the determinants of TFP; that there
often driven by a very weak female presence in
is a need for policies targeting the structural deter-
private sector employment. The public sector’s
minants of gender gaps in labour market outcomes
share of female employment far exceeds its
(such as labour law reforms promoting female
share of male employment in many countries in
labour force participation and more equal sharing
the region (figure 2.12). Despite some progress
of household responsibilities through improved
(as described above in the case of Saudi Arabia),
childcare and paternal benefits). More important
women in the region still face significant structural
than ever for the region today are structural trans-
barriers to labour force participation, which are
formation and diversification towards sectors that
rooted in social contracts and in certain governance
are more productive but also more labour intensive
practices and policies that are not inclusive (ILO
(through pro-employment macroeconomic policies
and ESCWA 2021; ILO and UNDP 2012).
as well as structural and sectoral policies), together
In the aftermath of the pandemic, and as rapid with the building and strengthening of labour
technological change continues to transform market institutions and social protection systems.
X
X Asia and the Pacific
Asia and the Pacific is the region that has tourism, are accommodation and food services, and
undergone the most rapid structural change wholesale and retail trade (ILO 2021a). The impact
over the past decade. It has some of the highest on those two sectors and the implications for the
GDP growth rates in the world, driven by increased future of work in the region are discussed in more
trade and integration into global and regional value detail in the thematic section below.
chains, and facilitated by technological change
Across Asia and the Pacific as a whole, total
(ILO 2021a). A declining labour share of income working time in 2020 fell by the equivalent
reflects shifts in production structures towards of over 130 million FTE jobs (table 2.4). Net
more capital-intensive industries (ILO 2021a, employment losses amounted to approximately
2020g). This process had been accompanied by 58 million in 2020; 39 million of the workers in ques-
a growth in inequality along various dimensions, tion exited the labour force. The region’s labour
including widening rural–urban gaps and an market recovery is projected to be slow: LFPRs and
increasing skills premium between high-skilled EPRs are expected to remain below their pre-crisis
and low-skilled occupations (ILO 2020h). Before levels through 2023 in all subregions (table 2.4).
the pandemic, working poverty and informality
remained widespread in the region, despite the The pandemic is estimated to have driven over
rapid economic growth, high labour force partici- 2 million workers to fall below the extreme
pation and employment rates, and relatively limited poverty line in Asia and the Pacific in 2020, and
underutilization of labour. another 1.6 million to fall below the moderate
poverty line, reversing some of the progress
made in poverty reduction over recent dec-
Labour market trends ades. Working poverty figures underestimate the
poverty impact of the crisis, however, since they do
The pandemic’s impact on the region has varied not account for low-income earners who became
significantly between subregions in the course jobless because of the pandemic (see box 1.1).
of the different COVID-19 waves. East Asia was
the first subregion to be affected in 2020, but then Among the groups most vulnerable to the
generally managed to control the disease. South pandemic in this region are informal workers,
Asia and South-East Asia were both hit hard by the who account for high shares of employment in
Delta wave of the virus, in the second and third some of the heavily hit sectors, and migrant
quarters of 2021, respectively. Labour market workers (ILO 2021a). Government measures, par-
impacts varied across countries depending on ticularly in extending social assistance to cover
the stringency of containment measures and the larger proportions of the populations, and in some
differing composition of outputs, exports and cases to previously excluded groups, have helped
employment. The pandemic’s differential impacts mitigate the substantial losses of labour income
on Asia and the Pacific have had a significant and increase in working poverty (ILO 2021b, 2020i).
sectoral dimension, as in all regions. Despite dis- East Asia is the subregion that demonstrated
ruptions to global supply chains and a decline in the most resilience in 2020 and had the most
demand affecting the manufacturing sector, Asia dynamic rebound in 2021. China, however,
strengthened its dominant position, with a growing began scaling back public investment and fiscal
share of global trade in 2020 and 2021 (UNCTAD support, which had boosted its growth and had
2021).21 Nevertheless, the region has had the largest ripple effects across the region (UNCTAD 2021).
decline in manufacturing employment as a propor- Among Asia’s subregions, East Asia is the one
tion of total employment as a consequence of the where the pandemic’s disproportionate impact
pandemic. Other heavily hit sectors, affected by on women is most evident, since women accounted
mobility restrictions and the decline in international for 62 per cent of the net decline in employment
21 A significant literature has covered the pandemic’s impact on and implications for global supply chains and Asia’s manufacturing
sector (see, for example, ILO 2020j, 2020k, 2020l, 2021a, 2021f).

and labour force, regional and subregional, Asia and the Pacific, 2019–23
2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023
Asia and the Pacific 29.2 26.8 28.0 28.6 28.8 1 771 1 638 1 723 1 774 1 797
East Asia 33.8 32.5 33.9 34.0 33.9 825 790 821 823 821
South-East Asia 29.7 27.3 27.5 28.6 29.3 277 257 262 275 284
Pacific Islands 25.2 24.3 24.7 24.8 25.1 14 14 14 14 14
South Asia 24.8 21.5 23.0 24.0 24.3 655 577 626 662 678
2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023
East Asia 65.5 64.4 64.3 64.2 64.1 906 895 898 901 902
South-East Asia 65.7 63.9 63.9 64.1 64.6 324 320 324 329 336
Pacific Islands 60.2 58.8 59.8 59.5 59.4 19 19 20 20 20
South Asia 47.0 43.3 44.5 45.4 45.5 651 609 636 660 672
2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023
Asia and the Pacific 4.3 5.4 4.8 4.6 4.5 85.8 104.7 95.2 92.6 91.0
East Asia 4.3 4.8 4.6 4.5 4.3 40.6 44.7 43.1 42.0 41.0
South-East Asia 2.5 3.0 3.1 3.1 2.8 8.2 9.9 10.5 10.4 9.7
Pacific Islands 4.7 5.6 4.7 4.6 4.5 0.9 1.1 1.0 0.9 0.9
South Asia 5.2 7.4 6.0 5.6 5.5 36.0 48.9 40.7 39.3 39.4
2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023
East Asia 68.4 67.6 67.4 67.2 67.0 947 940 942 943 943
South-East Asia 67.4 65.9 66.0 66.1 66.4 333 330 334 340 345
Pacific Islands 63.1 62.3 62.7 62.3 62.2 20 20 21 21 21
South Asia 49.6 46.7 47.3 48.1 48.2 687 658 677 699 712
in 2020 (Appendix C, table C13). Youth were also roll-out, has resulted in a downward revision
disproportionately affected, accounting for nearly of the region’s growth prospects, especially
half (48 per cent) of net job losses despite rep- for South Asia and South-East Asia (IMF 2021a).
resenting only 9 per cent of the workforce. The In 2020, South Asia accounted for approximately
subregion’s labour market recovery is expected 60 per cent of the decline in working hours in
to have lagged behind its economic recovery, with the region, and 73 per cent of net job losses,
only incremental increases in EPR and LFPR in 2021. as weak public healthcare and high informality
The heavy toll of new variants and waves of compounded the human costs of the crisis.
the virus in 2021, combined with slow vaccine The subregion’s EPR declined by a staggering
X
X Figure 2.13 Change in sectoral employment shares, Asia and the Pacific
and its subregions, 2010–19 (percentage points)
4.9
3.5
2.6 3.0
2.3 2.4 2.0 2.1 2.2
1.7 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.6
1.1
1.6 1.6 1.2 1.3 1.7
0.2 0.5 0.4 0.4 0.6 0.5 0.6
0
0
–0.2 –0.1 0.1
–0.8 –0.5
–1.7 –1.7
–2.7
–5
–10 –8.5
–9.2
–10.1 –10.0
Asia and the Pacific East Asia South-East Asia Pacific South Asia
Agriculture Manufacturing Construction Other industry (mining and utilities)

Wholesale and retail trade Accommodation and food service activities
Other low-productivity services High-productivity services
Note:“Other low-productivity services” refers to transportation and storage, as well as “other services”
(International Standard Industrial Classification (ISIC) Rev. 4 categories H, J, R, S, T, U). “High-productivity services”
refers to finance and insurance, real estate, business and administrative activities, public administration,
education, and human health and social services (ISIC Rev. 4 categories K, L, M, N, O, P, Q).
Source:Authors’ calculations based on ILOSTAT.
3.8 percentage points in 2020 (table 2.4). South level in 2021. Nevertheless, the EPR and LFPR
Asia also accounted for 56 per cent of the region’s are expected to remain below pre-crisis levels
new working poor in 2020. The subregion’s re- through 2023.
covery in 2021 was only partial; employment
and LFPRs remained well below their pre-crisis
levels. South-East Asia, which suffered a major
Tourism and wholesale
setback in its recovery in 2021, is the only sub- and retail trade in Asia and
region in Asia where the unemployment rate is
estimated to have increased in the second year
the Pacific: COVID-19 impacts
of the pandemic (table 2.4). South-East Asia’s un- and implications
employment rate is projected to remain higher,
In contrast to other regions of the world, struc-
and the EPR and LFPR lower, than pre-crisis levels
tural transformation in Asia and the Pacific
through 2023.
has continued the course it was already on in
The disruptions of tourism, which heavily the decade preceding the pandemic, rapidly
affected the Pacific subregion in 2020, only transforming labour markets. Large shares of
partially ameliorated in 2021. The Pacific Islands workers shifted out of agriculture in all subregions
subregion saw a 1.4 percentage point decline (figure 2.13). In East Asia, displaced agricultural
in the EPR in 2020; most of the net decline in workers shifted primarily to services and to a lesser
employment was reflected in transitions to extent to construction. Manufacturing employment
unemployment rather than labour force exits. declined in the subregion between 2010 and 2019
Young workers were disproportionately affected as some labour-intensive manufacturing industries,
by the crisis – accounting for approximately two such as garments, shifted to South-East Asia and
thirds of net job losses in 2020 (Appendix C, South Asia (van Klaveren and Tijdens 2018). Even
table C16) – largely owing to their over-representa- in the latter two subregions, however, the services
tion in the heavily hit sectors. The unemployment sector accounted for over 60 per cent of net job
rate is estimated to have returned to its pre-crisis creation during this period.
In Asia and the Pacific as a whole, over 80 per cent

of net job creation in the decade preceding the X Figure 2.14 Wholesale and retail trade,
pandemic comprised service jobs.22 Although and accommodation and food service activities’
high-productivity services employing medium- shares of employment (pre-pandemic) and job
losses (2019 Q2 to 2020 Q2), selected economies
and high-skilled workers saw significant growth
in Asia and the Pacific (percentages)
during this period, much of the displaced low-
skilled agricultural workforce was absorbed into
India
lower-productivity services, including wholesale
and retail trade, accommodation and food ser- WRT
vices, transportation and storage, and “other
TOUR
service activities” (primarily, personal services).
The wholesale and retail trade sector accounted 0 10 20 30
for the largest share of net job creation during this
Islamic Republic of Iran
period: 20 per cent in the Asia and Pacific region
and 25 per cent in South-East Asia. Accommodation WRT
and food service activities, used as a proxy for the TOUR

tourism sector,23 also made a significant contri-
bution to employment growth in the region with 0 10 20 30
10 per cent of jobs created between 2010 and Republic of Korea
2019. These two sectors together employed over
WRT
350 million workers in Asia and the Pacific in 2019.
The COVID-19 crisis hit these sectors particularly TOUR
hard, bringing attention both to their importance
for these economies, and to the vulnerabilities 0 10 20 30
associated with decent work deficits in the sectors. Philippines
Before the pandemic, tourism accounted for the WRT

largest component of global trade in services
(25 per cent). This figure dropped to 10 per cent TOUR
because of mobility constraints and a collapse 0 10 20 30

in demand (UNCTAD 2021). Asia and the Pacific
Taiwan, China
was the region that saw the steepest decline in
international tourism: a 95 per cent drop in the WRT
first five months of 2021 relative to the same
TOUR
period in 2019 (UNWTO 2021a). The wholesale and
retail trade sector was particularly affected at the 0 10 20 30
critical stage of the crisis, owing to lockdown and
Thailand
containment measures that, in addition to limiting
activity, prevented the reallocation of displaced WRT
workers to the sector. Because annual data conceal
TOUR
the magnitude of the impact on the sector, we rely
on quarterly data available for some of the region’s 0 10 20 30
countries to quantify the disproportionate impact
Viet Nam
on both tourism and wholesale and retail trade.
WRT
For many countries with available data, the
wholesale and retail trade, and accommodation TOUR
and food services sectors accounted for much
0 10 20 30
larger shares of job losses in the second quarter
of 2020 than their respective shares in total Share in employment in 2019 Q4
employment before the pandemic (figure 2.14). Share in job losses 2019 Q2 to 2020 Q2
22 Authors’ calculations based on ILOSTAT. Notes: WRT = wholesale and retail trade; TOUR =
accommodation and food services (proxy for tourism).
23 The accommodation and food services sector is often used When one accounts for seasonality by calculating changes
as a proxy for the tourism sector (see, for example, UNWTO in employment levels over the same quarter of the previous
2020), although tourism-related jobs can extend to other year, wholesale and retail trade in India and accommodation
industry groups such as transportation, travel and tour agen- and food services in Taiwan, China have positive employment
cies, and culture and entertainment. growth and therefore do not contribute to job losses (partly
reflecting labour reallocation to these sectors during the crisis).
Source:Authors’ calculations from ILOSTAT quarterly series.
X
X Figure 2.15 Employment in the food X Figure 2.16 Employment in the wholesale
and accommodation sector in selected and retail trade sector in selected
Asian and Pacific countries, index Asian and Pacific countries, index
100
100 100
100
90
90
80
80
80
80
60
60
70
70
Index
Index==100
100 2020
2020Q2
Q2 2020
2020Q4
Q4 2021
2021Q2
Q2 Index
Index==100
100 2020
2020Q2
Q2 2020
2020Q4
Q4 2021
2021Q2
Q2
Islamic
IslamicRepublic
RepublicofofIran
Iran Republic
RepublicofofKorea
Korea Mongolia
Mongolia Islamic
IslamicRepublic
RepublicofofIran
Iran Republic
RepublicofofKorea
Korea Mongolia
Mongolia
Philippines
Philippines Thailand
Thailand Viet
VietNam
Nam Philippines
Philippines Thailand
Thailand Viet
VietNam
Nam
Note:Selected countries are those for which quarterly LFS Note:Selected countries are those for which quarterly LFS
data are available until at least 2020 Q4. Data are indexed to data are available until at least 2020 Q4. Data are indexed to
the corresponding quarter in 2019 to account for seasonality. the corresponding quarter in 2019 to account for seasonality.
Source:ILOSTAT quarterly data. Source:ILOSTAT quarterly data.
Of the sample of countries of the region for which tourism workforce in the Asia and Pacific region.
quarterly data are available, only in Mongolia did In wholesale and retail trade, they accounted for
employment in the wholesale and retail trade about 40 per cent of employment, compared with
sector increase in 2020 Q2 while that in the food 36 per cent of the region’s overall workforce. Youth
and accommodation sector declined, suggesting in all subregions were also well represented among
a possible reallocation effect early on in the crisis, the workforces of both sectors, having higher
or possibly a lag in crisis impact (figures 2.15 shares in employment in those sectors than their
and 2.16). As economies opened up, employment average share of the workforce across all sectors.
in wholesale and retail trade, being less dependent Informality is widespread also in both sectors, at
on external demand, bounced back more rapidly a higher rate than in non-agricultural employment
than employment in food and accommodation, in nearly all countries of the region. Average earn-
which remained below its pre-crisis level at the end ings in the sectors are generally higher than in
of 2020, and even in mid-2021 for some countries agriculture, lower than in manufacturing – with
with available data. a few exceptions – and well below the average of
“higher-skilled services”.
Women, youth and informal workers comprise
a large share of the workforce in the two It is not yet clear how much the pandemic will
sectors and have been particularly hit by the have interacted with technological changes
pandemic in the region, in part because of their (such as accelerated digitalization and auto-
over-representation in these sectors.24 Women mation) to have a long-term impact on labour
made up approximately 60 per cent of the tourism demand in the two sectors. Although most
(food and accommodation) workforce in East Asia wholesale and retail trade and tourism occupations
and South-East Asia in 2019, and over half of the require interpersonal interaction, they face lower
24 Data presented in this paragraph represent authors’ calculations based on ILOSTAT.
risk from automation than do occupations in other must ensure that policies are implemented to
sectors – at least in the immediate future. On the support MSMEs in wholesale and retail trade and
other hand, occupational tasks that cannot be tourism, through intensifying formalization efforts
undertaken remotely and require human contact and through ALMPs, including targeted skills de-
remain vulnerable to public health emergencies. velopment. There are two possible scenarios for
Moreover, changing consumption patterns and these sectors in Asia. In the first, a continuation of
consumer preferences (such as online retail) the status quo, the sectors continue to grow and
post-pandemic could also have an impact on these to absorb displaced labour (from agriculture and
two sectors. potentially from manufacturing) into low-skilled,
At the global level, given the need arising from low-productivity work. In the second, these sectors
the pandemic to harmonize travel measures are able to generate decent and productive work
and logistics, including health and safety and to contribute to an eventual transition to a
protocols, the recovery of international tourist greener economy. The second path requires policy
flows to pre-pandemic levels is not expected action and coordination and public investment,
before 2024 (UNWTO 2021b). In the wake of the which should not be deterred by post-pandemic
pandemic, countries in the Asia and Pacific region pressures to reduce fiscal spending.
X Europe and Central Asia
Europe and Central Asia is another region with reliance on intensive margins of adjustment.
significant asymmetries that have been ex Governments succeeded in mitigating employment
acerbated by the pandemic. Although economies losses and unemployment hikes through heavy
in this region were hit hard, with several rounds use of employment retention schemes (furlough
of lockdowns in many countries, there were sig- schemes or temporary lay-offs) and reductions
nificant differences across subregions in capacity to in working hours (ILO 2021a; OECD 2021a). The
respond to the crisis, in terms both of health infra- heavy reliance on these schemes is reflected in
structure and of the fiscal space needed to imple- the highest intensive margins’ share of working
ment accommodative monetary and fiscal policies hour reductions among all subregions. In some
(ILO 2021a). Recovery prospects too are diverging cases, the process made use of social dialogue.
across subregions, owing to differences in vaccine The reduction in working hours in the subregion
roll-out – particularly as new variants and waves amounted to the equivalent of 12.8 million FTE jobs
of the virus take their toll – and in the continuing in 2020 relative to 2019 (table 2.5). The strong re-
availability of funding for stimulus and job and bound of Northern, Southern and Western Europe
income protection policies. For instance, whereas in the second half of 2021 is expected to carry over
most Western European countries can access into 2022, driven especially by Germany, France,
financing through European Union mechanisms, Italy and Spain (IMF 2021a). The recovery is uneven
other countries in Eastern Europe and Central across industries, however. Some industries have
Asia are grappling with narrowing fiscal space. been hit hard by shortages of components because
of supply chain disruptions and by labour shortages
because of the health emergency (UNCTAD 2021).
Labour market trends
In Eastern Europe, where informality is rela-
Northern, Southern and Western Europe tively high, labour reallocation from wage and
suffered the highest numbers of registered salaried work to own-account and contributing
COVID-19 cases in the world in the early stages family work helped mitigate the decline in
of the pandemic, which posed a significant employment and in labour force participation.
public health challenge and resulted in substan- Nevertheless, close to 2.7 million workers shifted
tial losses in working hours. In this subregion, out of employment in the subregion in 2020, of
the statistic of net job losses of 2.7 million in 2020 whom 1.1 million became unemployed and another
understates the crisis impact, owing to the heavy 1.6 million exited the labour force (table 2.5).
X

and labour force, regional and subregional, Europe and Central Asia, 2019–23
2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023
Europe and 25.7 23.7 24.9 25.6 25.9 326 300 315 323 325
Central Asia
Northern, Southern 25.8 23.7 25.0 25.9 26.1 157 144 152 157 158
and Western Europe
Eastern Europe 26.7 25.3 26.3 26.8 26.9 109 102 105 106 106
Central and 24.0 21.0 22.6 23.4 23.6 60 53 58 60 62
Western Asia
2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023
Europe and 54.6 53.4 53.5 53.9 53.9 416 408 411 414 416
Central Asia
and Western Europe
Eastern Europe 56.6 55.7 55.6 55.8 55.8 138 135 135 135 135
Central and 51.4 48.9 49.3 49.7 50.0 69 67 68 70 71
Western Asia
2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023
Europe and 6.6 7.1 7.1 6.7 6.6 29.6 31.4 31.3 29.9 29.2
Central Asia
Northern, Southern 6.9 7.3 7.3 6.8 6.6 15.6 16.3 16.5 15.2 14.9
and Western Europe
Eastern Europe 4.7 5.6 5.3 4.9 4.7 6.8 8.0 7.5 7.0 6.7
Central and 9.4 9.7 9.8 10.0 9.7 7.2 7.2 7.4 7.7 7.6
Western Asia
2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023
Europe and 58.5 57.5 57.6 57.7 57.7 446 440 442 444 445
Central Asia
and Western Europe
Eastern Europe 59.4 59.0 58.7 58.7 58.5 145 143 142 142 141
Central and 56.8 54.1 54.6 55.2 55.4 76 74 75 77 78
Western Asia

Central and Western Asia’s economies were of net job losses than men and experienced a
affected by the decline in commodity prices much lower decline in labour force participation
and a decline in demand for exports in the first (Appendix C, table C17).
half of 2020, the effects of which were partly Unemployment rates in Northern, Southern
offset by targeted fiscal and monetary policies and Western Europe are projected to fall back
in the second half of that year and by the partial to or below their pre-pandemic levels by 2022,
recovery of demand from Europe (UNCTAD 2021). and in Eastern Europe by 2023 (table 2.5). The
In Central and Western Asia, challenges posed by recovery in unemployment rates will be aided by
the pandemic included massive labour force exits, the likelihood that labour force participation will
which accounted for nearly all job losses (table 2.5), remain depressed below pre-pandemic levels
and a large gap in social protection coverage and until 2023 in all subregions. Similarly, EPRs are
financing (Durán-Valverde et al. 2020; ILO 2021a). expected to remain below pre-pandemic levels in
Job and income losses in the region, and a rise in all subregions.
poverty, were compounded by a decline in remit-
There is a concern that, in the wake of the
tances in many countries and added pressures on
pandemic, inequality could widen in Europe’s
local labour markets from returning migrants in
large economies. Higher-earning workers may
2020. Migrant workers, including the circular and
have lost fewer working hours and less income,
seasonal workers who constitute an important
may have saved more and may see their incomes
share of the workforce in many countries in the
recover faster than lower-wage earners, who
subregion, were disproportionately or highly af-
have had less access to remote work, lost more
fected, particularly in the first stages of the crisis
income and saved less; and, at the same time,
(ILO 2021a). Central and Western Asia is expected
governments may come under pressure to cut
to have had a moderate recovery in 2021, weak-
spending in the coming years (UNCTAD 2021; OECD
ened by the phasing out of fiscal and monetary
2021a). Moreover, a continued policy emphasis
support measures.
on supporting export sectors could widen the
Across Europe and Central Asia the crisis fell wage gap between workers in lead sectors and
harder on some firms and workers than others. those in lagging sectors, which has been growing
It has had a severe impact on MSMEs, owing to their over the past decade, low-wage workers bearing
over-representation in hard-hit sectors, including most of the decline in the labour share of income
retail and tourism, and their more limited access (UNCTAD 2021).
to support measures (OECD 2020b). The groups of
workers identified as particularly vulnerable include
temporary workers and those in diverse forms of
Engaging and re-engaging
employment (see Chapter 3), workers in low-paid youth: Labour market
occupations and migrant workers. activation and challenges
As in most other regions, youth have been
Before the pandemic, labour markets were
heavily affected by the pandemic and accounted
already unfavourable for youth in much of
for a disproportionate share (over a third) of
Europe and Central Asia, as in most other re-
net job losses in 2020. The youth share of job
gions. On the demand side, there was a disconnect
losses was particularly high in Northern Europe
between high economic growth and employment
(77 per cent) and Central Asia (61 per cent). The
creation in many countries. The limited availability
pandemic’s impact on youth and the challenges
of formal, decent work opportunities was a key
of engaging and re-engaging them in the labour
driver of labour migration from Central Asian
market are discussed in the thematic section below.
countries (ILO 2021a, 2020h). On the supply side,
The gender impact of the pandemic varied sig- a gap persisted between outputs of education
nificantly across subregions. Women’s share of and training systems and labour market demand
net job losses in 2020 was higher than their share (ILO 2021e). These structural challenges were re-
of employment in Western Asia, and somewhat flected in difficult school-to-work transitions, high
higher in Southern Europe, Eastern Europe and youth unemployment, high rates of “youth not in
Central Asia. However, in Northern and Western employment, education or training” (NEET), and
Europe women accounted for a smaller proportion large gender disparities.
X
The pandemic has compounded these diffi-

culties, raising a serious risk of scarring many X Figure 2.17 Share of unemployed who
youth of the region. Delayed labour market contacted PES to find work in 2020 Q2–Q4
entry, or entry into lower-quality jobs than would
otherwise have been taken, or prolonged or re-
Lithuania
peated spells of unemployment or inactivity can
have long-term implications for young people’s Czechia
career paths and earning prospects (ILO 2021a;
Austria
OECD 2021a). During the pandemic, governments
across the region have introduced and scaled Greece
up ALMPs to protect jobs and support labour
demand. Some countries in the region (including Slovakia
France, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Luxembourg,
Estonia
Portugal, Romania and the United Kingdom of
Great Britain and Northern Ireland) have made Slovenia
use of employment incentives specifically targeting
Luxembourg
young jobseekers (OECD 2021b). As large numbers
of workers exited the labour force in 2020, a key Sweden
challenge in the region will be to bring youth into
the labour market – and into decent and productive Hungary
work. The outreach of public employment services
France
(PES) to youth varies significantly across countries
and remains far lower than to adults in most of Poland
them, as proxied by the share of unemployed
Belgium
who contacted PES to find employment between
2020 Q2 and 2020 Q4 (figure 2.17). Switzerland
In the recovery phase, labour market (re)‌ac-

Iceland
tivation will be key for the region, through
extending ALMPs to groups marginally attached Latvia
to the labour market, and particularly to NEET
Norway
youth. The policy mix required will depend on the
country context and should take into account the Denmark
advantages and disadvantages of various policies,
and these policies’ interactions with passive labour Finland
market policies (see, for example, Brown and Koettl

Ireland
2015; Pignatti and Van Belle 2018). In general,
once economic recovery has set in, ALMPs must Turkey
shift from a focus on retaining and protecting
Netherlands
jobs and incomes towards giving employers in-
centives to create employment, such as targeted Portugal
hiring subsidies, and towards promoting a return
to active jobseeking among those without work Spain
(see table 2.6). ALMPs for the recovery and beyond
Italy
must address both the demand and supply sides
and target disadvantaged groups, including NEET. United Kingdom
Incentives to accumulate human capital (focusing
0 50 100
on training – reskilling and upskilling) will be
important throughout the crisis and recovery, Total Youth (15–24)
and beyond, to facilitate youth transitions into

employment and across jobs in the post-pandemic Note:PES = Public employment services.
world of work. Source:OECD (2021a).
X Table 2.6 ALMPs during the crisis, recovery and beyond
Target ALMP Policy/ Aim Target Pros and cons Timing

area category instrument
Crisis Recovery Beyond
Incentives Work sharing/ Reduce Persons Temporarily prevents Maintain Scale back
for retaining reduced work outflows from already lay-offs but needs to
employment employment employed be phased out swiftly
Wage
Retain labour to avoid negative
subsidies
market long-term impacts (e.g.
attachment by inhibiting efficient
labour reallocation)
Relatively costly
Labour demand
Incentives Hiring Increase Persons Acts as countercyclical Maintain/ Maintain Maintain,

for creating subsidies flow into not in automatic stabilizer, boost as needed targeting
employment employment employment keeps labour market disadvan-
(unemployed, attachment in reces- taged
inactive, sions, and supports groups:
NEET) recoveries NEET
Cost-effective
Business Cost-effective, sup-

start-up/ ports recoveries, but
self-employ- limited applicability
ment support
Incentives In-work Increase flow Persons Cost-effective, redis- Maintain Maintain Maintain,
for seeking benefits and into and reduce already tributive instrument to as needed targeting
and keeping subsidies flow out of employed cushion income losses disadvan-
a job employment and persons Limited long-term taged
Increase not in employment effects groups:
labour market employment (not cost-effective for NEET
attachment long-term job creation)
and provide
Public works Persons Redistributive, safety- Maintain Scale back
income support
not in net role in crises
employment Not cost-effective for
(unemployed, long-term job creation
inactive,
Labour supply
Activation and Increase Cost-effective in Maintain Maintain,

NEET)
workfare flow into shifting towards active targeting
employment income support disadvan-
Sanctions (e.g.
Can support taged
reducing un-
recovery along with groups:
employment
demand-side policies NEET
benefits for
non-participa-
tion in ALMPs)
Incentives On-the-job Increase flow Persons Increase employability Maintain/ Maintain/ Maintain,
for human training into employ- already Skills upgrading boost boost for all/
capital ment, improve employed Cost-effective in long boost for
Classroom
accumulation productivity and persons run and in strengthen- disadvan-
training
and improve not in ing recoveries taged
matching employment groups:
NEET
Improved Job search Increase Persons Strong impact on em- Maintain Maintain/ Maintain
labour assistance flow into not in ployability, especially boost
Labour market matching
market employment, employment for disadvantaged

Counselling
matching job search (unemployed, workers
and
efficiency, and inactive, Cost-effective
monitoring
matching NEET) Strong role in
supporting the
Employer Persons
recovery
intermediation already
service employed
and persons
not in
employment
Source:Authors’ elaboration based on Brown and Koettl (2015) and OECD (2021b).
X
X Figure 2.18 Capacity of ALMPs and PES, Europe and Central Asia
Capacity of PES
0.10
0.05
Capacity of ALMPs
0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
Central Asia Eastern Europe Northern, Southern and Western Europe
Note:ALMP spending per unemployed person, as a percentage of per capita GDP, is used as a proxy for ALMP
capacity. Spending on placement and related services per unemployed person, as a percentage of per capita GDP,
is used as a proxy for PES capacity.
Source:OECD (2021a).
Despite pressures to scale back spending in are lower (figure 2.18). Although two thirds of
the aftermath of the pandemic, key invest- OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation
ments to strengthen PES and ALMP capacity and Development) countries have increased
should be prioritized in countries where their PES budgets during the pandemic, the
these institutions are weaker, and efforts to most effective response has been in countries
reach NEET youth and other disadvantaged where the infrastructure required to scale up the
groups should be intensified. Although data delivery of these services was already in place
on Eastern and Central Europe and on Central (OECD 2021a). Investment in such infrastructure,
and Western Asia are scarce, the available data including in digital technologies, and improving
suggest that these subregions may be lagging process efficiency will be critical for the region in
behind the rest of Europe, where fiscal constraints the years to come.
References
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Institutions: Are Remittances a Curse?” World Development 40 (4): 657–666.
X AfDB (African Development Bank). 2021. African Economic Outlook 2021: From Debt Resolution to
Growth: The Road Ahead for Africa. Abidjan.
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3
Temporary workers
and COVID-19:
Currents below
a calm sea
X Introduction
As outlined in the previous chapters and in the 2021 edition

of World Employment and Social Outlook: Trends, COVID-19 has
impacted on regions, sectors, occupations and different groups
to varying degrees and through different channels. This hetero-
geneous impact has widened disparities between groups and coun-
tries, exacerbating inequality (ILO 2021a). Temporary employment
has a number of important implications for both workers and
enterprises; given a backdrop of long-term increasing trends, the
question arises: how has the COVID-19 pandemic impacted on
temporary workers and what are the prospects of recovery for
them? Furthermore, will the pandemic’s impact accelerate structural
growth in temporary employment (as discussed in Chapter 1) or
contribute only to cyclical fluctuations over the longer term?
X
Although levels of temporary employment The analysis in this chapter demonstrates

have remained stable through the crisis, that temporary employment has served
beneath the surface there have been high as a buffer against the shock caused by
levels of labour market churn of temporary the pandemic, as it has done in previous
workers. Temporary employment is by nature crises. Employers have scaled back the use of
more flexible, allowing enterprises to scale temporary workers, causing significant gross
their workforces more easily in response to job loss among this category of workers. At the
shifts in demand. It has a structural basis that same time, many permanent employees who
determines the degree to which it is present lost their jobs have found new opportunities
in each economy, although other factors in temporary employment. The net effect is
such as social norms also have an influence. that the share of temporary workers among
Nonetheless, during periods of economic crisis, all employees has remained fairly constant
the easiest course is often to end the contracts in countries with available annual data. As
of temporary employees (by non-renewal). labour markets recover, however, growth in
Available evidence suggests that the experience temporary and permanent jobs may diverge,
during the COVID-19 pandemic has been no owing to the asymmetric nature of the opening
different. However, temporary employment of the economy (see Chapter 1). This will have
also quickly increases after a crisis as business important implications for workers, enterprises
activity recovers and firms tentatively hire and the macroeconomy. However, the labour
workers amidst ongoing uncertainty. This market churn of temporary workers has not
chapter provides an overview of the context been dissimilar to pre-pandemic trends (ac-
of temporary employment, including long-term cording to the limited available country-level
trends, before considering the experience of evidence), which suggests that the use of
temporary work during the COVID-19 crisis temporary workers and the implications of
and what may be expected in the recovery doing so are endemic and not necessarily tied
phase. The last section outlines implications to crisis and post-crisis trends.
for workers, enterprises and economies.
X The temporary employment context
Temporary employment has different implica- deviates from one that is full-time, indefinite and
tions for developing and developed economies. formal, and instead involves a subordinate relation-
In developed countries, it usually takes the form ship between employee and employer (ILO 2018a).
of fixed-term contracts and in some instances There are, however, a number of variations of the
can be a stepping stone to a more permanent definition that complicate the process of compiling
job, but this depends on how widespread the use data and analysing temporary employment across
of fixed-term contracts is in the labour market countries and regions. A new resolution adopted
in question. In developing countries, temporary at the 20th International Conference of Labour
employment is more commonly associated with Statisticians (ICLS), defining types of employees,
informal employment and is thus characterized may help to harmonize data in the future (ILO
by a lack of social security and other labour pro- 2018b).1 Temporary work is just one of a number of
tection, including employment protection. In both different forms of work arrangement that challenge
contexts, temporary employment can be a means the notion of a permanent, full-time and formal
for enterprises to adjust the size of their workforce relationship between an employee and the em-
according to demand and is thus common in those ployer (figure 3.1).
industries that experience rapid fluctuations in
demand, as can be seen in the case of garment The most common forms of temporar y
manufacturers in global supply chains (World employment are fixed-term work and casual
Solidarity 2009) (see also box 3.1 for examples work.2 “Fixed-term work” refers to an arrange-
of temporary workers). The lack of job retention ment for which an end date is implicitly or explicitly
resulting from the use of temporary contracts foreseen and usually tied to conditions such as a
can have negative impacts on firms, including in period of time or the completion of a specific task
relation to skills and innovation (see “Implications or project.3 Although fixed-term contracts are not
for workers, enterprises and the economy” below directly regulated by international labour stand-
for further elaboration). There are also negative ards, the Termination of Employment Convention,
impacts for workers, especially in countries 1982 (No. 158), states that fixed-term contracts
where temporary employment is widespread should not be used with the sole purpose of
and workers shift from temporary employment avoiding employment protection laws and clauses
to unemployment to temporary employment. (ILO 2016a). Another common form of temporary
employment is “casual work”. This can be defined
as work that is executed for a short period (e.g.
Defining temporary daily work), occasionally or intermittently and
employment is typically informal. 4 Although legislation or
regulation on casual work exists in more than 40
“Temporary employment” refers to wage countries worldwide, enforcement is often lacking
and salaried employment for a short or fixed (ILO 2016a). Apprentices, trainees and interns are
duration. It is an employment situation that also considered temporary workers.
1 A resolution concerning statistics on work relationships adopted at the 20th ICLS provides new statistical standards and definitions
for the identification of temporary workers by defining four different categories of employees, namely, (i) permanent employees,
(ii) fixed-term employees, (iii) short-term and casual employees and (iv) paid apprentices, trainees and interns (ILO 2018b).
2 Gig workers, platform workers and on-demand workers can be either classified as independent contractors or placed in the
category of dependent self-employment (figure 3.1). Although their work may be considered temporary in nature, these workers
are not considered in the analysis of temporary workers in this chapter. A significant consideration in the impact of the COVID‑19
crisis on temporary workers is that with the growth of on-demand platforms many temporary workers may move on to these
platforms and become categorized as on-demand workers despite continuing similar forms of work.
3 The definition included in the 20th ICLS (ILO 2018b) is: “Fixed term employees: Employees who are guaranteed a minimum number
of hours of work and are employed on a time-limited basis for a period of three months or more.”
4 The definition included in the 20th ICLS (ILO 2018b) is: “Casual and intermittent employees are those who have no guarantee of
employment for a certain number of hours during a specified period but may have arrangements of an ongoing or recurring nature.”
X
X Box 3.1 Hypothetical examples of different types of temporary workers
Seasonal agricultural worker, Sudan

Migrant worker who travels from Ethiopia to Sudan every year to work in the cotton
harvest. Contracts are commonly fixed term and informal, for 3–4 months, with
no benefits or paid leave. The employer relies on cheap seasonal labour as an
alternative to investing in mechanical methods of harvesting.
Construction worker, Germany

Medium-skilled worker, working on a project basis, who is hired for construction
work for periods of 4–6 months. Employed on a formal basis and has paid leave
and access to similar benefits as counterparts in permanent employment. Owing
to the variety of projects and locations, the employer relies on a pool of temporary
workers to fulfil manpower and skill needs.
Tourist guide, Canada

Seasonal worker. Hired formally and with access to social security support during
the off season as well as help from public employment services to find alternative
work. Receives specialist training from the employer and has an informal agreement
to be rehired in the following season. The employer relies largely on youth to fulfil
labour needs each season.
Garment worker, Bangladesh

Medium-skilled worker hired on a short-term basis. Paid on a pro rata monthly
salary rate based on a fixed number of hours per week. Formally hired, with paid
leave, but without the same benefits as permanent counterparts. The employer
relies on workers available for short-term work in order to meet short-notice
requirements from overseas clients.
Casual agricultural labourer, Ecuador

Daily wage labourer hired with only a verbal contract. Informally employed. Paid
on a task basis, with no negotiation on pay and subject to the employer’s discretion
as to whether or not the work is satisfactory. The employer uses casual labour on
a long-term basis as a way to minimize costs.
High-skilled office worker, United States

Employee on a temporary contract but hired on a long-term or permanent basis.
Such situations are designed to avoid paying benefits to employees while main-
taining a pseudo-permanent employee relationship.
X Figure 3.1 Temporary employment and different forms of work
Different forms of work arrangements
Temporary employment, Part-time Multiparty employment Dependent

as in fixed-term contracts, and on-call work arrangements self-employment
casual or daily work such as labour hire, when dependent workers
and some forms despatch, brokerage, have contractual
of on-call work temporary agency work arrangements
and subcontracted of a commercial nature
labour supply
Source:Adapted from ILO (2018a).

Long-term trends X Figure 3.2 Temporary employment rate

and characteristics according to latest available data (percentages)
Temporary employment as a share of all em- 27.8

ployees has been gradually increasing over time. 25
24.9
According to the latest available data, the average
temporary employment rate – that is, the share of 22.3 22.2
20
temporary employees among all employees – is
estimated to be 28 per cent (figure 3.2). This value
15
is weighted by the size of the employee population 14.6
and only includes those countries with annual data
12.0
available for the period 2010–19.5 It is slightly higher 10
than the unweighted average, 25 per cent, which
reflects the higher temporary employment rates 5
in countries with a larger number of wage and
salaried workers. Although the rates are heavily
0
influenced by the availability of survey data in Unweighted Employee-population
each period, data suggest that from the 2001–10 weighted
period to 2011–19 the temporary employment rate 1991–2000 2001–10 2011–19
increased by approximately 3 percentage points
(unweighted average) or 6 percentage points
(employee-population weighted average).6 This
Note:Based on the latest data for all countries with annual
upward trend is consistent with wider research on data available in each period. Employee-population weighted
the growth of forms of employment that diverge data take into account the size of the employee population,
whereas the unweighted average is an average of the
from permanent, full-time and formal employment
temporary employment rates per country. Neither the
(ILO 2015, 2016a). weighted nor unweighted values are representative of the
total world population; they represent only countries with
The incidence of temporary employment varies data available and are based on data for different years.
among different economies. Differences in Periods are not strictly comparable, owing to different
sample compositions, and the data are presented here only
employment protection legislation, unionization
for indicative purposes. Sample sizes (all countries with
and the labour share of national income all con- available data) per period are as follows: n = 118 (2011–19),
tribute to differences between countries in the n = 71 (2001–10), n = 36 (1991–2000). High-income economies:
n = 38 (2011–20), n = 34 (2001–10), n = 33 (1991–2000); upper-
prevalence of temporary work. The regulation of
middle-income economies: n = 32 (2011–20), n = 18 (2001–10),
fixed-term contracts is an important consideration, n = 1 (1991–2000); lower-middle-income economies: n = 33
particularly factors such as whether there are re- (2011–20), n = 15 (2001–10), n = 1 (1991–2000); low-income
economies: n = 16 (2011–20), n = 4 (2001–10), n = 1 (1991–2000)
strictions on how often temporary contracts can
be renewed and for how long. In economies with Source:ILOSTAT database.
relatively loose restrictions, such as the Andean
countries, there is quite high use of temporary
employment even in formal firms (Araújo and
(Eichhorst, Marx and Wehner 2017). However, the
Sánchez 2016; Molina 2012). Elsewhere, in Europe
use of temporary work is endemic and also driven
for example, there have been attempts to reduce
by labour market structures and norms.
labour market segmentation between permanent
and temporary workers, for instance by raising Temporary employment as a proportion of all
employers’ unemployment insurance contributions employees decreases most markedly for high-
for temporary workers (as in France and Slovenia) income countries. The temporary employment
5 For a list of countries please see the source for figure 3.2.

6 An alternative method is to use a fixed effects approach. A country dummy variable absorbs all cross-country variation not
explained by other regressors, which means it can control for differences between surveys (as long as the numbers for each
country are based upon only one survey). Once differences between countries are controlled for in this way, the share of temporary
employment is estimated to have increased by around 0.14 percentage points per year during the last two decades. This is a modest
trend towards more temporary work, but it adds up to 3 percentage points over 20 years.
X
X Figure 3.3 Temporary employees as a proportion of all employees,

by country income group (percentages)
40
39.6
34.7 35.4
33.7 32.7
30
28.4
20
15.0
10 12.9
0
Low income Lower-middle Upper-middle High income
income income
Unweighted Employee-population weighted
Note:Latest year of available data within the period 2011–19 for countries with available
annual data. See note to figure 3.2.
Source:ILOSTAT database.
X Figure 3.4 Distribution of temporary workers and temporary

employment rate, by broad sector group, averaged over selected
economies with available data (percentages)
Distribution of temporary employees Temporary employee share

by sector of all employees per sector
Agriculture 12.7 50.9
Industry 35.7 31.5
Services 51.6 20.2
Note:Employee-population weighted average of latest year of available data within the

period 2011–19 for countries with available annual data (n = 90).
rate (employee-population weighted) is highest for Trends in temporary employment are largely
upper-middle-income countries at 35.4 per cent, structural. By sector, the highest rate of temporary
followed by lower-middle-income (34.7 per cent), employment is in agriculture, at 50.9 per cent, fol-
low-income (33.7 per cent) and high-income lowed by industry at 31.5 per cent and then services
(15 per cent) countries. The unweighted average at 20.2 per cent (figure 3.4). If one analyses trends
displays a stronger tendency of decreasing over the long term to see whether the probability
temporary employment with increasing country of being in temporary employment is explained
income (figure 3.3). The tendency raises the ques- more by the sectoral and occupational composition
tion of whether temporary employment rates are of the employee population (structural factors) or
structural, that is, related to the sectoral or occu- is instead driven by within-sector or within-occu-
pational composition of the economy, or are driven pation changes, one finds that structural factors,
more by other factors such as socio-economic, particularly sectoral composition, are the main
cultural and legislative changes. drivers. Around 40 per cent of the change in
X Figure 3.5 Distribution of temporary employees by occupation and sex,

latest pre-crisis data (percentages)
Distribution of male Distribution of female

temporary employees temporary employees
by occupation by occupation
Managers 1.5 1.0
Professional 5.6 13.9

Technicians and associate
professionals 4.8 6.3
Clerical support workers 3.8 8.4

Service and sales workers 13.4 21.8
Skilled agricultural, forestry
and fishery workers 4.7 2.2
Craft and related trades workers 21.7 9.2

Plant and machine operators,
12.7 6.1
and assemblers
Elementary occupations 31.4 30.9
Note: Employee-population weighted average of latest year of available data within the period 2011–19
for countries with available annual data (n = 90). Occupations according to International Standard Classification
of Occupations (ISCO) 1-digit level.
Source:ILO estimates based on ILO Harmonized Microdata collection.
temporary employment rates is explained by the with which to measure temporary employment
sectoral composition and around a quarter by the and sex, men were more likely than women to be
occupational composition. The structural factors in temporary work. A fixed effects regression of
are strongest for upper-middle, lower-middle and these data shows that the effect of being female
low-income economies, being driven by move- on the rate of temporary work, controlling for
ments from agriculture into higher-value-added other variables such as age and education, is
work, such as manufacturing and services. both small and inconsistent. It is worth noting
that certain occupations account for significant
Female employees are not necessarily more
shares of female temporary work. These include
likely to be in temporary employment. In fact,
“service and sales workers” and “clerical support
on average, according to the latest available data
workers”, two occupations that have suffered
from before the crisis, around 20 per cent of female
significant employment losses from the impact
employees were on temporary contracts, com-
of the COVID-19 pandemic (figure 3.5).
pared with 23 per cent of male employees. The
figures do, however, vary in different contexts. In all countries for which data are available
For instance, in European countries women are the informal employment rate for temporary
more likely to be in temporary employment than workers is significantly higher than that for
their male counterparts (ILO 2016b); this can be permanent employees. This is because it can
attributed in part to reforms designed to promote be easier to hire temporary workers, particularly
female participation in the labour market, such as casual or daily wage workers, on an informal basis.
the liberalization of fixed-term contract legislation In economies with a high proportion of informal
(ILO 2016b). It may also be that women have weaker employment, precarious forms of employment,
bargaining power owing to their disproportionate including temporary employment, often have
burden of unpaid care responsibilities, which can poorer conditions of work, including lack of paid
force them to accept contracts with less job stability leave or sick leave and lack of social protection,
(ILO 2016b). However, in most countries with avail- owing to the temporary engagement and low
able data, men are more likely to be in temporary hours. Such findings underscore the importance
employment than are women. In 57 per cent of a of social protection access and provision in
sample of 103 economies with available microdata these economies.
X
X Temporary employment and the COVID-19 pandemic
The COVID-19 experience suggests that,

although the net ef fect on temporar y
The net change
employment rates appears to be small, there in temporary workers
is significant labour market churn under the
surface. The COVID-19 pandemic has produced The available data suggest that the share of
an almost unique type of global crisis with highly temporary workers among total employees
uneven sectoral effects, accompanied by an as- has been relatively stable. In countries with
sortment of policy responses targeting different available annual data the impact of the pandemic
areas of the economy and labour market. One has caused little change in the proportion of
consequence of these measures is that, despite temporary workers: from 2019 to 2020, there
considerable job losses among temporary workers was a marginal increase in the rate of temporary
during the crisis, the proportion of employees in employment (figure 3.6). The corollary is that the
temporary work has remained relatively stable. share of non-temporary (permanent and “other” 7)
This suggests that new temporary jobs have been employees has also remained relatively stable.
created that have offset the loss of temporary jobs. However, in countries with available longi-
Some of these new temporary jobs may have been tudinal data, the period of the pandemic has
taken by people who were previously in permanent seen temporary workers losing their jobs at
jobs or out of work. a faster rate than non-temporary workers.
Table 3.1 shows a transition matrix for countries
with available quarterly data, outlining the transi-
tions from temporary or non-temporary contracts
X Figure 3.6 Temporary workers as share

of all employees, 2012–20, selected economies (percentages)
28
26
24
22
20
18
16
2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020
Sample of 14 economies Sample of 18 economies
Note:Employee-population weighted average. The sample of 14 economies comprises Brazil, Canada, Chile,
Costa Rica, Indonesia, Italy, Mexico, Philippines, Portugal, Serbia, South Africa, Spain, United Kingdom and
Viet Nam. The sample of 18 economies also includes Argentina, Georgia, the Republic of Korea and the Occupied
Palestinian Territory.
Source:ILO Harmonized Microdata collection.
7 “Other” includes employee relationships that are difficult to categorize as either temporary or permanent, such as some on-call work.
X Table 3.1 Transitions of temporary and non-temporary employees (percentage

of employees in 2020 Q1 not employed in subsequent quarters), selected economies
Temporary employees Non-temporary employees
Economy 2020 2020 2020 2021 2020 2020 2020 2021

Q2 Q3 Q4 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q1
Argentina 42 22 23 17 12 12
Bolivia (Plurinational State of) 49 31 12 9
Brazil 22 29 31 37 14 20 23 31
Chile 73 70 61 54 75 50
Costa Rica 49 50 40 38 20 22 26 34
Mexico 33 24 20 21 12 11 10 10
North Macedonia 26 17 15 4
Occupied Palestinian Territory 26 23 9 8
Poland 9 10 10 3 4 4
Portugal 17 19 16 3 4 4
Serbia 13 2
Slovakia 13 5
United Kingdom 12 2
Unweighted mean 30 30 29 30 13 17 18 22
Unweighted median 26 24 22 30 12 9 12 22
Note:The matrix shows transitions of temporary employees (left) and non-temporary employees (right) in 2020
Q1 to being out of work in subsequent quarters. The table does not include transitions to other forms of work
(such as labour reallocation from temporary to non-temporary employment or from wage or salaried work to
self-employment). It is limited to countries with labour force surveys and household surveys with longitudinal
identifiers. Blanks denote absence of data.
in the first quarter of 2020 to being out of work in 17 per cent of non-temporary workers. It should
the second, third and fourth quarter of 2020 and be noted that such changes were not dissimilar to
in the first quarter of 2021. Although the data do trends a year earlier in the same economies, which
not take into account seasonality, they show that suggests that COVID-19 was not exacerbating the
people in temporary employment were more likely existing trends.
than non-temporary employees to be out of work Previous crisis experience suggests that
from the second quarter of 2020 onwards as the temporary workers initially lose their jobs
pandemic took hold and containment measures faster than permanent workers. In recent
were implemented.8 For example, in Argentina, economic crises, particularly the global finan-
42 per cent of those who were temporary em- cial crisis of 2008–09, there is evidence that
ployees in the first quarter of 2020 were out of temporary workers were disproportionately
work in the second quarter of 2020, compared with laid off as firms adjusted to the demand shock
8 Although it is not possible to take seasonality into account in the transition matrix, it is possible to control for characteristics
such as age, sex and education. Doing so produces no universal widening of the gaps: around half the countries display reduced
gaps and the remainder show increased gaps.
X
(Guest and Isaksson 2019). In Spain, for instance,

there was a 26 per cent reduction in temporary X Figure 3.7 Where temporary workers in 2020 Q1
employment, compared with 8 per cent in per- had gone by 2021 Q1 (percentages)
manent employment. In Greece, the decrease
was 28 per cent for temporary employees, while it 100
amounted to 17 per cent for permanent employees

31.7
(Eurofound 2015). Elsewhere, including Ireland 80
(2011–12), Bangladesh (2010) and the Republic of
Korea (1998) in the aftermath of the financial crisis, 60
26.7
economic downturns have led to increased hiring 100
on short temporary contracts as a substitute for 40
12.5
permanent hiring, in order to keep labour costs
flexible given the prevailing economic uncertainty 20
(ILO 2016a). However, these were largely the initial 29.2
impacts, reflecting the relative ease of ending a 0

0
temporary worker’s employment compared with 2020 Q1 2021 Q1
terminating a permanent contract. A key finding Out of work Self-employed
was that, further into the period of crisis impact, Non-temporary Temporary
temporary workers and permanent workers in
Europe as a whole were laid off at a similar rate
Note:Unweighted average of the five countries with
(Eurofound 2015).9 This suggests that, although
longitudinal identifiers spanning 2020 Q1 to 2021 Q1
temporary workers are among the first to lose (Argentina, Brazil, Costa Rica, Mexico, South Africa). The
their jobs as a crisis gets under way, permanent selection of these countries was made on the basis of data
availability at the time of writing. It is not representative
workers will then also lose their contracts.
of any region or the world. Only Mexico has a temporary
employment rate that is higher than the global average.
Labour market churn

The remainder are marginally below the global average.
of temporary workers
The available evidence on the impact of
COV ID -19 suggests that the outflow of Significantly, only around 32 per cent of
temporary workers was offset by increased temporary employees in 2020 Q1 were still
movement into temporary work, hence the temporary employees a year later. Around
small net change. Expanding the transition 29 per cent were out of work, 27 per cent in
matrix further to examine transitions for those non-temporary wage employment and 13 per cent
in temporary and non-temporary jobs, and also in self-employment (figure 3.7). The proportion
those out of work (unemployed or out of the labour of those who remained in temporary wage
force), sheds further light on some of the findings. employment was slightly higher than a year
Using the annual transitions (2020 Q1 to 2021 Q1) earlier (2019 Q1 to 2020 Q1). It should be noted
to control for seasonality, it is evident that the that the limited availability of data prevents a
proportion who transition out of work is always global analysis; the findings in this section are
higher among temporary workers, but varies based on the five economies (Argentina, Brazil,
among economies. In this regard, the trends for the Costa Rica, Mexico, South Africa) that at the time
pandemic period are not dissimilar to the trends of writing had longitudinal data spanning 2020
before the pandemic, which suggests that the Q1 to 2021 Q1). The analysis is only indicative of
transitions of temporary workers are an endemic early trends rather than representative of global
feature of labour markets and economies. or regional labour markets.
9 It should be noted, however, that much of the evidence on the impact of the global financial crisis on temporary employment is
drawn from European case studies. The findings are therefore not necessarily representative of developing economies, where the
role of temporary employment differs and is closely tied to informality; nor do the findings necessarily apply to other developed
economies, such as the United States, where there are significant differences in employment protection legislation. Nonetheless,
the findings do shed light on the impact and role of temporary employment during crises, which may help us to assess whether
similar trends are likely to be observed in the COVID-19 crisis.
More than a quarter of those in temporary work

in 2021 Q1 were previously in non-temporary X Figure 3.8 What temporary workers in 2021 Q1
(permanent or “other” employee) jobs. Of were doing in 2020 Q1 (percentages)
non-temporary employees, 67 per cent remained
in non-temporary jobs, around 20 per cent were 100
out of work, 7 per cent were in self-employment

32.9
and 6 per cent were in temporary work. Despite 80
the small share of non-temporary employees
transitioning to temporary work, in absolute 60
28.0
numbers they accounted for more than a quarter 100
of all temporary workers in 2021 Q1. This helps 40
explain why the share of temporary work re- 11.5
mains fairly stable: despite large numbers of 20

temporary workers losing their jobs during the 27.6
pandemic, part of the decrease is offset by a small 0

0
share of non-temporary workers moving into 2020 Q1 2021 Q1
temporary work. Out of work Self-employed
The available data suggest that temporary Non-temporary Temporary

work can provide significant opportunities for
those not already in work. Around 3.5 per cent Note:Unweighted average of the five countries with
of all individuals who were out of work in 2020 Q1 longitudinal identifiers spanning 2020 Q1 and 2021 Q1
(Argentina, Brazil, Costa Rica, Mexico, South Africa).
were in temporary wage employment in 2021 Q1.
Although the share of out-of-work people moving Source:ILO Harmonized Microdata collection.
into temporary wage employment was low, in
absolute numbers they accounted for 28 per cent
of all temporary workers in 2021 Q1 (figure 3.8). of people out of work who became temporary
Thus, the number of temporary workers who workers; this is a key characteristic of temporary
moved out of work was similar to the number wage employment.
X Prospects during recovery
In previous crises, after the main impact and Netherlands, for instance, there was growth in
shedding of workers, the hiring of temporary the hiring of temporary workers in the wake of the
workers increased. There is evidence in European global financial crisis. However, the increased use of
data that negative demand shocks result in temporary workers presented inherent challenges
increased use of temporary contracts, which of sustainability, particularly with regard to man-
provide a means for firms to mitigate the impact agement, roles and worker integration (de Jong,
of shocks in contexts where stringent legislation Wilkin and Rubino 2019). Such challenges suggest
can make adjustments costly (Lydon, Mathä and that the use of temporary workers in response
Millard 2019). In the 2008–09 global financial crisis, to uncertainty in the wake of a crisis may not be
sectors with a high incidence of short-term workers a sustainable measure and that there may be a
were found to exhibit significantly less cyclical vari- cyclical component in the post-crisis use of this
ation in employment (Lydon, Mathä and Millard mode of employment.
2019). In Germany, findings suggest that estab-
lishments that made greater use of temporary There is also the challenge that some temporary
workers coped better with declines in demand work falls under other categories of employment
(Baumgarten and Kvasnicka 2016). The increased and so its role during and after crises may not be
use of temporary workers in the wake of a demand recognized. For instance, gig work and platform
shock is not, however, without challenges. In the work have surged in recent years (ILO 2021b).
X
X Figure 3.9 Distribution of temporary employment and temporary employee share

of all employees, by occupational skill levels, in selected economies (percentages)
Distribution of temporary employees Temporary employee share of all employees

by occupational skill level per occupational skill level
High 15.0 16.1
Medium 53.5 33.2
Low 31.2 55.2
Note:Employee-population weighted average of latest year of available data within the period 2011–19 for countries
with available annual data (n = 90).
This may result in many temporary workers being medium-skilled occupations. Weighted av-
classified as self-employed. Hence the need for erages of 58 countries with available quarterly
clear definitions and measurement in order to data on occupations show that employees in
understand the role of temporary workers in the high-skilled occupations were least likely to be
labour market and the economy and to facilitate temporary workers, making up only 15.0 per cent
targeted policy responses. The new resolution of temporary workers (according to the latest
on work relationships adopted at the 20th ICLS data available for each country). The share was
should give scope for improved data availability 53.5 per cent for medium-skilled employees and
and harmonization in the future. 31.2 per cent for low-skilled employees (figure 3.9).
To judge by the characteristics of temporary
The temporary employment rate for youth
workers before the pandemic, the recovery phase
has been relatively stable during the COVID-19
may see an increase in temporary work for low- and
pandemic – a difference from the findings of
medium-skilled occupations.
previous crises. In the European Union (EU),
temporary employment among youth grew Temporary work varies considerably by eco-
faster than among adults both during and after nomic activity, as well as occupation, sex and
the 2008–09 global financial crisis (ILO 2012). In age, with implications for the recovery. Much
contrast, the proportion of youth employees in of the recovery will be determined at the industry
the EU-27 who were temporary workers was rela- level, given that the impacts of the crisis have
tively stable during the first year of the pandemic been highly concentrated in particular sectors
(2020 Q2 to 2020 Q4), but has since shown signs of economic activity. Figure 3.10 lists selected
of increasing, whereas for adults the proportion industries that were particularly affected by the
has remained relatively stable throughout. For crisis, according to World Employment and Social
example, the share of youth temporary workers Outlook: Trends 2021 (ILO 2021a), and the corres-
in the EU-27 was recorded as 47.8 per cent in 2021 ponding pre-crisis share of temporary workers and
Q1, compared with 45.8 in 2020 Q1. It is too early temporary employment rate. It tells an important
to tell whether the increase will become a struc- story about not only the crisis impact – with regard
tural feature of European labour markets after the to the high shares of temporary employment in
pandemic. In all other countries for which quarterly some key industries – but also the prospects for
data are available for 2021 Q1, there has similarly temporary employment in these industries during
been an increase in the youth share of temporary the recovery.
employment, relative to the previous year, with the
The manufacturing sector is a major source of
notable exceptions of Canada and Peru.
temporary work and was among the sectors
The recovery period is likely to see an in- hit most severely at the start of the pandemic,
crease in temporary jobs, mostly in low- and initially via supply chain disruption and then
X Figure 3.10 Distribution of temporary employees and temporary employee share of all
employees across selected industries in selected economies before the crisis (percentages)
Distribution of temporary employees Temporary employee share of all

by ISIC 1-digit industry employees by ISIC 1-digit industry
C. Manufacturing 19.1 27.0
F. Construction 15.1 46.3
A. Agriculture; forestry and fishing 12.7 50.9

G. Wholesale and retail trade; repair
11.8 24.4
of motor vehicles and motorcycles
P. Education 5.8 15.2
H. Transportation and storage 5.8 23.1
I. Accommodation and food service activities 5.2 31.4
Q. Human health and social work activities 3.8 14.6
R. Arts, entertainment and recreation 1.0 23.1
Note:Employee-population weighted average of latest year of available data within the period 2011–19 for countries
with available annual data (n = 90). Industries according to International Standard Industrial Classification (ISIC)
1-digit level.
by a decline in demand. More than one in four The prospects of a surge in temporar y
employees in manufacturing were in temporary employment in services rest on the ability of
employment before the crisis; they accounted for key service industries to recover. In accommo-
nearly 20 per cent of all temporary employees. dation and food service activities, nearly one in
Although many temporary workers in the manufac- three employees were on temporary contracts
turing industry will therefore have lost their jobs (figure 3.10). The widespread job losses in this
because of the pandemic, the recovery of activity industry (including tourism services) as a result
in the sector is likely to bring more temporary jobs, of lockdowns and other COVID-19 containment
given the characteristics of the sector before the measures are likely to have brought significant
crisis and also the ongoing uncertainty facing, job losses among temporary workers. Again,
for example, temporary workers in global supply however, the prospects for recovery are mixed,
chains. Similarly, in construction, where more given the ongoing cross-border and travel re-
than 46 per cent of employees were in temporary strictions in many economies (see Chapter 2). In
employment, many will have lost their jobs to the health and social work, a key industry affected by
crisis. In countries where migrant workers form the crisis – particularly in terms of exposure to the
a large part of the workforce in construction COVID-19 virus – around one in six workers were
(and other industries), ongoing limitations on in temporary employment before the pandemic.
travel and cross-border movements may hinder When they do not receive the same benefits as
the filling of vacancies, for both permanent and permanent workers, temporary workers in certain
temporary employees.10 industries face considerable risk.
10 Many migrant workers are engaged in temporary employment via employment and recruitment agencies. Such agencies are
not included in this analysis because they fall within the “multiparty employment arrangements” category (see figure 3.1) despite
the often temporary nature of the migrant workers’ work.
X
Implications for workers, enterprises

X
and the economy
The COVID-19 pandemic has had an impact on

all types of work. The available data suggest
Implications for workers
that it has resulted in both the creation and Temporary work in developed economies
destruction of temporary jobs and hence a rela- most commonly relates to contracts of a fixed
tively stable net rate of temporary employment. duration, is tied to employment protection
Evidence from previous crises suggests that, al- legislation and has both positive and negative
though temporary workers often lose their jobs aspects. It can provide a means for individuals to
early on (via non-renewal), they may be likely to be introduced to different occupations or roles
return to work more quickly than permanent in work; this is particularly the case for first-time
workers because they work in industries with an employees. It can provide an opportunity to
already high rotation of workers. The temporary gain experience in a new firm, enable on-the-job
employment rate having steadily increased over the learning and ultimately be a stepping stone to a
past two decades (see “The temporary employment permanent job.11 For others, it can provide a means
context” above), it is too early to ascertain whether to build networks, gain exposure and experience
the impact of COVID-19 will accelerate structural and secure more work in the long term.
growth in temporary employment (as discussed
in Chapter 1) or merely contribute to cyclical fluc- In developing economies, workers’ concerns
tuations over the longer term. are less about employment protection legis-
lation than about vulnerability, both in work
Previous crisis experience suggests that the and between jobs. In such economies, temporary
immediate recovery period will see a surge in work is more widespread and closely linked to in-
the use of temporary employment. There is formality. Employment protection legislation may
evidence from, for instance, the global financial be in place but is not necessarily complied with
crisis that firms are more inclined to use temporary or enforced. Temporary employment, through
employment as a means of keeping labour costs fixed-term contracts or casual work, is common – in
flexible while uncertainty continues (ILO 2016a). particular, casual employment in agriculture, and
Those industries and occupations that already especially in informal jobs – but temporary work
had a high rate of temporary employment before has also increased as a share of formal jobs in
the pandemic are particularly likely to be in a some cases (see, for example, Araújo and Sánchez
position to respond to the demand shock and on- 2016). The occurrence of temporary work, whether
going uncertainty through the use of temporary structurally inherent to industries, occupations or
workers. In developing economies, where the rate economies, or cyclical, is likely to have negative
of temporary employment was already consider- implications for workers. This is firstly because of
ably higher than in more developed economies, the prevalence of decent work deficits in developing
greater use of temporary workers is likely to economies and the lack of rights and benefits for
continue as long as uncertainty continues. In informal temporary workers: increases in the use
developing and developed economies the use of of temporary employment may exacerbate these
temporary employment during and after the crisis pre-existing decent work deficits. Secondly, the rel-
has different implications for workers, enterprises ative absence of social security and the insufficiency
and the economy. of contingency measures for workers contribute
to the vulnerability of temporary jobs. Such issues
are more concerning, however, when there is some
11 A recent meta-analysis of the “stepping stone versus dead end” theory, about the effect of temporary jobs on future labour
market performance, found that around 32 per cent of observed cases supported the hypothesis that temporary employment
provides a port of entry into stable employment positions (Filomena and Picchio 2021). The study also found that around 45 per cent
of observations were consistent with the “dead end” hypothesis, that is, that temporary employment does not necessarily provide
an entry point into stable employment positions (around 23 per cent of respondents had ambiguous or mixed findings).
degree of informality in the labour market. They between jobs can affect the regularity of income,
are then more to do with the underlying informality and temporary workers may not be eligible for
than with the temporary nature of the work. company benefits or even social protection, given
their irregular contributions. Temporary workers
Certain aspects of precariousness in temporary
are also less likely to benefit from training than
employment are common to both developed
are permanent employees, which reduces their
and developing economies, such as the absence
chances of career progression. Declining labour
of, or lack of eligibility for, social protection. In
share (see Chapter 2) and falling unionization rates
some industries or occupations, workers can get
are weakening the bargaining power of employees.
trapped in endless cycles of intermittent temporary
At the same time, greater use of temporary workers
jobs. They have to cope with lack of regular income,
can contribute to falling unionization rates owing
job insecurity and limited social protection (ILO
to the lesser propensity of temporary workers to
2015), not to mention the absence of the socio-
join unions (ILO 2021c). Moreover, there is a clear
economic benefits of longer-term employment
overlap between informality and temporary work,
within the same firm in which one has the same
both of which contribute to workers’ experience
colleagues, work environment and work activities.
of precarious employment. Evidence on the
One of the main differences between temporary
links between poverty and worker contracts and
workers and their permanent counterparts stems
labour force status has also shown that temporary
from the extent to which temporary workers are employees are among those most vulnerable to
covered by social protection. When workers dip in poverty (ILO 2015).
and out of temporary jobs, social protection is not
always in place, and often they move in and out of
unemployment or self-employment. Implications for enterprises
Temporary workers are also typically paid less Temporary contracts can provide firms with
than permanent workers. Analysis of 59 coun- flexibility in hiring and firing, facilitating
tries with available annual data has found that adjustments of the workforce in response to
temporary workers suffer significant wage penal- temporary periods of high or low demand. They
ties, of around 26 per cent (median monthly wage) also allow periods of probation for potential full-
or 18 per cent (median hourly wage), even when time new employees. For other firms, including
one controls for age, sex and education. This can start-ups and new firms, temporary employment
be explained in part by the more precarious nature can provide a less risky way to build a workforce in
of temporary employment, which entails weaker the absence of capital or other means to commit to
bargaining power, and is also consistent with the longer-term arrangements. These are additional
notion of a dual labour market, divided between ways in which the use of temporary workers
those in stable full-time jobs with open-ended enables firms to reduce the cost of labour (Lydon,
contracts and those in temporary employment. Mathä and Millard 2019).
Other factors that can influence the wage deficit
The intensity of temporary work in different
of temporary workers include the bargaining
industries can prompt different crisis response
system in place, the higher degree of informality
measures to support businesses. Temporary
experienced by temporary workers and the lower
work is common in global supply chains as well as
compliance with minimum wages in the payment
in domestic production (ILO 2015). For instance,
of informal workers (ILO 2020).
in garment manufacturing, production fluctuates
Ultimately, temporary workers tend to face according to the season (World Solidarity 2009).12 As
more precariousness, particularly in contexts a result, temporary contracts allow enterprises to
of falling labour share and falling unionization, hire workers on a short-term seasonal basis. Such
which mean that workers’ voice is weakened. practices support the viability of the sector but at
The fixed-term or short-term nature of the work the same time elicit criticism. There is also evidence
can weaken job security, chopping and changing that two distinct categories of firms in developing
12 For instance, casual workers, temporary workers and those whose work arrangements are unknown comprise over 90 per cent
of garment, textile and footwear employees in India and Pakistan and over 50 per cent of such employees in Bangladesh, Cambodia
and Myanmar (ILO, forthcoming).
X
economies employ temporary workers: those that For enterprises, temporary work offers flexi-
use temporary employment intensively and those bility and even viability, but is not without
that do so moderately. Firms’ use of temporary its downsides, including compromises to
employment may be fundamental to the business employees’ conditions of work. Whether or not
model but is also a reflection of the wider situation temporary work continues its long-term upward
of temporary labour in the countries in question trend, it remains endemic in various industries,
(Aleksynska and Berg 2016). There is scope for policy and whether or not there will be greater use of
responses to support short-term worker schemes temporary work in the immediate post-pandemic
during crises, in industries that make significant recovery period, the desirability of temporary work
use of temporary workers, including manufacturing for the enterprise needs to be balanced with the
and construction, in order to help sustain output implications for workers.
and prevent wider lay-offs (Lydon, Mathä and
Millard 2019). However, a more sustained policy
response would be to reduce the negative impacts Macroeconomic implications
on workers and wider society by discouraging the
use of temporary contracts, for instance by closing The use of temporary work has implications
the gaps in legislation and regulation between not only for workers and firms but equally for
permanent and temporary workers, either by de- the wider economy, including the functionality
regulating permanent contracts or re-regulating of the labour market. Temporary work can help
temporary contacts (Eichhorst, Marx and Wehner alleviate unemployment, by providing short-term
2017). A study on the demand for temporary opportunities for those out of work and so keeping
labour in developing countries offered evidence employment rates buoyant. However, the impact
that prohibiting the use of fixed-term contracts can be considered in terms of a “honeymoon effect”
on tasks more suitable for permanent workers is (Boeri and Garibaldi 2007): it can result in a brief
the strongest means of deterring firms from using period of employment growth, particularly while
temporary labour (Aleksynska and Berg 2016). macroeconomic conditions are stable and positive
(ILO 2016a); but the benefits can cease during
Segmented labour markets with a high pro- downturns in the business cycle and can also have
portion of temporary workers are not always a detrimental effect on permanent employment if
beneficial for firms. A high turnover of temporary they strengthen the incentives to hire temporary
workers means that a firm will forfeit the benefits workers for tasks that are more suitable for per-
of investing in employee skills and training and of manent workers (ILO 2016a).
organizational knowledge and experience. Hiring
procedures can be costly and time-consuming and A signif icant risk is that wider use of
distract from the core operations of the business. temporary contracts will lead to segmented
Apprenticeships and traineeships can enable en- labour markets that will have suboptimal out-
terprises to select the best-performing workers comes for both workers and employers and
and save on recruitment costs further down the may affect long-term productivity growth. As
line. High turnover can also have an impact on outlined in the previous section, persistent use of
worker morale and the retention of valued longer- temporary work can hamper skills development
term employees. There is indeed evidence of the and innovation, with implications for workers
negative impact of temporary employment on and enterprises but also for the economy’s
productivity growth (Lisi and Malo 2017). There long-term productivity growth. Moreover, seg-
are also firms that abuse temporary work contracts mented labour markets can result in a widening
and use sequential temporary contracts as a means gap between permanent employees, with more
of circumventing rights and benefits encoded in favourable working conditions and benefits, and
law. The workers involved often end up rotating in temporary employees, with poorer conditions of
and out of temporary contracts and as a result have work and a more vulnerable status even when
poorer social security benefits and are less likely they perform similar tasks. Such conditions can
to be in a trade union (ILO 2016a) than permanent result in increased volatility in employment and
workers. This strategy is also problematic for the unemployment, since one segment will be dispro-
enterprises themselves because skills development portionately absorbing the impact of economic
and innovation suffer (OECD 2011; Moric et al. 2021). adjustments (ILO 2016a).
X Conclusion
This chapter has looked at trends in temporary the implications of these dynamics for workers,
work and at the impact on temporary workers, enterprises and the macroeconomy are long term
as suggested by the early evidence of the and not necessarily tied to the crisis. Although
COVID-19 pandemic. It shows that temporary temporary work offers benefits to enterprises
work has a significant structural element, but that and to workers, it also brings negative effects for
there can also be increased use of temporary work both enterprises and workers. While there is no
during crises as a result of business uncertainty. consensus on the optimal mix of flexibility and
In countries with available data, there are signs security, certain measures can be used to dis-
of significant labour market churn of temporary courage the use of temporary work for tasks more
workers since the onset of the pandemic, but the suitable for permanent workers and as a means
trends have not been dissimilar to those evident of sidestepping regulations that would apply to
the year before the pandemic. It appears that permanent workers.
X
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employment-employment-growth-wages-and-transitions.
X Filomena, Mattia, and Matteo Picchio. 2021. “Are Temporary Jobs Stepping Stones or Dead
Ends? A Meta-analytical Review of the Literature”, IZA Discussion Paper 14367.
X Guest, David E., and Kerstin Isaksson. 2019. “Temporary Employment Contracts and Employee
Well-Being during and after the Financial Crisis: Introduction to the Special Issue”. Economic and
Industrial Democracy 40 (2): 165–172.
X ILO. 2012. Global Employment Trends for Youth 2012. https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/
public/---dgreports/---dcomm/documents/publication/wcms_180976.pdf.
X ———. 2015. World Employment and Social Outlook 2015: The Changing Nature of Jobs.
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publication/wcms_534326.pdf.
X ———. 2016b. “Women in Non-standard Employment”, INWORK Issue Brief 9. https://www.
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wcms_644596.pdf.
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dcomm/---publ/documents/publication/wcms_771749.pdf.
X ———. 2021c. “Trade Unions in Transition: What Will Be Their Role in the Future of Work?”
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unions.
X ———. Forthcoming. Employment, Wages and Productivity in the Asian Garment Sector: Taking Stock
of Recent Trends. Bangkok.
X Lisi, Domenico, and Miguel A. Malo. 2017. “The Impact of Temporary Employment on
Productivity”. Journal for Labour Market Research 50: 91–112.
X Lydon, Reamonn, Thomas Y. Mathä, and Stephen Millard. 2019. “Short-Time Work in the Great
Recession: Firm-Level Evidence from 20 EU Countries”. IZA Journal of Labor Policy 8.
X Molina, Pamela Caro. 2012. “Magnitud y Características de la Participación Laboral en el Empleo
Temporal Agrícola en Chile”. Si Somos Americanos 12 (2).
X Moric, Ilija, Sanja Pekovic, Đurđica Perović, Vasja Roblek, and Mirjana Pejic Bach. 2021.
“Temporary Workers and Firm Performance: Empirical and Systematic Approaches from Eastern
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X World Solidarity. 2009. “Short Term Contracting in the Asian Garment Industry”, Policy Paper for
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Appendices
X
X Appendix A. Country groupings by region and income level
Africa Americas Asia and the Pacific Europe and Central Asia
North Africa Latin America East Asia Northern, Southern

Algeria and the Caribbean China and Western Europe
Egypt Argentina Democratic People’s Republic Albania
Libya Bahamas of Korea Austria
Morocco Barbados Hong Kong, China Belgium
Sudan Belize Japan Bosnia and Herzegovina
Tunisia Bolivia (Plurinational State of) Macau, China Channel Islands
Western Sahara Brazil Mongolia Croatia
Chile Republic of Korea Denmark
Sub-Saharan Africa Colombia Taiwan, China Estonia
Angola Costa Rica Finland
Benin Cuba South-East Asia France
Botswana Dominican Republic Brunei Darussalam Germany
Burkina Faso Ecuador Cambodia Greece
Burundi El Salvador Indonesia Iceland
Cameroon Guatemala Lao People’s Democratic Republic Ireland
Cabo Verde Guyana Malaysia Italy
Central African Republic Haiti Myanmar Latvia
Chad Honduras Philippines Lithuania
Comoros Jamaica Singapore Luxembourg
Congo Mexico Thailand Malta
Côte d’Ivoire Nicaragua Timor-Leste Montenegro
Democratic Republic of the Congo Panama Viet Nam Netherlands
Djibouti Paraguay North Macedonia
Equatorial Guinea Peru The Pacific Norway
Eritrea Puerto Rico Australia Portugal
Eswatini Saint Lucia Fiji Serbia
Ethiopia Saint Vincent and the Grenadines French Polynesia Slovenia
Gabon Suriname Guam Spain
Gambia Trinidad and Tobago New Caledonia Sweden
Ghana United States Virgin Islands New Zealand Switzerland
Guinea Uruguay Papua New Guinea United Kingdom
Guinea-Bissau Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of) Samoa
Kenya Solomon Islands Eastern Europe
Lesotho North America Tonga Belarus
Liberia Canada Vanuatu Bulgaria
Madagascar United States Czechia
Malawi South Asia Hungary
Mali Afghanistan Poland
Arab States
Mauritania Bangladesh Republic of Moldova
Mauritius Bahrain Bhutan Romania
Mozambique Iraq India Russian Federation
Namibia Jordan Iran (Islamic Republic of) Slovakia
Niger Kuwait Maldives Ukraine
Nigeria Lebanon Nepal
Rwanda Occupied Palestinian Territory Pakistan Central and Western Asia
Sao Tome and Principe Oman Sri Lanka Armenia
Senegal Qatar Azerbaijan
Sierra Leone Saudi Arabia Cyprus
Somalia Syrian Arab Republic Georgia
South Africa United Arab Emirates Israel
South Sudan Yemen Kazakhstan
Togo Kyrgyzstan
Uganda Tajikistan
United Republic of Tanzania Turkey
Zambia Turkmenistan
Zimbabwe Uzbekistan
Appendix A. Country groupings by region and income level 99
High-income Upper-middle-income Lower-middle-income Low-income

countries/territories countries/territories countries/territories countries/territories
Australia Albania Angola Afghanistan

Austria Algeria Bangladesh Burkina Faso
Bahamas Argentina Belize Burundi
Bahrain Armenia Benin Central African Republic
Barbados Azerbaijan Bhutan Chad
Belgium Belarus Bolivia (Plurinational State of) Democratic People’s Republic
Brunei Darussalam Bosnia and Herzegovina Cambodia of Korea
Canada Botswana Cameroon Democratic Republic of the Congo
Channel Islands Brazil Cabo Verde Eritrea
Chile Bulgaria Comoros Ethiopia
Croatia China Congo Gambia
Cyprus Colombia Côte d’Ivoire Guinea
Czechia Costa Rica Djibouti Guinea-Bissau
Denmark Cuba Egypt Liberia
Estonia Dominican Republic El Salvador Madagascar
Finland Ecuador Eswatini Malawi
France Equatorial Guinea Ghana Mali
French Polynesia Fiji Haiti Mozambique
Germany Gabon Honduras Niger
Greece Georgia India Rwanda
Guam Guatemala Indonesia Sierra Leone
Hong Kong, China Guyana Iran (Islamic Republic of) Somalia
Hungary Iraq Kenya South Sudan
Iceland Jamaica Kyrgyzstan Sudan
Ireland Jordan Lao People’s Democratic Republic Syrian Arab Republic
Israel Kazakhstan Lesotho Togo
Italy Lebanon Mauritania Uganda
Japan Libya Mongolia Yemen
Kuwait Malaysia Morocco
Latvia Maldives Myanmar
Lithuania Mauritius Nepal
Luxembourg Mexico Nicaragua
Macau, China Montenegro Nigeria
Malta Namibia Occupied Palestinian Territory
Netherlands North Macedonia Pakistan
New Caledonia Panama Papua New Guinea
New Zealand Paraguay Philippines
Norway Peru Samoa
Oman Republic of Moldova Sao Tome and Principe
Poland Romania Senegal
Portugal Russian Federation Solomon Islands
Puerto Rico Saint Lucia Tajikistan
Qatar Saint Vincent and the Grenadines Timor-Leste
Republic of Korea Serbia Tunisia
Saudi Arabia South Africa Ukraine
Singapore Sri Lanka United Republic of Tanzania
Slovakia Suriname Uzbekistan
Slovenia Thailand Vanuatu
Spain Tonga Viet Nam
Sweden Turkey Western Sahara
Switzerland Turkmenistan Zambia
Taiwan, China Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of) Zimbabwe
Trinidad and Tobago
United Arab Emirates
United Kingdom
United States
United States Virgin Islands
Uruguay
X
X Appendix B. ILO modelled estimates
The source of all global and regional labour market similar across countries and present the highest
estimates presented in this World Employment and data quality. Hence, the data derived from such
Social Outlook report is the ILO modelled estimates surveys are more readily comparable than data
as of November 2021. The ILO has designed and obtained from other sources. Strict preference is
actively maintains a series of econometric models therefore given to labour-force-survey-based data
that are used to produce estimates of labour in the selection process. However, many developing
market indicators in the countries and years for countries, which lack the resources to carry out a
which country-reported data are unavailable. The labour force survey, do report labour market infor-
purpose of estimating labour market indicators mation on the basis of other types of household
for countries with missing data is to obtain a bal- surveys or population censuses. Consequently,
anced panel data set so that, every year, regional because of the need to balance the competing
and global aggregates with consistent country goals of data comparability and data coverage,
coverage can be computed. These allow the ILO to some (non-labour-force-survey) household survey
analyse global and regional estimates of key labour data and, more rarely, population-census-based
market indicators and related trends. Moreover, data are included in the models.
the resulting country-level data, combining both
The second criterion is that only nationally repre-
reported and imputed observations, constitute
sentative (that is, not geographically limited) labour
a unique, internationally comparable data set on
market indicators are included. Observations
labour market indicators.
corresponding to only urban or only rural areas
are not included, because large differences typically
Data collection and evaluation exist between rural and urban labour markets,
and the use of only rural or urban data would not
The ILO modelled estimates are generally derived be consistent with benchmark data such as gross
for 189 countries, disaggregated by sex and age domestic product (GDP).
as appropriate. Before running the models to
The third criterion is that the age groups covered by
obtain the estimates, labour market information
the observed data must be sufficiently comparable
specialists from the ILO Department of Statistics,
across countries. Countries report labour market
in cooperation with the Research Department,
information for a variety of age groups, and the
evaluate existing country‑reported data and select
age group selected can influence the observed
only those observations deemed sufficiently com-
value of a given labour market indicator.
parable across countries. The recent efforts by the
ILO to produce harmonized indicators from coun- The last criterion for excluding data from a given
try-reported microdata have greatly increased the model is whether a methodological break is present
comparability of the observations. Nonetheless, or a particular data point is clearly an outlier. In
it is still necessary to select the data on the basis both cases, a balance has to be struck between
of the following four criteria: (a) type of data using as much data as possible and including ob-
source; (b) geographical coverage; (c) age-group servations likely to distort the results. During this
coverage; and (d) presence of methodological process, particular attention is paid to the existing
breaks or outliers. metadata and the underlying methodology for
obtaining the data point under consideration.
With regard to the first criterion, in order for labour
market data to be included in a particular model, Historical estimates can be revised in cases where
they must be derived from a labour force survey, previously used input data are discarded because
a household survey or, more rarely, a population a source that is more accurate according to the
census. National labour force surveys are generally above-mentioned criteria has become available.
Appendix B. ILO modelled estimates 101
General methodology there are differences between the various models

because of specific features of the underlying data.
used to estimate labour Further details are provided below for each model.
market indicators
Labour market indicators are estimated using a Models used to estimate
series of models that establish statistical relation-
ships between observed labour market indicators
labour market indicators
and explanatory variables. These relationships are up to 2020
used to impute missing observations and to make
projections for the indicators. Labour force estimates
There are many potential statistical relationships, The basic data used as input for the labour force
also called “model specifications”, that could be participation rate (LFPR) model are single-year
used to predict labour market indicators. The key LFPRs disaggregated by sex and age groups, the
to obtaining accurate and unbiased estimates latter comprising two intervals (15–24 and 25+).
is to select the best model specification in each The underlying methodology has been extensively
case. The ILO modelled estimates generally rely assessed in terms of pseudo-out-of-sample per-
on a procedure called “cross-validation”, which is formance. However, for certain types of missing
used to identify those models that minimize the data patterns, the LFPR and the unemployment
expected error and variance of the estimation. This rate models are the only two models described
procedure involves repeatedly computing a number in this section that do not carry out automatized
of candidate model specifications using random model selection.
subsets of the data: the missing observations are
predicted and the prediction error is calculated for Linear interpolation is used to fill in the missing
each iteration. Each candidate model is assessed on data for countries for which such a procedure is
the basis of the pseudo-out-of-sample root mean possible. The performance of this procedure has
square error, although other metrics such as result been found to be reasonable, which is not sur-
stability are also assessed depending on the model. prising, given that the LFPR is a very persistent
This makes it possible to identify the statistical variable. In all other cases, weighted multivariate
relationship that provides the best estimate of a estimation is carried out. Countries are divided
given labour market indicator. It is worth noting into nine estimation groups, which were chosen on
that the most appropriate statistical relationship the combined basis of broad economic similarity
for this purpose may differ according to the country. and geographical proximity. On the basis of the
data structure and the heterogeneity among the
The extraordinary disruptions to the global labour countries covered by the input data, the model
market caused by the COVID-19 crisis have ren- was specified using panel data with country fixed
dered the series of models underlying the ILO effects. The regressions are weighted by the in-
modelled estimates less suitable for estimating verse of the likelihood of a labour force survey’s
and projecting the evolution of labour market availability. The explanatory variables used include
indicators. For this reason, the methodology has economic and demographic variables. To produce
been adapted, and explanatory variables that are estimates for 2020, a cross-validation approach is
specific to the COVID-19 crisis have been introduced
used to select the model that minimizes prediction
into the modelling process.
error in that specific year. The tested models in-
The benchmark for the ILO modelled estimates clude annual averages of high-frequency indicators
is the 2019 Revision of the United Nations World related to the evolution of the COVID-19 pandemic.
Population Prospects, which provides estimates The global figures are calculated using the bench-
and projections of the total population broken mark population from the United Nations World
down into five-year age groups. The working-age Population Prospects and the LFPRs.
population comprises everyone who is at least
Rebalancing the estimates ensures that the implied
15 years of age.
total rate obtained from summing the demographic
Although the same basic approach is followed in breakdowns matches the total rate derived from
the models used to estimate all the indicators, the labour force surveys or estimated.
X
Unemployment estimates publication lag in order to predict the current value

of the target variable. The specific target variable of
This model estimates a complete panel data set the ILO nowcasting model is the change in hours
of unemployment rates disaggregated by sex worked adjusted for population aged 15–64 relative
and age (15–24, 25+). For countries for which at to the fourth quarter of 2019 (seasonally adjusted).
least one observation is reported,1 regressions The model produces an estimate of the change in
involving country fixed effects are used. Three hours worked adjusted for population aged 15–64
models are combined with equal weighting in order relative to this baseline. In addition, a benchmark of
to impute missing values. The models have been weekly hours worked in the fourth quarter of 2019
chosen based on pseudo-out-of-sample root mean is used to compute the full-time equivalent number
square error and stability of results (judgemental of jobs corresponding to the changes in working
assessment of the two components). For countries hours adjusted for population aged 15–64. This
with no reported observations, models are selected benchmark is also used to compute the time series
on the basis of cross-validation. The evolution of of average hours worked adjusted for population
the average unemployment rate of a particular aged 15–64.
demographic group in a particular region is highly
The ILO nowcasting model draws from multiple
predictive of the evolution of the unemployment
sources: labour force survey data up to the third
rate of that particular group in a country in that
quarter of 2021 and up-to-date high-frequency
region. A separate cross-validation approach is
economic data such as retail sales, administrative
used to select the model that minimizes prediction
labour market data and confidence survey data.
error in the year 2020. The candidate models in-
Up-to-date mobile phone data from Google
clude annual averages of high-frequency indicators
Community Mobility Reports and the most recent
related to the evolution of the COVID-19 pandemic.
values of the COVID-19 Government Response
Rebalancing the estimates ensures that the implied Stringency Index (hereafter “Oxford Stringency
total rate obtained from summing the demographic Index”) are also used in the estimates.
breakdowns matches the total rate derived from
Drawing on available real-time data, the model esti-
the labour force surveys or estimated.
mates the historical statistical relationship between
these indicators and hours worked per person
Hours worked aged 15–64 and uses the resulting coefficients to
predict how hours worked adjusted for population
The ratio of weekly hours worked to the population
aged 15–64 change in response to the most recent
aged 15–64 is the target variable that is estimated
observed values of the nowcasting indicators.
for countries with missing data. Total weekly
Multiple candidate relationships were evaluated
working hours are derived by multiplying this ratio
on the basis of their prediction accuracy and per-
by the estimate of the population aged 15–64.
formance around turning points to construct a
For estimates up to and including 2019, the regres- weighted average nowcast. For countries for which
sion approach uses the share of the population high-frequency data on economic activity were
aged 15–64 in the total population, the employ- available, but either data on the target variable
ment-to-population ratio and the rate of time- itself were not available or the above methodology
related underemployment to predict missing values. did not work well, the estimated coefficients and
For countries with no observations of this indicator, data from the panel of countries were used to
the country intercept is estimated by combining produce an estimate.
the regional mean and the income group mean.
An indirect approach is used for the remaining
Working hours up to and including the third quarter countries: this involves extrapolating the change
of 2021 are estimated using the ILO nowcasting in hours adjusted for population aged 15–64 from
model. This is a data-driven statistical prediction countries with direct nowcasts. The extrapolation is
model that draws on the values of high-frequency based on the observed decline in mobility, derived
indicators in real time or with a very short from the Google Community Mobility Reports, and
1 For ease of exposition, we abstract here from the case in which reported observations exist for some demographic groups but
not for others in a given country and year.
the Oxford Stringency Index, since countries with The next step estimates the evolution of the
comparable drops in mobility and similar strin- shares of each category, using information on the
gent restrictions are likely to experience a similar economic cycle and also on economic structure
decline in hours worked adjusted for population and demographics. The third step estimates the
aged 15–64. From the Google Community Mobility change in the shares of each category in the years
Reports, an average of the workplace and “retail 2020 and 2021. Lastly, the estimates are rebal-
and recreation” indices is used. The stringency and anced to ensure that the individual shares add
mobility indices are combined into a single variable up to 100 per cent.
using principal component analysis.2 For countries
The estimated sectors are based on an ILO-specific
without data on restrictions, mobility data, if
classification that ensures maximum consistency
available, and up-to-date data on the incidence
between the third and fourth revisions of the
of COVID-19 were used to extrapolate the impact
United Nations International Standard Industrial
on hours worked adjusted for population aged
Classification of All Economic Activities (ISIC). The
15–64. Because of countries’ different practices
sectors A, B, C, F, G, I, K, O, P and Q correspond
in counting cases of COVID-19 infection, the more
to the ISIC Rev.4 classification. Furthermore, the
homogeneous concept of deceased patients is
following composite sectors are defined:
used as a proxy for the extent of the pandemic.
The variable was averaged for each month, but “Utilities” is composed of sectors D and E.
X
the data were updated daily on the basis of the Our
“Transport, storage and communication” is
X
World in Data online repository.3 Finally, for a small
composed of sectors H and J.
number of countries with no readily available data
at the time of estimation, the regional average was “Real estate, business and administrative activ-
X
used to impute the target variable. ities” is composed of sectors L, M and N.
“Other services” is composed of sectors R, S,

X
Estimates of the distribution T and U.
of employment by status, The estimated occupations correspond in prin-
occupation and economic activity ciple to the major categories of the 1988 and
2008 iterations of the ILO International Standard
The distribution of employment by status, occu-
Classification of Occupations (ISCO-88 and ISCO-
pation and economic activity (sector) is estimated
08). However, subsistence farming occupations
for total employment and also disaggregated by
were classified inconsistently across countries, and
sex. In the first step, a cross-country regression
sometimes even within one country across years.
is performed to identify the share of each of the
According to ISCO-08, subsistence farmers should
employment-related categories in countries for
be classified in ISCO category 6, namely as skilled
which no data are available. This step uses informa-
agricultural workers. However, a number of coun-
tion on demography, per capita income, economic
tries with a high incidence of subsistence farming
structure and a model‑specific indicator with high
reported a low share of workers in category 6, but a
predictive power for the estimated distribution.
high share in category 9 (elementary occupations).
The indicators for each category are as follows:
This means that the shares of occupational cat-
for status, the index called “work for an employ-
X egories 6 and 9 can differ widely between countries
er” from the Gallup World Poll; that have a very similar economic structure. It is
not feasible to determine the extent of misclassifi-
for occupation, the share of value added of a
X
cation between categories 6 and 9. Consequently,
sector in which people with a given occupation
in order to obtain a consistent and internationally
are most likely to work;
comparable classification, categories 6 and 9 are
for sector, the share of value added of the sector.
X merged and estimated jointly.
2 For the first three quarters of 2021, a dummy variable for developed countries to account for differential impacts of workplace
mobility and stringency on working hours was also used, as well as a detrending procedure for Google Mobility Reports data.
3 Hannah Ritchie, Edouard Mathieu, Lucas Rodés-Guirao, Cameron Appel, Charlie Giattino, Esteban Ortiz-Ospina, Joe Hasell, Bobbie
Macdonald, Diana Beltekian and Max Roser, “Coronavirus Pandemic (COVID-19)”, Our World in Data, 2020.
X
Estimates of employment worked serves as a basis for the simultaneous

projection of employment, unemployment and
by economic class the labour force.
The estimates of employment by economic class
are produced for a subset of countries. The model Projecting hours worked
uses the data derived from the unemployment,
status and economic activity models as inputs in The estimate of working hours in the fourth quarter
addition to other demographic, social and eco- of 2021 is based on a crisis recovery model. This is
nomic variables. specified as an error correction model of the form
The methodology involves two steps. In the first Δh(i, t) = β(0, i) + β(1, i) gap(i, t – 1) + β2 gap2(i, t – 1)
step, the various economic classes of workers are + β3 h(i, t – 1) + β4 ΔGDP(i, t) (1)
estimated using the economic class of the overall
population (among other explanatory variables). The “gap” refers to the difference in the hours
This procedure is based on the fact that the distri- worked relative to a medium-term trend, gap(i, t) =
bution of economic class in the overall population h(i, t) – trend(i, t), where the evolution of the trend
and the distribution in the working population are in working hours is determined by a geometric
closely related. The economic class of the overall average of the long-run target and a function of
population is derived from the World Bank’s the current working hours. The variable of interest,
PovcalNet database.4 In general, the economic class Δh(i, t), is the change in working hours per population
is defined in terms of consumption, but in particular aged 15–64. The crisis recovery mechanism works
cases for which no other data exist income data through the gap, whose parameters β(1, i) and β2
are used instead. determine the speed with which working hours
increase to close the gap. The model mechanics
Once the estimates from this first step have been
are such that larger gaps result in a larger change
obtained, a second step estimates the data for
in hours worked. In order to capture scarring or
those observations for which neither data on the
hysteresis, the medium-term trend is modelled
economic class of the working population nor
to react to the gap with a parameter γ1, but the
estimates from step 1 are available. This second
medium-term trend also has a component re-
step relies on cross-validation and subsequent
verting to its long-term target with a parameter γ2.
selection of the best-performing model to ensure
The country-specific constant, β(0, i), is calculated
a satisfactory performance.
to imply zero change when the long-run target
In the present edition of the model, employment is achieved.
is subdivided into four different economic classes:
The parameters of the projection model are esti-
workers living on US$0–1.90 per day, US$1.90–3.20
mated empirically as far as possible. Equation (1)
per day, US$3.20–5.50 per day and above US$5.50
is estimated at quarterly intervals for 30 countries
per day, in purchasing power parity terms.
with suitable data up to 2019 using multilevel
mixed-effects methods, which means that the
Models used to project labour distribution of the slope parameters for the gap
is also estimated. This provides baseline estimates
market indicators of the parameters. The impact of vaccination on the
recovery speed parameter, β(1, i), is also estimated.
The ILO has developed projection models to es-
This parameter is then adjusted for each country
timate and forecast hours worked, employment,
according to the projected progress in vaccination.
unemployment and the labour force for the years
2021 to 2023. In a first step, the hours worked are The scarring parameters are set to γ1 = 0.05 and γ2 =
projected. In a second step, the projection of hours 0.9 for upper-middle- and high-income countries
4 The 2020–21 poverty data are from the World Bank, “Macro and Poverty Outlook: Country-by-Country Analysis and Projections
for the Developing World”, 2021, combined with World Bank estimates (June 2021) of the impact of COVID-19 on poverty. For a
discussion of the methodology to estimate the impact, see Daniel Gerszon Mahler, Nishant Yonzan, Christoph Lakner, R. Andres
Castaneda Aguilar and Haoyu Wu, “Updated Estimates of the Impact of COVID-19 on Global Poverty: Turning the Corner on the
Pandemic in 2021?”, World Bank Blogs (blog), 24 June 2021.
and to γ1 = 0.02 and γ2 = 0.95 for lower-middle- and rates, a block of observations before and after the
low-income countries. The logic here is that, in the time periods of the evaluation sample need to be
latter country groups, people are more likely to excluded from the estimation in order to ensure
fall back on low-quality employment options out the training sample’s independence from the
of necessity. This does not mean that the affected observation that is being evaluated. Models are
workers will be less scarred by an extended loss combined using a “jackknife model-averaging”
of activity; on the contrary, they may have an ever technique described by Hansen and Racine,6 which
harder time getting back into quality employment essentially finds the linear combination of models
the longer they remain in low-quality activities. that minimizes the variance of the prediction error.
The quarterly projection model for employment
and the labour force focuses on the hours worked
Projecting employment,
per employed person and the hours worked per
unemployment and person in the labour force. Those ratios have been
the labour force strongly affected by the COVID-19 crisis, espe-
cially in countries where employment retention
The projection of employment, unemployment and schemes and furloughs have been widespread.
the labour force involves two steps. The first step The projection model is based on the assumption
exploits quarterly data from the year 2021 that that this ratio will return to its long-term trend. In
are available for 58 countries in order to improve essence, firms will realize how many workers they
the precision of the estimates for that year. The will need, and will adjust employment so that the
second step utilizes a projection model specified hours worked per worker will recover. The speed
at the annual frequency to estimate and project of recovery is estimated using a multilevel mixed
the labour market indicators for the remaining model quite similar to the one used to project the
countries.5 Since the labour force equals the sum hours worked.
of unemployment and employment, one should
The annual projection model utilizes vector error
only need to project two of the three indicators
correction models. In fact, two different models
and could obtain the third as a residual. However,
are estimated, whose projections are then aver-
owing to the high uncertainty and the resulting
aged. In the first model the dependent variables
large variance in the projections, all three indicators
are the change in the unemployment rate, the
are rebalanced to ensure that the identity holds.
employment-to-population ratio and the labour
The quarterly projections for the unemployment force participation ratio. The independent vari-
rate use high-frequency data such as confidence ables are the lag of the respective variable, GDP
indices in addition to economic growth forecasts growth and the lagged value of the change in one
in order to test a series of models. These models of the other variables. The second model uses the
are evaluated using the model search routines hours worked per employed person and the hours
described above, including splitting the data into worked in ratio to the labour force, following the
training and evaluation samples. Because of the same reasoning as underpins the model estimated
high serial correlation of quarterly unemployment at quarterly frequency.
5 Although the year 2021 lies in the past at the time of this report’s publication, the unavailability of real data spanning the entire
year – at the time of writing – means that a projection model is needed to derive the estimates for the year 2021.
6 Bruce Hansen and Jeffrey Racine, “Jackknife Model Averaging”, Journal of Econometrics 167, No. 1 (2012): 38–46.
X
Appendix C. Tables of labour market indicators, world,

X
by country income group and by region or subregion
Table C1. World
Indicator Unit Total (age 15+)
2005 2010 2015 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023
Total weekly hours worked Millions 2 548.3 2 674.3 2 797.5 2 883.1 2 653.3 2 809.9 2 908.3 2 958.2
(FTE @ 48 hours/week)
Ratio of total weekly hours worked Hours 29.0 28.2 27.7 27.5 25.1 26.3 27.0 27.2
to population aged 15–64
Labour force Millions 2 993.5 3 157.3 3 327.1 3 473.2 3 407.0 3 471.4 3 531.7 3 577.8
Labour force participation rate Per cent 63.7 62.2 61.1 60.5 58.6 59.0 59.3 59.4
Employment Millions 2 817.0 2 971.0 3 140.2 3 287.3 3 183.3 3 257.2 3 324.5 3 375.1
Employment-to-population ratio Per cent 59.9 58.5 57.7 57.3 54.8 55.4 55.8 56.0
Unemployment Millions 176.5 186.2 186.9 185.9 223.7 214.2 207.2 202.7
Unemployment rate Per cent 5.9 5.9 5.6 5.4 6.6 6.2 5.9 5.7
Wage and salaried workers Millions 1 282.3 1 433.3 1 620.5 1 753.6 1 693.0 1 739.6
Self-employed workers Millions 1 534.7 1 537.8 1 519.7 1 533.7 1 490.3 1 517.7
Share of wage and salaried workers Per cent 45.5 48.2 51.6 53.3 53.2 53.4
Share of self-employed workers Per cent 54.5 51.8 48.4 46.7 46.8 46.6
Extreme working poverty Millions 533.6 416.7 246.0 220.3 228.5

(<US$1.90 PPP per day)
Share of extreme working poverty Per cent 18.9 14.0 7.8 6.7 7.2
Indicator Unit Female (age 15+) Male (age 15+)
2019 2020 2021 2022 2019 2020 2021 2022
Wage and salaried workers Millions 703.2 675.7 693.0 1 050.4 1 017.3 1 046.6
Self-employed workers Millions 592.8 573.6 583.2 940.9 916.8 934.5
Indicator Unit Youth (age 15–24) Adult (age 25+)
2019 2020 2021 2022 2019 2020 2021 2022
Labour force Millions 497.0 466.9 2 976.2 2 940.1
Labour force participation rate Per cent 41.2 38.6 65.7 63.9
Employment Millions 429.8 395.9 2 857.5 2 787.4
Employment-to-population ratio Per cent 35.7 32.7 63.1 60.6
Unemployment Millions 67.2 71.0 118.7 152.7
Unemployment rate Per cent 13.5 15.2 4.0 5.2

Appendix C. Tables of labour market indicators, world, by country income group and by region or subregion 107
Table C2. Low-income countries
2005 2010 2015 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023
Total weekly hours worked Millions 117.7 135.1 153.8 173.6 166.9 175.4 185.7 194.7
Labour force Millions 172.1 195.7 224.2 252.7 253.4 262.9 273.4 283.1
Employment Millions 163.9 186.0 213.2 240.3 239.1 247.5 257.0 267.0
Wage and salaried workers Millions 25.1 31.9 39.7 46.8 44.1 46.9

2019 2020 2021 2022 2019 2020 2021 2022
2019 2020 2021 2022 2019 2020 2021 2022
Labour force Millions 66.6 64.8 186.1 188.6
Employment Millions 61.2 58.9 179.2 180.3

X
Table C3. Lower-middle-income countries
2005 2010 2015 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023
Total weekly hours worked Millions 924.0 1 004.1 1 065.3 1 124.9 1 014.8 1 080.5 1 142.3 1 175.2
Employment Millions 985.6 1 065.3 1 130.1 1 198.0 1 149.1 1 188.9 1 227.6 1 254.8

2019 2020 2021 2022 2019 2020 2021 2022
2019 2020 2021 2022 2019 2020 2021 2022
Employment Millions 176.1 161.6 1 021.9 987.5

Table C4. Upper-middle-income countries
2005 2010 2015 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023
Total weekly hours worked Millions 1 092.5 1 115.9 1 140.5 1 127.2 1 048.1 1 112.9 1 125.3 1 128.3

2019 2020 2021 2022 2019 2020 2021 2022
2019 2020 2021 2022 2019 2020 2021 2022
Employment Millions 135.4 123.1 1 126.1 1 100.3

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Table C5. High-income countries
2005 2010 2015 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023
2019 2020 2021 2022 2019 2020 2021 2022
2019 2020 2021 2022 2019 2020 2021 2022

Table C6. Africa
2005 2010 2015 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023

2019 2020 2021 2022 2019 2020 2021 2022
2019 2020 2021 2022 2019 2020 2021 2022

X
Table C7. North Africa
2005 2010 2015 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023

2019 2020 2021 2022 2019 2020 2021 2022
2019 2020 2021 2022 2019 2020 2021 2022

Table C8. Sub-Saharan Africa
2005 2010 2015 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023

2019 2020 2021 2022 2019 2020 2021 2022
2019 2020 2021 2022 2019 2020 2021 2022

X
Table C9. Latin America and the Caribbean
2005 2010 2015 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023

2019 2020 2021 2022 2019 2020 2021 2022
2019 2020 2021 2022 2019 2020 2021 2022

Table C10. North America
2005 2010 2015 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023
2019 2020 2021 2022 2019 2020 2021 2022
2019 2020 2021 2022 2019 2020 2021 2022

X
Table C11. Arab States (non-GCC)
2005 2010 2015 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023

2019 2020 2021 2022 2019 2020 2021 2022
2019 2020 2021 2022 2019 2020 2021 2022

Table C12. Arab States (GCC)
2005 2010 2015 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023
2019 2020 2021 2022 2019 2020 2021 2022
2019 2020 2021 2022 2019 2020 2021 2022

X
Table C13. East Asia
2005 2010 2015 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023

2019 2020 2021 2022 2019 2020 2021 2022
2019 2020 2021 2022 2019 2020 2021 2022

Table C14. South-East Asia
2005 2010 2015 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023

2019 2020 2021 2022 2019 2020 2021 2022
2019 2020 2021 2022 2019 2020 2021 2022

X
Table C15. South Asia
2005 2010 2015 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023

2019 2020 2021 2022 2019 2020 2021 2022
2019 2020 2021 2022 2019 2020 2021 2022

Table C16. The Pacific
2005 2010 2015 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023

2019 2020 2021 2022 2019 2020 2021 2022
2019 2020 2021 2022 2019 2020 2021 2022

X
Table C17. Northern, Southern and Western Europe
2005 2010 2015 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023
2019 2020 2021 2022 2019 2020 2021 2022
2019 2020 2021 2022 2019 2020 2021 2022

Table C18. Eastern Europe
2005 2010 2015 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023
2019 2020 2021 2022 2019 2020 2021 2022
2019 2020 2021 2022 2019 2020 2021 2022

X
Table C19. Central and Western Asia
2005 2010 2015 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023

2019 2020 2021 2022 2019 2020 2021 2022
2019 2020 2021 2022 2019 2020 2021 2022

Advancing social justice,
promoting decent work
The International Labour The COVID-19 pandemic dominated the global economy for a second
Organization is the United year in 2021, preventing a full and balanced recovery of labour
Nations agency for the world markets. Furthermore, pandemic-related disruptions, structural
of work. We bring together deficiencies and new risks have reduced the potential for decent work
governments, employers and to be created.
workers to drive a human-centred
This year’s World Employment and Social Outlook: Trends provides
approach to the future of work
a comprehensive assessment of how the labour market recovery
through employment creation,
is projected to unfold. The world is expected to experience a great
rights at work, social protection
divergence, depending on countries’ access to vaccines and their
and social dialogue.
capacity to put in place supportive macroeconomic policies. The
report also discusses pre-existing and new global and regional
challenges that risk derailing the recovery, thereby prolonging
current labour market deficits. Finally, the report investigates trends
in temporary employment both before and during the crisis.
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ILO Flagship Report
World
X
Employment
and Social Outlook
Trends
2022
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Executive summary 1
As the pandemic persists, global labour

markets struggle to recover
The COVID-19 pandemic dominated the global economy for a
second year in 2021, preventing a full and balanced recovery
of labour markets. The pace at which economic activity has
recovered has depended largely on the extent to which the virus
has been contained, such that the recovery is following different
patterns across geographies and sectors. However, every new
outbreak brings setbacks. Many gains in decent work made
before the pandemic have been significantly impacted upon, and
pre-existing decent work deficits are dampening the prospects
of a sustainable recovery in many regions.
The global labour market outlook has deteriorated since the
ILO’s last projections; a return to pre-pandemic performance is
likely to remain elusive for much of the world over the coming
years. On the basis of the latest economic growth forecasts, the
ILO is projecting that total hours worked globally in 2022 will
remain almost 2 per cent below their pre-pandemic level when
adjusted for population growth, corresponding to a deficit of
52 million full-time equivalent jobs (assuming a 48-hour working
week). Global unemployment is projected to stand at 207 million
in 2022, surpassing its 2019 level by some 21 million. This outlook
represents a substantial deterioration since the projections made
in the previous edition of World Employment and Social Outlook:
Trends published in June 2021, when the shortfall in working hours
relative to the fourth quarter of 2019 was projected to narrow to
less than 1 per cent in 2022.
Recovery patterns vary significantly across regions, coun-
tries and sectors. Since the onset of the recovery, employment
growth trends in low- and middle-income countries have remained
significantly below those observed in richer economies, owing
largely to the lower vaccination rates and tighter fiscal space in
developing countries. The impact has been particularly serious for
developing nations that experienced higher levels of inequality,
more divergent working conditions and weaker social protection
systems even before the pandemic.
Overall, key labour market indicators in all regions – Africa,
the Americas, the Arab States, Asia and the Pacific, and Europe
and Central Asia – have yet to return to pre-pandemic levels.
For all regions, projections to 2023 suggest that a full recovery will
remain elusive. The European and Pacific regions are projected to
come closest to that goal, whereas the outlook is the most negative
for Latin America and the Caribbean and for South-East Asia. All
regions face severe downside risks to their labour market recovery
that stem from the ongoing impact of the pandemic. Moreover, the
pandemic is structurally altering labour markets in such ways that
a return to pre-crisis baselines may well be insufficient to make
up for the damage caused by the pandemic.
X
Pandemic disruptions, structural deficiencies and new risks

reduce the potential for decent work to be created
Underlying structural deficiencies and inequal- Changes in market demand and rising online
ities are amplifying and prolonging the adverse services, skyrocketing trading costs and pandemic-
impact of the crisis. The large informal economy in induced changes in labour supply have all created
many developing countries is impairing the efficacy bottlenecks in manufacturing, impeding the return
of some policy instruments, since informal enter- to pre-pandemic labour market conditions. Intense
prises have been less able to access formal lines of and prolonged supply chain shocks are creating
credit or COVID-19-related government support. uncertainty in the business climate and could lead
Thus relief measures have been less likely to reach to a reconfiguration of the geography of produc-
those in need, and inequities within countries have tion, with significant implications for employment.
worsened. Smaller businesses have experienced
The rise in prices of commodities and essential
greater declines in employment and working hours
goods, while labour markets remain far from
than have larger ones.
recovered, significantly reduces disposable
Developing economies that rely on exports of income and thereby adds to the cost of the
labour-intensive goods or commodities have crisis. Going forward, macro-policymakers face
particularly struggled to adjust to volatile difficult choices, with important international spill-
demand resulting from pandemic-related overs. If and when there are signs of rising inflation
shifts in economic growth. Tourism-dependent expectations, calls for monetary and fiscal policy
economies are suffering heavily from border to be tightened at a faster rate can be expected to
closures and lost revenues. multiply. At the same time, given the asymmetric
nature of the recovery, policy tightening would
Employment losses and reductions in working hit low-income households particularly severely,
hours have led to reduced incomes. In developing meaning that attention will need to be devoted to
countries, in the absence of comprehensive social maintaining adequate levels of social protection.
protection systems that can provide adequate
benefits to stabilize incomes, this has compounded The recovery of labour demand to pre-crisis
the financial stress of already economically vulner- levels can be expected to take time, which will
able households, with cascading effects on health slow growth in employment and working hours.
and nutrition. The pandemic has pushed millions of The sluggish and uneven recovery of working hours
in 2021 kept labour incomes subdued. Since most
children into poverty, and new estimates suggest
workers in the world had insufficient, if any, income
that, in 2020, an additional 30 million adults fell into
replacement, households were required to run
extreme poverty (living on less than US$1.90 per
down their savings. The effect has been particularly
day in purchasing power parity) while being out
pronounced in developing countries, where the
of paid work. In addition, the number of extreme
share of economically vulnerable populations is
working poor – workers who do not earn enough
larger and the size of stimulus packages has been
through their work to keep themselves and their
smaller. The consequent loss in income has further
families above the poverty line – rose by 8 million.
depressed aggregate demand, creating a vicious
The asymmetric recovery of the global economy circle that underscores the need for concerted pol-
has started to cause long-term knock-on icies to expedite labour market recovery, tackle
effects, in terms of persistent uncertainty inequities and return the global economy to a path
and instability, that could derail the recovery. of sustainable growth.
Executive summary 3
Labour market recovery is unequal and incomplete

In 2022, ILO projections suggest that there will The disparity is most pronounced in upper-
be a working-hour deficit equivalent to 52 mil- middle-income countries, where women’s em-
lion full-time jobs jobs owing to crisis-induced ployment-to-population ratio in 2022 is projected
labour market disruptions. Although this figure to be 1.8 percentage points below its 2019 level,
is a sizeable improvement on 2021, when hours versus a gap of only 1.6 percentage points for
worked adjusted for population growth stood men, despite women having an employment rate
below their level in the fourth quarter of 2019 by the 16 percentage points below that of men to start
equivalent of 125 million full-time jobs (assuming with. The closing of schools, colleges and skills-
a 48-hour working week), it remains extremely training institutions for prolonged periods in many
high. In 2022, the employment-to-population countries has weakened learning outcomes, and
ratio is projected to stand at 55.9 per cent – that this will have cascading long-term implications
is, 1.4 percentage points below its 2019 level. for the employment and further education and
training of young people, especially those who have
Many of those who left the labour force have
had limited or no access to online learning oppor-
not come back, so the level of unemployment
tunities. Moreover, informal wage employment
still underestimates the full employment impact
still trails its pre-crisis level by 8 per cent. Own-
of the crisis. The global labour force participation
account and contributing family work, which are
rate, having fallen by close to 2 percentage points
often characterized by poor working conditions,
between 2019 and 2020, is projected to recover
were on a declining trend before the crisis. The
only partially to just below 59.3 per cent by 2022,
increase in the incidence of such work in 2020 is
around 1 percentage point below its 2019 level. The
estimated to have persisted in 2021.
global unemployment rate is projected to remain
above its 2019 level until at least 2023. The total The pandemic has started to induce economic
number of the unemployed is projected to decline changes that could become structural, with
by 7 million in 2022 to 207 million; in comparison, enduring implications for labour markets. The
the 2019 figure was 186 million. confluence of various macroeconomic trends is
creating uncertainty around whether the drop
Labour market recovery is fastest in high-
in working hours, employment and labour force
income countries. These account for about half
participation is temporary, or whether the pan-
of the global decline in unemployment between
demic is expediting more structural labour market
2020 and 2022 while constituting only around a
exits or labour-saving transformations – each of
fifth of the global labour force. By contrast, since
those requiring different courses of action. The
the onset of the pandemic lower-middle-income
pandemic is deepening various forms of inequality,
countries have fared the worst, and they are also
from exacerbating gender inequity to widening
seeing the slowest recovery.
the digital divide. Changes in the composition of
The recovery is unequal within countries. employment relationships – such as reliance on
The disproportionate impact of the pandemic informal self-employment to earn a living, the rise
on women’s employment is projected to narrow in remote work, and various trends with regard to
at the global level over the coming years, but a temporary work – all risk impairing the quality of
sizeable gap is nevertheless projected to remain. working conditions.
X
Temporary work as a buffer in times of economic uncertainty

Before the onset of the pandemic, temporary to no access to social protection systems and
employment as a share of total employment employment protection.
had been increasing over time, though not uni-
Temporary workers suffered job losses at
formly across sectors and countries. Temporary
a higher rate than non-temporary workers
employment is largely structural and driven by
at the beginning of the pandemic, but most
the sectoral and occupational composition of the
economies have since seen a rise in newly cre-
labour market; however, during crises, it tends to ated temporary jobs. The net effect of these two
serve as a shock absorber as employers scale back trends is that the incidence of temporary work has
on the use of temporary workers. Looked at in the tended to remain stable through the pandemic.
longer term, temporary employment can nega- The trends, based on limited available data, are
tively impact on the long-term productivity of firms not dissimilar from pre-crisis trends, highlighting
through its effects on job retention, training and the endemic churn of temporary workers before
innovation. Workers are also adversely affected by the crisis. Notably, however, over a quarter of those
temporary work, given the greater job and income in temporary work in the early part of 2021 (in
insecurity and lower access to social protection. countries with available data) were previously
Temporary employment rates are higher in in non-temporary jobs, which highlights the
low- and middle-income countries (just over underlying economic uncertainty and associated
one third of total employment) than in high- employment insecurity at that time.
income countries (15 per cent). But the nature of In the early stages of the pandemic, in countries
temporary employment varies between developed characterized by dual labour markets, informal
and developing countries. In the former, although it employment did not play its traditional counter-
may be an entry point into a more permanent pos- cyclical role of absorbing displaced workers
ition, or a flexible and strategic means of entering from the formal sector. In many such countries
and engaging in the labour market, temporary informal workers were more likely than formal
workers lack job security and regular incomes and workers to lose their jobs or be forced into inactivity
do not always fulfil the eligibility requirements by lockdowns and other measures. As economic
for access to social protection or employment activity gradually resumed, informal employment,
protection. For workers in the developing world, especially self-employment, has had a strong re-
on the other hand, temporary work often comes bound and many informal workers have returned
in the form of informal employment with little from inactivity.
Executive summary 5
Prevention of long-lasting damage requires

a comprehensive human-centred policy agenda
At the International Labour Conference in June development and active labour market policies
2021, the ILO’s 187 Member States discussed (including ones to bridge the digital divide), as
global, regional and national policy responses well as sustained investment in universal social
to the crisis. At the close of their discussions, they protection. Proactive macroeconomic policy has
adopted the Global Call to Action for a Human- become even more critical as the pandemic’s inter-
Centred Recovery from the COVID-19 Crisis that is action with technology and other “megatrends”
Inclusive, Sustainable and Resilient, emphasizing threatens to accelerate widening inequalities across
the need for a fully inclusive recovery based on and within economies.
accelerated implementation of the ILO Centenary
Extending and ensuring the protection of all
Declaration for the Future of Work. This implies
workers entails guaranteeing fundamental
rebuilding the economy in ways that address
rights at work, ensuring health and safety
systemic and structural inequalities and other
long-term social and economic challenges, such at the workplace and implementing a trans-
as climate change, that pre-date the pandemic. formative agenda for gender equality. The
The prerequisite for achieving such resilience is pandemic has revealed the vulnerability of many
multilateral action and global solidarity – including groups of workers – including essential, informal,
with respect to vaccine access, debt restructuring, self-employed, temporary, migrant, platform and
and facilitating a green transition. Failure to tackle low-skilled workers – who are often highly exposed
these important policy challenges will result in yet to the health and labour market impacts of the
another missed opportunity to set the world on a crisis, and many of whom fall through gaps in social
more equitable and sustainable trajectory. protection coverage across the world.
Achieving a human-centred recovery will re- Closing social protection gaps and providing
quire the successful implementation of four universal access to comprehensive, adequate
pillars: inclusive economic growth and develop- and sustainable social protection must remain a
ment; protection of all workers; universal social key priority. Identifying equitable and sustainable
protection; and social dialogue. Each has a key part financing for such systems in times of limited fiscal
to play. space requires multilateral action to complement
domestic resource mobilization.
Throughout the recovery period, macro-
economic policies will need to go beyond a Social dialogue has played a key role in the
countercyclical role, merely seeking a return response to the pandemic, many policies and
to pre-crisis outcomes, since this would not measures to limit job losses having resulted
address decent work deficits or leave countries from tripartite discussions. In the recovery
any less vulnerable to future crises. Fiscal pol- period, social dialogue will remain crucial to finding
icies must not only aim to protect jobs, incomes solutions that are mutually beneficial to firms
and employment, but also address structural and workers and have positive macroeconomic
challenges and root causes of decent work deficits repercussions and spillover effects. For social
across the world. Depending on country constraints dialogue to play this role, the capacities of public
and priorities, this will involve a mix of fiscal policies administrations and employers’ and workers’
targeting the widespread creation of productive organizations to participate in such a process will
employment, supported by industrial policies, skills need to be strengthened.
Advancing social justice,
promoting decent work
The International Labour

Organization is the United
Nations agency for the world
of work. We bring together
governments, employers and
workers to drive a human-centred
approach to the future of work
through employment creation,
rights at work, social protection
and social dialogue.
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Route des Morillons 4
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Switzerland
IOP1501 LESSON 4: NEUROSCIENCE AND HUMAN BEHAVIOUR
Lesson 4
Neuroscience and Human Behaviour
Understanding neuroscience and its effect on human behaviour
LEARNING OUTCOMES
In this Lesson 4, the field and principles of neuroscience are explained as the basis of
understanding human behaviour. After completing this lesson, you should be able to
• define neuroscience and explain its importance in understanding behaviour

• identify and describe the key components of the brain and their respective
biological functions related to human response
• use the Triune brain theory to explain the development of the brain as a social
organ and its implications for behaviour, interpersonal relationships and the work
context
• describe the structure of the brain and how the brain processes information
• explain and apply the principles of lateralisation and brain plasticity in
understanding human behaviour
• argue the influence of genetics versus life experiences on the development of the
nervous system
• explain/apply well-being from a neuroscience perspective

This study guide contains a basic layout and explanation of the neuroanatomy that
determines our behaviour. There is no other prescribed learning material that you need
to study apart from what is provided to you in this study guide for Lesson 4.
1
KEY CONCEPTS
There are various concepts and terminologies that are used in the neurosciences.
Apart from the specific concepts related to neuroanatomy, the field of neuroscience
has evolved to such an extent that there are many different “neuro” fields of study.
Below is a list of the main neuroscience fields and an explanation of what each is
about. This will enable you to distinguish between the different ‘neuros’ and
understand what each field focus on.
Neuroscience: This is the field of study that relates to any research and study about the
nervous system and the brain, including its anatomical functions and understanding how it
produces human behaviour, and how it relates to injuries, diseases, intrapersonal processes
and human development.
Neuroanatomy: The study of all parts of the nervous system and the brain
Neurobiology: The biological study of the structure of the living brain across animal species
Neurochemistry: The study of all the chemicals in the brain and nervous system and their
properties and functions.
Neuroendocrinology: The study of interactions between the brain, glands and hormones and
the functions and effects thereof
Interpersonal neurobiology: The interdisciplinary study of brain processes that acknowledge

the central influence of human relationships on brain development, health and healing
Affective neuroscience: The study of brain processes relating to emotion or affect.
Affect: Basic emotive states in the body that can be measured physiologically, such as fear
and anger
Emotions: Contextual responses to environmental stimuli, which may be a combination of

affective states
Cognitive neuroscience: The study of how mental processes develop in the brain, such as
language, problem-solving or information processing, perception, memory and learning
2
INTRODUCTION
The sections in lesson 4 deal with the biological basis of behaviour and specifically
focus on the theory and principles of neuroscience to explain human behaviour. As I-
O psychologists we are interested in understanding why people behave the way they
do in specific situations and, in essence, to understand the way their minds work. In
terms of the biological perspective, all behaviour, including emotions and thoughts are
a consequence of interactions between the physiological systems that make up the
anatomy of the body.
The biological perspective has also become known as the field of neuroscience.
Everything we do, how we feel, think and act is based on the biological activity in our
bodies. This biological activity is sparked by the smallest biological components in our
nervous system, neurons, which interlink to send, receive and process messages
throughout our bodies and translate these messages into behaviour, thoughts,
feelings and physiological reactions. Neuroscience therefore applies the
understanding of biological processes in the physiological structure or anatomy of the
human body to explain human behaviour. The human body consists of a complex
biological network that functions in a way similar to an information highway, sending
and receiving information between its different parts in order to control and determine
our behaviour. Yes, every day there are trillions of molecules travelling in our bodies
to and from the brain, carrying bits of electrical and chemical information, just like cars
travelling on an interconnected highway.
This so-called neurological information highway starts in the brain and runs through
the nervous system to all parts of the body. The nervous system therefore controls
and responds to body functions and directs behaviour by sending messages
throughout the whole body, to and from the brain. In this lesson you will learn about
basic neuroanatomy which makes up the communication system in the body and
determines our thoughts, emotions and behaviour. The human being’s nervous
system is the fundamental organiser of the body’s physiological communication
network and is therefore discussed first. Thereafter the most important organ in the
physiological communication network, the brain, is discussed in terms of its different
parts and their core behavioural functions. We complete our learning of neuroanatomy
3
with a discussion of the endocrine system, a system that controls the secretion of
chemicals through glands in the body, to direct bodily responses. In conclusion, we
discuss fundamental principles of neuroscience and how it is applied to explain and
understand people's behavioural responses in work and life.
4.1 NEUROSCIENCE
Neuroscience is an interdisciplinary field of study, meaning that it integrates several

disciplines, including psychology, biology, chemistry, and physics. As an
interdisciplinary field of study, neuroscience focuses on explaining how the nervous
system and the dynamic physiological functioning of the nervous system affects the
body, cognitive processes, emotions and behaviour. Understanding how the nervous
system works, means that you have to understand basic neuroanatomy, namely the
structure of the nervous system and its parts. The nervous system includes the brain,
the spinal cord and the networks of sensory nerve cells, called neurons.
In studying the physiology or anatomy of the nervous system, neuroscience adds to

the body of knowledge about human thought, emotion and behaviour, which is the
main focus in psychology. Psychology and biology therefore specifically converge in
the field of neuroscience in order to enhance our understanding of people’s physical,
psychological and neurological conditions. In this way neuroscientific research has for
example been applied to help understand the underlying causes of Parkinson’s
disease and explain why people react differently in their perceptions of pain. In
psychology, neuroscientific principles aid in an integrated understanding of human
cognition, emotions and behaviour. Neuroscience applied to psychology further
promotes the understanding of psychological well-being and how people cope with
and adjust to work-life demands that induce stress.
In this lesson, you will learn that the human nervous system comprises three
components. Firstly, the brain, which is the most important part, because it controls
the nervous system. Secondly, the spinal cord; and the third component is called
neurons. Neurons make up a human being’s network of sensory nerve cells in the
brain. The complexity of the nervous system is evident when one realises that each
human being has a hundred billion neurons, or brain cells, with close to a quadrillion
4
connection between them. Researchers in neuroscience continue to conduct studies

with the aim to better understand the working of these cells and neural connections,
but we have not yet even come close to fully understanding a single neuron.
4.2 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
As noted in the introduction to this lesson, the body’s responses are controlled by an
interconnected biological information system known as the nervous system. The
nervous system connects all our organs with the outer world and with information
received via our senses from the outer world. The information received from the
senses (seeing, hearing, touching) passes to the brain, the central organ in our
nervous system, and from there to the rest of our bodies. The nervous system has
three basic functions. First to receive information, then processing the information
received by integrating it with past experiences and transferring messages to relevant
parts of the body to react accordingly. For example, when your alarm goes off in the
morning you receive the stimulus (sound) via your hearing sense, which transfers the
message through the nervous system to the brain. You process this information and
recognise what it means for you, decide what to do, and accordingly act – either
snoozing the alarm or getting up! Can you think of other examples of this process?
The manner in which the nervous system passes on information between the brain
and bodily organs is based on the fact that the nervous system is living tissue that
consists entirely of billions of specialised and interconnected cells. These cells are
used to send messages to all the parts of the body because they carry information in
electrical and chemical form. The cells of the nervous system can be categorised into
two major types namely the glia and neurons, each with a special function. Glia are
those cells throughout the nervous system that function like glue. They hold the
structure of the nervous system together and provide it with support and protection by
helping to maintain the chemical environment of the neurons. Neurons are the
communication links in the nervous system and their function is to receive, integrate
and send messages between the brain and the rest of the body. Neurons are of
particular importance to the nervous system because they carry the messages that
inform our behavioural, cognitive and emotional responses to stimuli received by our
sensory organs.
5
The nervous system consists of two parts namely the central nervous system (CNS),
made up of the brain and the spinal cord, and the peripheral nervous system
(PNS). The PNS consist of the neurons that link the CNS to our skin, muscles, organs
and glands. The main function of the PNS is to connect the CNS to the organs and
limbs of the body and receive messages from the outside world that guide the organs
and limbs of the body to respond both voluntarily and involuntarily. The PNS therefore
helps us to keep in touch with our world. The PNS is further divided into the
Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) and the Somatic Nervous System (SNS). Each
of these two parts in the PNS contain neurons with a specific function to control
involuntary bodily functions (ANS) and voluntary bodily movements (SNS). The CNS
(the brain and spinal cord) helps us to process information received from the PNS and
make meaning of that information in order to enable us to regulate our responses to
the outer world. The CNS can thus be said to help us make sense of our world. The
anatomy of the nervous system is depicted in Figure 4.1.
The nervous
system
The Central The Peripheral

Nervous Sytsem Nervous Sytsem
(CNS) (PNS)
Autonomic The Somatic

Spinal Cord
Nervous System Nervous System
Sympathetic
Brain
Nervous System
Parasympathetic
Nervous System
Figure 4.1: The nervous system
6
Next, we will first focus on the PNS as the main communication framework of our
bodies, consisting of the core communication agent, namely the neuron and the way
in which it carries messages through neurotransmitters in the body. Thereafter we
will return to the CNS and have a closer look at the brain as the main controller of all
the processing of information in our bodies.
4.3 NEURONS AND NEUROTRANSMITTERS
4.3.1 Neurons
Neurons are nerve cells in the nervous system that receive, integrate and transmit
information throughout the body. They function as the communication links, conveying
messages through one’s body. The information carried by neurons to different parts
of the body allow us to distinguish a bee sting, to sense heat, to coordinate our hand
or body movements with what we see (e.g. to kick a ball or to rollerblade), to think of
alternative solutions to solve a mathematical problem, to write a poem, to feel love, to
feel fear and even to hear and see things that may not really be there.
A neuron is a cell that has similar features to other cells in the body. Firstly, a neuron
has an outer membrane which acts like a screen that either allows or blocks
substances to pass in and out of its body. Like other cells in the human body, a neuron
consists of a cell body also called the soma, which contains the cell nucleus. A neuron
also contains mitochondria, which enables the neuron to turn oxygen and glucose into
energy.
Different to other cells in the body, the neuron has three special features that enable
them to send and receive messages in the body effectively. They firstly have a number
of short fibres, referred to as dendrites, that branch out from the cell body to receive
messages from adjoining neurons. Most neurons receive messages from multiple
other neurons and therefore have multiple dendrite branches. Secondly, each neuron
has a long fibre extending from it. This is called an axon and it looks like a tail which
can extend as long as a few feet, especially if they are carrying messages from the
spinal cord to the extreme parts of the body, such as to your toes. An axon is a long
thin fibre covered with a myelin sheath, which protects it from bodily fluids and thus
helps it to transmit neural impulses or messages to other neurons, to glands and to
7
muscles in the body. Myelin is a white fatty substance that comes from glia cells and
serves an insulating purpose. The insulating myelin speeds up the transmission of
signals and ensures that signals do not get mixed up with each other. Interestingly,
research has found that the loss of muscle control in multiple sclerosis patients can be
associated with degenerating myelin. At the end of the axon are small fibres that
branch out into minute buttons, called axon terminals. The terminal buttons secrete
the chemicals that carry the messages to the next neuron.
Naming the parts of the neuron. Source: Lally & Valentine-French (2018)
Neurons convey messages to other neurons in one direction, namely from the
dendrites to the cell body and from there along the axon to the axon terminals. These
messages are then passed from the terminals to the dendrites of other neurons or to
muscles or glands. Neurons mostly communicate with other neurons; however, some
neurons, the sensory neurons, receive signals from outside the nervous system.
Sensory neurons allow us to receive information through our senses from outside the
body, such as light and sound. They also function to receive information from within
the body, for example a headache or a stomach ache. Motor neurons, on the other
hand, are those neurons that convey the messages received by the sensory neurons
from the brain to the muscles that physically move your body.
It is the electrochemical nature of neurons that enables the transmission of neural

signals. The neuron is almost like a tiny battery, which contains an electric potential of
8
about 70 millivolts. When a neuron is stimulated, its electric potential is sparked and
electrical activity is carried from the soma through the axon, like a spark of fire traveling
along a trail of petrol. As long as the voltage of a neuron is constant, no messages are
sent. Whenever stimuli in the form of signals from other neurons ignites and changes
the voltage charge of the previously constant neuron, the electric impulse is sent along
its internal structure. Thus, a neural impulse is transmitted as an electrical current that
flows from the receiving dendrites through the soma and down the axom, to its axom
terminals. The neural impulse is really like firing a gun, it cannot be done halfway; it
either fires action potential or it doesn’t. A weaker stimulus therefore does not
produce a weaker neural impulse, yet the message it carries can convey information
about the meaning or strength of a stimulus by varying the rate at which action
potentials are fired. This whole ignition and firing process happens very fast and takes
only a few thousands of a second.
Neurons transmit messages to other neurons by means of chemical substances called

neurotransmitters. The arrival of action potential at the neuron’s axom terminals
triggers the release of neurotransmitters. The axon terminals store chemicals in small
sacs called synaptic vesicles, from which it secretes the neurotransmitters into a
microscopic gap called a synapse. The synapse is that little space between the
transmitting neuron and the receiving neuron, where the two neurons interconnect with
one another, without actually touching one another. The neurotransmitter does not
jump over the synapse from the axon terminal of the transmitting neuron (presynaptic
neuron) to the dendrite of the receiving neuron (postsynaptic neuron). Rather, the
terminals release or ‘fire’ the neurotransmitters into the synapse, after which the
chemicals diffuse across the synaptic cleft to the membranes of the receiving neuron’s
dendrites. The neurotransmitters bind with receptor sites on the dendrites.
Neurotransmitters can, however, only bind with receptor sites that fit the molecular
structure of the particular neurotransmitter – almost like fitting a key into a lock. Firing
off neurotransmitters is the signal that is sent to the next neuron, which stimulates the
following neural impulse in the postsynaptic neuron. The same reaction occurs in that
the binding of the neurotransmitter with the receptor site causes a stimulus in the
receiving neuron, which in turn causes a voltage change and electrical charge in the
postsynaptic neuron. In the postsynaptic neuron, electrical potential can be graded
and is not restricted to an all-or-nothing law (firing or not firing). Postsynaptic potentials
9
can increase or decrease the probability of a neural impulse. As such, there are two
types of messages that can be sent from neuron to neuron – either excitatory or
inhibitory. An excitatory postsynaptic charge is electric potential that increases the
probability that the postsynaptic neuron will fire action potentials. An inhibitory
postsynaptic message is when the likelihood of action potential in the receiving neuron
is decreased.
Pixabay images: https://pixabay.com/vectors/science-neuron-synapse-biology-305773/

Figure 4.3 Neurotransmitters released into the synapse
In a very short amount of time (seconds), neurotransmitters drift away from receptor
sites or are dissolved by enzymes to make space for other neurotransmitters and
messages. When neurotransmitters drift away from the receptor cells they are
usually reabsorbed in the presynaptic neuron. Synapse therefore are said to have
recycling ability. In figure 4.4 it is clear that the communication process from neuron
to neuron at synaptic clefts follows five steps, namely:
i. storing neurotransmitters in the axom terminals

ii. the firing of action potential stimulating the release of transmitters into the synaptic
cleft
iii. the binding of neurotransmitters at receptor sites of the receiving or postsynaptic
neuron
iv. the inactivation or removal of transmitters from the receptor sites into the synapse
v. the reuptake of transmitters by the presynaptic neuron
10
storing
neurotransmitters
in axom terminals
release
transmitters into
synaptic cleft
binding of
neurotransmitters
at receptor sites
removal of
transmitters into
the synapse
reuptake of
transmitters
Figure 4.4 Steps in the communication process between neurons
Neurons are interlinked in a very complex and dense network of neurons. A neuron may
have as many as 15 000 synapses receiving signals from thousands of other neurons and
passes its message to thousands of other neurons. Patterns of firing neurotransmitters or
neural impulses combine to form the messages that are transported through our bodies to
give rise to our thoughts, feelings, bodily movements and all behavioural responses.
4.3.2 Neurotransmitters
The fact that neurotransmitters can only bind with receptor sites that recognise and fit
to its particular molecular structure, suggests that there are different types of
neurotransmitters. In fact, over 100 chemical substances produced in the body have
been identified as neurotransmitters. Specific neurons generally manufacture only one
type of transmitter and specific types of transmitters function at specific synapses. With
the information that neurotransmitters carry, they regulate people’s appetites,
memory, emotions, thoughts as well as muscle and limb movements. Of concern for
the field for psychology in particular, are those neurotransmitters that impact on
physical disease as well as mental illness, or abnormal behaviour patterns and
11
psychological well-being. In Table 4.1 below a summary of the common types of

neurotransmitters related to psychological functioning and mental wellbeing is
provided.
From these neurotransmitters in Table 4.1, one can see that psychiatrists and
psychologists sometimes prescribe certain drugs to treat abnormal behaviour such as
depression, schizophrenia and Alzheimers. These drugs hold chemical properties
similar to certain types of neurotransmitters and therefore act as neurotransmitters to
influence our thoughts and feelings – and consequently our behaviour – in a particular
way. As an example, cocaine has a similar chemical structure to the neurotransmitter
dopamine. When dopamine is released, it produces pleasurable feelings; cocaine
creates similar feelings when indigested. However, cocaine acts as an antagonist in
the sense that when it is digested, it binds with the receptor sites on neurons and
blocks the binding of the neurotransmitters in the body. Other drugs also work in a
way that blocks the reuptake of the neurotransmitter by the presynaptic neuron,
causing more transmitter to remain in the synapse, increasing its action.
As another example, depression is associated with chemical imbalances in the brain

involving irregular functioning of several neurotransmitters, especially serotonin.
Serotonin is a key chemical in the brain, required to regulate our moods and sleeping
patters. When there is an imbalance in the functioning of serotonin in the brain, it is
related to anxiety disorders, sleep disorders and eating disorders. It is therefore
understandable that most antidepressant drugs function to increase the availability of
serotonin in the brain. Alzheimer’s, a disease recognisable in the progressive loss of
memory and cognitive functioning, is associated with reduced levels of the
neurotransmitter acetylcholine. Schizophrenia, a major pathological disorder, is
associated with irregularities in dopamine. Antipsychotic drugs used to treat
schizophrenia usually work by blocking dopamine receptors in the brain.
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Table 4.1 Neurotransmitters and their functions

Neurotransmitter Excitatory/ Function Malfunction Malfunction
Inhibatory when there is a when there is a
deficit surplus
Acetylcholine (ACh) Excitatory Stimulates muscles to Alzheimer’s Muscle spasms
contract; involved in disease can
learning, memory and develop
general cognitive
functioning
Dopamine Inhibatory Involved in sensations of The brain Schizophrenia;
pleasure and emotions; produces tremors drug addiction
influences movement, and decreased
learning and attention mobility typical to
Parkinson’s
disease
Serotonin Inhibatory Influences mood, hunger, Depression and Autism
sleep and arousal of other mood
emotional states disorders
Norepinephrine Excitatory Used for arousal and Depression Anxiety
alertness to control the
fight/flight response
GABA (gamma- Inhibatory Involved in the perception Seizures, Physical pain
aminobutric acid) of pain and positive tremors, Sleep and eating
emotions insomnia and disorders
anxiety
Glutamate Excitatory Used for memory, Overstimulates
learning and in movement the brain causing
migraines or
epilepsy (reason
to avoid foods
containing MSG
(monosodium
glutamate)
4.4 THE HUMAN BRAIN
The central nervous system comprises the spinal cord and the brain, with the brain
controlling the nervous system. The brain controls most of the activities of the body,
processing, integrating, and coordinating the information it receives from the sensory
organs such as the eyes, ears and skin. Based on this information, the brain sends
messages to the rest of the body. The brain is contained in, and protected by, the skull
bones of the head. This section will review how the human brain evolved with
reference to the triune brain theory, where after the primary parts of the brain
(hindbrain, midbrain and forebrain) structure and their functions will be discussed
in more detail.
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4.4.1 The triune brain: Explaining the evolution of the human brain
The first time you study the anatomy of the human brain, its many and difficult to
pronounce structures may seem very confusing. In 1960, an American Neuroscientist
Paul MacLean became famous for his simple theory on how the human brain evolved
and appeared through time. In his book The Triune Brain in Evolution, MacLean
presented a very simplistic model explaining the structure of the human brain as we
know it today, based on the idea that the human brain evolved from a very primitive
structure to the more complex structure it has today.
MacLean’s Triune Brain model describes the structure of the brain as consisting of
three distinct parts; these three parts of the brain emerged through time along an
evolutionary path. Despite being a very simplified description of brain activity and how
the brain is organised, the Triune Brain model provides an easy-to-understand
explanation of the hierarchy of brain functions. According to MacLean, the structure of
the brain is hierarchically structured according to the gradual acquisition of the three
brain structures through evolution. The reptilian brain first appeared in fish, nearly 500
million years ago. It continued to develop in amphibians and reached its most
advanced stage in reptiles, roughly 250 million years ago. The limbic system then
appeared in small mammals, about 150 million years ago. Lastly, the neo-
cortex began its spectacular expansion in primates, scarcely two or three million years
ago, as the genus Homo emerged. As such, the three structures of the human brain
are also referred to as the three different brains in the Triune Brain model and includes:
• Primal brain, also called the reptilian brain seated in the brain stem
• Emotional brain, also called the paleomammalian brain seated in the limbic
system
• Rational brain, also referred to as the neomammalian seated in the neocortex
The Triune Brain model therefore suggests that the brain stem developed first, and
this “lizard brain” is thought to be in charge of our primal instincts. Thereafter the limbic
system or “mammal brain” developed, which is in charge of our emotions or affective
system. Lastly, the neocortex emerged, which is thought to be responsible for rational
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or objective thought. The neocortex is referred to in the Truine Brain theory as the
“human brain”. Understanding this hierarchical evolution of the brain helps to
understand the different functions of the brain. As humans required more complex
functioning ability such as coping with our emotions and problem-solving skills, the
brain evolved to include the limbic system, and later the neocortex. The primary
functional role of each of the different parts of the brain can thus be understood as
depicted below, albeit in a very simplistic manner.
Figure 4.7 The evolvement of the Triune Brain
MacLean's model claims that activity in the three brain regions (the brain stem, limbic
system, and neocortex) is distinct when we are engaged in different types of mental
activities. For example, when we are in danger and must respond quickly as an act of
self-preservation, the reptilian structure is aroused, preparing us for action by initiating
the release of chemicals throughout the body. When we are watching a shocking news
story or receive an upsetting message, the limbic system is stimulated and, again,
chemicals are released, which create our experience of emotions. Finally, when we
are making decisions, solving problems or reasoning, the neocortex is engaged,
without the involvement of the other brain structures. Each of the three structures of
the human brain is thought to be responsible for a specific group of mental activities.
The fight-or-flight survival response and other primal activities are located in the brain
stem (also referred to as the basal ganglia). Emotional arousal in the limbic system
15
and the neocortex is responsible for rational thinking. In even more simplistic terms,
these three functions can be described in the fundamental questions a person asks in
response to his/her environment. A summary of the functions of each of the three
regions of the brain is provided in table 4.2.
Table 4.2 Summary of the functions of the Triune Brian

Reptilian brain Limbic brain Neocortex
Responsible for the most basic Responsible for emotions Our “smart” brain, the executive
survival functions, such as heart because it can record memories part of our system that is
rate, breathing, body of behaviours that produced responsible for all higher-order
temperature, and orientation in agreeable and disagreeable conscious activity such as
space or balance experiences language, abstract thought,
imagination, consciousness and
Is the reactive part of us that creativity
Function
initiates the “fight or flight”

response to danger Houses much of our memory,
biographical memory, and the
autonomic memories essential
to talking, writing, walking,
playing the piano, and countless
other familiar activities
Includes the main structures The main structures of the limbic Two large cerebral hemispheres
found in a reptile's brain: the brain are the hippocampus, the that play such a dominant role.
brainstem and the cerebellum amygdala, and the
Main structures
hypothalamus
Control mechanisms in this part The limbic brain is the seat of The neocortex is flexible and
of the brain are rather consistent the value judgments that we has almost infinite learning
and is reliable but tends to be make, often unconsciously, that abilities
characteristic
somewhat rigid and compulsive exert a strong influence on our

behaviour The neocortex is also what has
enabled human cultures to
develop
The three parts of the brain do not operate independently of one another. Yet,
according to MacLean, the three parts of the brain can communicate poorly with one
another, causing intrapersonal dysfunctions. For example, when the neocortex
dominates the two others, a repression of emotions can occur. It is important to
recognise that the primitive functions of brain stem will take precedence over other
brain activity, due to its survival purpose. For example, if you try to hold your breath
(a prefrontal cortex-initiated activity), you will find that as carbon dioxide builds up in
16
your bloodstream, this primitive part of your brain will want to take over and make you
breathe again. Through training you may be able to increase your resistance to the
basic urge to breathe, but inevitably you will eventually give in and take a breath. Such
threats to survival are first addressed by the primitive brain and therefore take
precedence over other brain functions.
The limbic system forms a very fast subconscious evaluation and response system,
also designed to keep us safe. The amygdala is like an early-warning system, with the
motto “safety first” — putting that safety plan into effect before consulting the executive
brain (the new cortex). Picture yourself jumping out of the way of a snake-like object
before closer examination reveals it to be just a hose in the grass. This is a very
important first response, because if it were left to the prefrontal cortex to initiate, for
example, a leap out of the way of a bus you had inadvertently stepped in front of, then
it might be too late: that evaluation system is too slow. The amygdala makes very fast,
albeit not always accurate, evaluations and has a fast track from
the thalamus (incoming information) through to the hypothalamus that can initiate a
stress response to forestall impending doom. The hippocampus plays an equally
important role by encoding events in time and space and consolidating them from
short-term to long-term memory. Of particular interest to therapists is the case where
the limbic system gets the cues wrong — where there is no actual danger, but the
body is thrown into stress response anyway. From chronic low-grade stress to full-
blown panic attacks, a maladaptive limbic system may be the key to what’s troubling
your client.
Keep in mind, however, that the division of the brain into three large parts is a highly
simplified conception. Connectivity between all three regions is very important to
humans' functionality. How the three regions’ functionalities interconnect, is of special
interest to therapists. Take for example the prefrontal cortex, which may be slower in
responding to incoming information than the limbic system, but is much more
sophisticated in its processing. Such “slow” thinking is the hallmark of our human
intelligence. Complex and new thinking on technical, emotional, social and logical
planes takes place here. This is where we can be rational and logical, creative and
17
inventive. But, significantly, the prefrontal cortex can be “hijacked” by the limbic
system in the event of a perceived threat (whether imagined or real).
Modern advances in brain-imaging have confirmed that various regions of the brain
are active during primal, emotional and rational experiences. One problem with the
Triune Brain model is the fact that it treats the brain as if it were organized along strict
hierarchical lines. However, just because the cerebral cortex is where conscious
thought takes place does not mean that it sits at the top of a pyramid and controls all
the lower levels of the brain. On the contrary, some deeper structures in the brain (the
brainstem in particular) exercise significant, continuous control over activity in the
cortex — for example, by modifying the synchronization of its neurons according to
whether the individual is asleep or awake.
Today we know that there is not the neat division of brain functions as suggested in
the Triune Brain model. Instead, primal, emotional and rational mental activities are
the product of neural activity in more than one of the three regions addressed in
MacLean's model, and their collective energy creates human experience. These
findings have led to the rejection of MacLean's notion of a triune brain in neuroscience.
However, while this Triune Brain model is undoubtedly an oversimplification, the
concept of a triune brain provides us with a useful way of understanding the structure
and functions of the human brain. As confirmed in science, we can also retain the
general evolutionary principle from this Triune Brain theory. We know that some
structures in our brains are older than others, and that our emotions involve some
relatively primitive brain circuits that have been preserved over the course of our
evolution. Next, we will discuss in detail the different parts of the brain and their
functions. You will see that these relate closely to the Triune Brain theory.
4.4.2 Basic brain structures

As expected from having learnt the Triune Brain theory, the brain can be divided into
three parts, namely the hindbrain, the midbrain and the forebrain, each consisting of
specific subparts performing particular roles and functions in the body.
The hindbrain is the first part of the brain, that receives incoming messages from the
nervous system. The hindbrain begins with the brain stem, which is actually an
extension of the spinal cord when it enters the brain scull to form the medulla. The
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medulla controls vital bodily functions that are important for our everyday survival
such as our blood pressure, heart rate, and breathing. The part just above the medulla
is called the pons. Running through the medulla and the pons is the reticular
formation, which is a network of cells that threads its way from the hindbrain into the
midbrain and has the important function of altering the activity of other brain structures.
This network of cells running through the pons is essential for arousal and attention.
For example, the locus coeruleus, an area in the brain that is thought to be involved in
the state of vigilance, is activated by the reticular formation. Thus when someone
sticks you with a needle when you sleep, the sensation of pain will enter the medulla
and the reticular formation will arouse the rest of the brain from its sleepy state. Lastly,
the hindbrain also includes the cerebellum, which literally translates into “little
brain”, even though this is the second largest part of the human brain and has grown
exponentially in size through evolution. The cerebellum’s main function is to coordinate
voluntary movement, and helps you to walk and retain your balance. The cerebellum
has, however, also been found to play a role in both physical and cognitive agility as
it controls fine coordinated movements, such as sowing or painting and is imperative
for normal speech. Alcohol has a direct effect on the cerebellum, which is why you
shouldn’t drink and drive!
Located between the hindbrain and forebrain, is the smallest of the three structures of
the brain, namely the midbrain. The midbrain is responsible for controlling certain
automatic behaviors and to relay information from the sensory organs such as the
ears, eyes and skin. Without the two midbrain parts, the substantia nigra and
the striatum, one would struggle to start movements with your hands, legs and body.
The forebrain is the most highly developed and largest part of the human brain. It is
located to the top and forefront of the brain, covering the midbrain and hindbrain. It is
responsible for the most complex mental and behavioural processes. The forebrain
also consists of a big variety of structures, namely the thalamus, hypothalamus, the
limbic system and the cerebral cortex.
The deepest two of these forebrain structures is first the thalamus, which relays
sensory and pain signals. The thalamus plays an important role in helping our bodies
to rest because it is able to shut off information coming in from our senses and allows
19
us to sleep, thereby regulating our sleep and wake cycles. The second is the tiny, pea-
sized hypothalamus, which regulates basic drives such as hunger, sex, temperature
and thirst as well as the body’s response to stress, reproductive processes and
emotional states. The hypothalamus is able to regulate these basic drives because it
links the nervous system in the body to the endocrine system via the pituitary gland.
In the hypothalamus there is also a structure that regulates our natural biological clock,
called the suprachiasmatic nuclei.
As part of the forebrain, the limbic system consists of the amygdala and
hippocampus. The limbic system’s function is to regulate emotions, our responses to
reward and punishment, and is important in memory and other thought processes.
Within the limbic system, the amygdala is shaped like a pair of almonds. The
amygdala triggers the emotional response for fear and aggression, sending signals of
fight or flight into the body. The amygdala also helps us to regulate our experiences of
fear by stimulating the brain to remember perceived threats so that we can avoid them
in future. The shape of the hippocampus has been compared to that of a sea horse
and its role is to form new memories.
The biggest forebrain structure is also – from an evolutionary perspective – the newest
development of the brain, and is called the cerebrum. The cerebrum consists of the
cerebral cortex, the cerebral hemispheres and the corpus callosum. It is the
centre of person’s thinking, calculating, organising and creative capability and sets
humans apart in terms of intelligence in comparison to other mammals. The cerebral
cortex is the bark-like, wrinkled and multiple-folded outer layer of the cerebrum which
help humans to use language, learn complex skills, create things and relate to others.
If it could be stretched out flat, the wrinkles and folds would create an even bigger
surface area, which increases humans’ capacity for learning, remembering, thinking
and mental evolvement. Although the cerebral cortex is only two to four mm thick, it
makes up over 80% of the total weight of the brain.
The cerebral cortex covers the cerebrum and its two cerebral hemispheres like a cap.
The corpus callosum consists of a thick bundle of nerve fibers that connects the two
cerebral hemispheres of the brain. Each of these two hemispheres is divided into four
anatomical areas, called lobes: the frontal lobe, parietal lobe, occipital lobe and the
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temporal lobe. The frontal, parietal, occipital, and temporal lobes are used as physical
landmarks for describing the cortex. The functions of the two cerebral hemispheres
are categorised into its sensory cortex, motor cortex and association cortex. It is
difficult to say which of these functions fall exactly in which lobe, because some
functions overlap and occur in more than one of the lobes.
The parietal, occipital and temporal lobes all receive information from the senses and
process this information to regulate the body’s responses accordingly. The functioning
of the lobes in this regard relate to the sensory cortex of the forebrain. The sensory
cortex includes the visual, auditory and somatosensory cortex. The specific types of
sensory information received in each lobe are summarised in the figure below. The
figure also indicates that the frontal lobes are responsible for creating voluntary
movement and higher order mental activity. This functionality of the forebrain is
referred to as the motor cortex.
Occipital • VISION (visual cortex)

• located at back of skull
lobes • processes visual information
Parietal • SKIN & TOUNGE (somatosensory cortex)

• located from middle to back of skull on side of the brain
lobes • processes information related to touch, taste

temperature, pain and movement
Frontal
• MENTAL (MOTOR CORTEX)
• located behind forehead in front part of brain
lobes
• controls higher mental functions - thinking, problem
solving, judgement, remembering
Temporal • SOUND (auditory cortex)

• located on sides of the head/ brain
lobes • processes auditory information and integrates vision

and hearing information to help hearning and language
Figure 4.11: Functions of the four brain lobes
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The parts of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in processing sensory information
or in creating movement or thinking processes are called the association cortex.
Association is a complex human capability, as it relates to the brain's ability to receive,
compare and integrate a variety of sensory and motor information at the same time. It
should therefore be evident that if any part of the brain is damaged, a person’s
behaviour will be inhibited or dysfunctional in some way. For example, aphasia, a
deficit in understanding and producing language, is caused by damage to the
association cortex, specifically the parts called Broca’s area or Wernicke’s area.
4.4.3 Principles of neuroscience and brain functioning

Researching the brain and behaviour has led scientists to various interesting findings.
These are summarised briefly in this section:
4.4.3.1 Lateralisation and integration of the brain functioning

Researchers noticed that damage to the left side of the brain caused impaired
functioning in specific areas of human behaviour, different to right-side brain damage.
This has led to the understanding that the left and right brain hemispheres serve
different functions. Data from split-brain (severed corpus callosum) studies
demonstrate that each of the left and right brain hemispheres is superior to the other
with regard to certain abilities. The left hemisphere has, for example, been found to
control spoken language and is thus dominant in language abilities such as reading,
writing and speaking. It has also been found to be dominant for tasks requiring logical
analysis, concrete problem solving and systematic calculations. On the other hand,
the right hemisphere regulates facial recognition and spatial relations, such as drawing
three-dimensional shapes, leading to the understanding that the right brain is dominant
for non-verbal processing, understanding special, non-verbal and emotional
information and appreciating creative and abstract information. Furthermore,
researchers found evidence that the left hemisphere controls the right side of the body
and the right hemisphere controls the left side of the body.
The term lateralisation refers to this division of functions between the left and right
hemispheres of the brain. Yet, despite the theory of lateralisation, we should not
categorise people into being either left- or right-brain dominant. The brain operates as
a whole system and its left and right hemisphere functions largely overlap. Information
22
is carried between the two hemispheres across the corpus callosum with unimaginable
speed and efficiency. So, always keep in mind that, even though the two brain
hemispheres may have lateralised abilities, they work closely together.
4.4.3.2 Brain plasticity

The brain forms new neural pathways throughout its lifespan. It is not static. Behaviour
can therefore change. Eric Kandell demonstrated that even the most primitive part of
the brain, which scientist had for many years believed to be hard wired, changes when
exposed to environmental stimuli. This research won him a Nobel prize. Another study
demonstrating neuroplasticity was carried out with terminally ill cancer patients who
were taught to knit, a few days before passing away. After death it was discovered
that the brain had formed new neural pathways linked to the knitting activity. These
studies are important, because they demonstrate that neural pathways can change,
even under adverse circumstances. Studies with children have specifically shown that
the experience of stimulating environments produce a greater number of neural
pathways. Synaptic plasticity refers to the brain’s ability to strengthen neural
connections and establish new neural connections. Unfortunately, synaptic plasticity
is somewhat limited. New neurons cannot be generated, and exact replication of the
many synaptic connections prior to brain damage is almost impossible. However, old
neurons do produce new axons and dendrites, which make new connections.
Scientists are continually trying new methods to reproduce and grow nerve cells and
several studies on brain damage recovery are being done, such as tissue transplants
into the damaged area from another brain, nerve growth factor for stimulation, and
guidance of axon growth.
23
REFERENCES
Bernstein, D. (2018). Essentials of psychology. Cengage Learning.
Biswas-Diener, R. (2020). The brain and nervous system. In R. Biswas-Diener & E.
Diener (Eds), Noba textbook series: Psychology. Champaign, IL: DEF
publishers. Retrieved January 25, 2020 from http://noba.to/4hzf8xv6
Lally, M. & Valentine-French, S. (2018). Brains, Bodies and Behaviour. In
Introduction to Psychology (v.1.0). OER Commons. Retrieved 15 February
2020 from https://saylordotorg.github.io/text_introduction-to-psychology/s07-
brains-bodies-and-behavior.html.
24
Leadership: influencing and empowering followers to achieve a vision and the goals of
the organization
Management: planning, organising and controlling resources towards task completion

according to established organisational policies and procedures
Power: the source and level of influence a leader has on followers
Ethical leadership: leading in a way that considers what is best for the greater good of
everybody involved and according to the principles of respect, honesty, equity, justice
and service
Autocratic leadership: leading followers through strong coercive actions, controlling

rules and regulations
Democratic leadership: using communication and collaboration to direct work and

providing followers with a high level of discretionary influence
Laissez-faire leadership: a hands-off leadership style in which the leader mostly

abdicates responsibility
Transactional leadership: a leadership style that is concerned with maintaining

operational flow by allocating work, making routine decisions, monitoring performance
and interacting with various organisational functions
Transformational leadership: designing a vision and strategies to advance

organisational growth and change and inspiring followers accordingly
Ubuntu: a relational orientation to life that embraces a spirit of caring, community,

harmony and respect
Servant leadership: a style of leadership that emphasises the equality of all, allows
participative decision making beyond self-interest with the view of serving and growing
others
POLICY FOR COPYRIGHT INFRINGEMENT AND PLAGIARISM
1. PREAMBLE
Where a student or researcher’s work is not authentically his/her own, such work does not
qualify as an academic output, whether this is a student assignment or employee research,
and will be viewed as plagiarism, which is defined as the appropriation of another's work,
whether intentionally or unintentionally, without proper acknowledgement. Copyright is the
specific intellectual property right, which an author acquires in accordance with the Copyright
Act, No. 98 of 1978 (Athe Act@) in respect of a protected work. Copyright infringement includes
the infringement of the economic rights of the right holder and the moral rights of the author.
Academic dishonesty is a denial of ethical values, it undermines the credibility of research

results and is a negation of sound academic practice. No value is added if copyright is
infringed or where unethical research practices are used. Material gained through dishonesty
adds nothing to existing knowledge: there is no growth in the independence of the writer=s
intellectual involvement and the writer=s academic integrity is compromised. Unethical
research practices undermine the purpose of education by casting doubt on the institution=s
ability to promote sound and efficient scholarship.
2. AIM
The aim of this policy is to empower Unisa employees and students to uphold ethical
standards and to give the University of South Africa the power to act in cases where
contraventions of ethical academic standards occur. A further aim of this policy is to inform
employees and students of the rights of copyright holders and to provide staff and students
with guidelines for ethical research and study practices.
All academic work, written or otherwise, submitted by an employee or student is expected to

be the result of his/her own skill and labour. The economic rights of a copyright owner are
infringed when a person knowingly or unknowingly makes an unauthorized reproduction or
adaptation of a substantial part of another person=s work. Moral rights are infringed when the
author of a work is not given due acknowledgement by means of clear quotations and clear
acknowledgements giving details of the publication concerned.
3. COPYRIGHT INFRINGEMENT
3.1 Copyright is infringed where any of the copyright owner’s exclusive rights are
performed without authorization.
3.2 Statutory exceptions limit the copyright owner’s rights in permitting that a copyright
work to be reproduced or adapted by any fair dealing with a work for the purpose of
research or private study, criticism or review of that work or for the purpose of reporting
on current events in a periodical. The source of the work as well as the name of the
author must be mentioned.
Approved – Senate – 9.11.05
Approved – Council – 25.11.05
1
3.3 The following will be an infringement of a work and will not be exempted as fair
dealing:
3.3.1 failure to indicate clearly (e.g. with quotation marks or indent and different
font) phrases or passages taken verbatim (word-for-word) from a published
or unpublished text without crediting the original text and author;
3.3.2 paraphrasing of an article, a book or an electronic text without

acknowledging the source(s) and the author of the work. This amounts to
reproducing a text in different words as the author, by changing the word
order of the text, the sentence types and the style of the author;
3.3.3 using more than a substantial part of the work will not be fair dealing, even if
an acknowledgement of the source and the author is given.
4. PLAGIARISM AND OTHER DISHONEST PRACTICES
4.1 Unethical use of another person’s work for research or study purposes may, in
addition to the infringement of the copyright owner’s economic rights, also infringe
the author’s moral rights and constitute a criminal offence.
4.2 The following will amount to the infringement of an author’s moral rights:
4.2.1 failure to acknowledge the author where phrases or passages are taken
verbatim (word-for-word) from a published or unpublished text;
4.2.2 use of a summary of a work which contains the ideas of others and presents
the essence of an argument in language that condenses and compresses
the original language of the source without acknowledging the author of the
work;
4.2.3 using the patch-writing (cut-and-paste) method, where pieces of other

persons= works, including those taken from the internet, are blended with
one=s own words and phases without acknowledging the author of the
source work;
4.3 Dishonest practices may also amount to criminal offences, such as fraud, theft and
criminal copyright liability. Such dishonest practices include the following:
4.3.1 copying information from another person (e.g. another student=s assignment
or portfolio) and submitting identical work where such work is not the result
of teamwork and indicated as such by all participants,
4.3.2 buying an essay from a ghost-writing service and pretending that it is one=s
own work;
4.3.3 asking someone else to do an assignment on one=s behalf.
5. CONTRAVENTION OF THIS POLICY
A student or an employee who is guilty of the infringement of copyright or unethical practice

will be subject to the applicable disciplinary code.
6. AVOIDANCE OF LIABILITY
6.1 Acknowledging sources ensures:

2
6.1.1 compliance with the provisions of the Copyright Act and universally
accepted scientific practice; and
6.1.2 that the reader of the work could satisfy him/herself that the authenticity
and integrity of the sources and the research methodology have been
upheld.
6.2 Citation is a form of respect for the relevant author=s proprietary rights.
6.3 Fair use is a form of respect for the author’s economic rights.
DDDD

3
IOP1501 LESSON 2 PSYCHOLOGICAL PROCESSES IN THE WORK AND SELF-EMPLOYED CONTEXT
LESSON 2: WHAT IS WORK?
In this Lesson 2 you will find:
1. Introduction
2. Learning outcomes of Lesson 2
3. Learning material for Lesson 2
4. Key concepts
5. Sub-sections of Lesson 2
6. References
1. Introduction: The meaning of work
The meaning of work for individuals is changing and has the following characteristics:
1.1 Self-regulated career self-management, career agility, personal growth and

development, and an entrepreneurial mindset toward employment creation
1.2 Business and digital savvy in creating, marketing, and selling niche products and
services with real-time information at lower entry costs on digital platforms
1.3 Life-long learning, agency, upskilling, agility, and flexibility in adapting to change
and technology
1.4 Work-life balance and integration in high-tech living work community systems
1.5 Autonomy, control, and flexibility in independent, self-directed forms of work
1.6 Value-driven product development and service delivery focused on the human
experience – “Am I using my strengths and capabilities?”; “Am I making a difference?”;
“Do I add value?”
1.7 Being able to move beyond what one wants to “be” to what one wants and is able
to “do” for society, so one can find meaningful ways to develop and grow personal
strengths and capabilities that add value regardless of access to particular jobs
(Schreuder & Coetzee, 2020).
1
2. Learning outcomes
Once you have studied lesson 2, you should be able to:
• define the concepts of work and employment

• describe individuals and organisations from a systems perspective
• outline the current labour trends in the world
• explain what an entrepreneurial ecosystem entail.
• define entrepreneurship from a global and African perspective
• comment on the future world of work
3. Learning material for Lesson 2
following two (2) book chapters. See the link to the library on the landing
page of Lesson 2: What is work? On the library site:
• Enter the IOP1501 course code.

• Select the 2022 e-reserves for the list of prescribed material.
• Find the chapters in the list.
For Section 2.1 to 2.6 - study, whose side is technology on, really? On the
interdependence of work and technology in:
Allvin, M., & Movitz, F. (2017). Whose side is technology on, really? On the
interdependence of work and technology. In N. Chmiel, F. Fraccaroli & M.
Sverke, (Eds.), An Introduction to work and organizational psychology: An
For Section 2.7 – study Chapter 2 section 2.1 and 2.2 of the book chapter
Coetzee, M., & Schreuder, A.M.G. (2020). Changes in the world of work and
careers. In M. Coetzee, & A.M.G. Schreuder (Eds.), Careers an
Organisational perspective (6th ed., pp. 42-89), Juta.
2
4. Key concepts
The key concepts of Lesson 2 what is work have been translated into some of the
South African languages. Additional South African languages will be uploaded as and
when they come available. Download the key concepts from Lesson 2: What is work?
On the myUnisa site.
The sections to follow will guide you through the learning content.
2.1 THE WORLD OF WORK
2.1.1 What is work?
2.1.2 Definition of work
2.1.3 Ecological systems model
2.1.1 What is Work
Groups of people have always come together to carry out tasks and ensure that the
purpose of the tasks has been achieved (Garland, 2010, Kou & Stewart, 2018). To
carry out the task, groups then develop structures to operate effectively within their
environment. This meant that work evolved through the ages in different phases.
In the very beginning, work was performed by the nomadic hunting and gathering
societies and was aimed at the survival of the group. Thereafter the agricultural period
emerged, when groups of individuals cultivated the land, followed by the classic
civilisations, periods of the feudal system, and the emergence the merchant capitalist
system. Most recently, the industrial period emerged in which we now find ourselves
(Nel, Kirsten, Swanepoel, Erasmus & Jordaan, 2016).
Allvin and Movitz (2017) present an argument from an international perspective,

namely that the concept of work emerged through five surges from the Industrial
Revolution (1771) through the ages of steam, steel, oil and mass production towards
the fifth surge: the ICT revolution (1971) in the USA. According to the authors,
industrialisation originated as a residue of technology.
3
When you download and study page 121–124 of the pdf in this section, you will notice
that the authors believe paid work to be the most unconditionally regulated situation
most people will ever find themselves in. The quality of this paid work will be discussed
in the sections to follow. Allvin and Movitz (2017) make a distinction between what
work is and what work is not. The authors state that, unless we are alone in our work,
work is part of a larger organised production process, those of products or services.
Work because of technological developments has shifted the focus of the working
procedure from that of socially meaningful to functionally meaningful. According to the
authors, machines carry out the production and humans carry out the process.
Machines then determine the conditions for work and define work. Employees are
hired to provide labour and follow the rules of work, which has legal ramifications and
for understanding organisations.
2.1.2 Definition of work
Organisations need to be understood as systems in which individuals operate. It is

important as individuals to strive to maintain a balance between external and internal
personal needs on the one hand, and the demands of others in the task work such as
transforming input to output on the other (Shongwe, 2014; Stokoe, 2010). Employment
is defined by the International Labour Organisation (2019). as activities performed for
others in exchange for pay or profit. The ILO later extended the definition of work to
include the production of services for own use.
Von Bertalanffy's model of “intake, conversion and output” connects a system to its
environment (Stokoe, 2010). This model is applicable to human behaviour in
organisational contexts (Stokoe, 2010). It considers the relationship between systems
and connections between systems (Stokoe, 2010), where technical requirements of
the modern conception of work as a multi-purpose function has delimited time and
space (Allvin & Movitz, 2017). Because employees sell their labour towards the intake,
conversion and output of production and services, it is important to include the
individual as a system (Shongwe, 2014); more so as the complexity of the production
process increases, and the workforce become more specialised, coordinated, and
sophisticated (Allvin & Movitz, 2017)
4
Bronfenbrenner’s (1994) ecological systems model explains multiple environmental

and external influences between an individual, group and the environment where
transformation between input and output occurs. The first level of influence is the
microsystem, which consists of those people and organisation with whom intimate
and frequent contact exists. It also includes the inner world of individuals, their beliefs,
and expectations. Individuals strive to maintain a balance between personal internal
needs and the demands of others (Shongwe, 2014).
2.1.3 Ecological systems model
The external systems are the mesosystem consisting of, inter alia, schools, churches,
and employers, which at times could exclude certain people because of language or
ethnic groups. This begins with a boundary of who is in, who is out and who is allowed
to come in and who are not. Outside of the individual’s immediate contacts is the
exosystem, comprising for example social clubs, professional organisations, and
various institutions such as health care facilities. The fourth external system, the
macrosystem, represents a fluid influence as the focus is on societal values, habits,
laws, socioeconomic and political systems. The exosystem may exert a powerful
influence on individuals in systems. as its influences are felt through access to
education, finance, housing, and employment, and could exclude some individuals
from participating in some systems. Finally, the chronosystem has an influence on
individuals in systems as it encompasses change – not only in the individual over time
but also on the environment in which a person lives; for example, students deprived
of proper schooling find themselves disadvantaged in university and employment
settings.
Select the icon and view this YouTube video for a brief overview of
Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems model.
In the section to follow we will look at the labour trends around the world.
2.2 LABOUR TRENDS IN THE WORLD

2.2.1 Human-centred agenda for the future of work
2.2.2 Employment and decent work for all

5
2.2.3 Trends in employment
2.2.3.1 Gender and employment
2.2.3.2 Age and employment
2.2.3.3 Opportunities and challenges in employment
2.2.1 Human-centred agenda for the future of work
The world population will reach 8.0 billion people by mid November 2022 according to
the United Nations, Department of economic and social affairs, world population
prospects 2022 report. According to the ILO (2022) report, more than 203 million
people are unemployed worldwide and labour force participation is 3578 million
people. The International Labour Organisation (ILO) in 2019 distinguished between
two kinds of labour. Firstly, formal labour, which comprises waged or salaried workers.
Secondly, informal labour, where jobs are informal, and workers do not enjoy social
protection. The ILO report of 2019 assessed the impact of both new and long-standing
challenges on global labour market trends and champions a “human-centred agenda
for the future of work”.
2.2.2 Employment and decent work for all
The ILO report of 2019 considered progress towards the United Nations 2030
sustainable goal for “inclusive and sustainable growth, employment and decent work
for all”. Inclusive and well-functioning labour markets were central to the ILO’s
mandate to delivering decent work and supporting social justice.
The report states that enhancing the well-being of all people should be a priority of any
policy agenda. Labour markets play a central role in attaining sustainable development
goals (SDGs), because paid work is the main source of income for most households
across the world, and organisation of work can help to reinforce the core principles of
equality, democracy, sustainability, and social cohesion.
It does not mean that every person who works has decent work. Many people who
work find themselves in vulnerable jobs, especially in the informal sector, which is
typically associated with low pay and little or no social protection or rights at work (ILO,
2019).
6
Post pandemic the ILO report of 2022 paints a picture of a global market struggling to
recover. Structural deficiencies and new risks reduce the potential for decent work in
a labour market in which recovery is unequal and incomplete (ILO, 2022).
2.2.3 Trends in employment
2.2.3.1 Gender
Women constitute a large share of the workforce in some sectors worst affected by
the pandemic (ILO, 2022). Gender gaps in the labour market arise from many inter-
related factors such as social norms, gender roles and socio-economic constraints that
are often deeply rooted in societies (ILO, 2019). Even in non-crisis moments decent
work deficits are more pronounced among women (ILO, 2022). The pandemic has
fostered these gender inequalities amongst young women who have been the worst
affected (ILO, 2022). Young women tend to receive lower remuneration for the same
work as their male counterparts. They are also more susceptible to layoffs and face
more barriers to re-entering the workforce than men do according to the ILO (2022)
report.
2.2.3.2 Temporary workers
Female employees are not necessarily more likely to be in temporary employment

according to the ILO 2022 report. Temporary employment is defined as salaried
employment for a short or fixed duration (ILO,2022). The most common forms of
temporary employment are fixed-term work and casual work. Some examples of
temporary workers are apprentices’ trainers and interns. Temporary employment as a
share of all employment has been gradually increasing over time (ILO,2022). The
incidence of temporary employment varies across different economies, decreasing
most markedly for high income countries. During the pandemic the share of temporary
workers among total employees has remained relatively stable even though temporary
workers were seen to loose their jobs at a faster rate than non-temporary workers
which is in line with pre-pandemic data. What the data suggests is that during the
pandemic the outflow of temporary workers was offset by increased movement into
temporary work. Hence the perceived stability of temporary employees (ILO, 2022).
7
2.2.3.3 Opportunities and challenges
A risk according to the ILO (2022) report is the damaging impact of the pandemic on
jobs and livelihoods if not quickly reversed. The result in long term could be structural
change with enduring adverse implications for labour markets. It appears as if there is
a deepening inequality accelerated by technological change exacerbating the digital
divide, more so now than before the pandemic. In sectors such as the gig economy a
rising number of people rely on platforms to generate income. People with limited
access to technology or the skills to engage with it face a significant disadvantage.
Deepening the divide not only within national boundaries but also between countries.
Some examples are those who have access to technology have fared better during
the pandemic as they were able to work from home (ILO, 2022).
Inequality emerged in access to training institutions who moved online during the
pandemic. Access was better for those who could use the required technology.
Economically vulnerable people were particularly disadvantaged during this time (ILO,
2022). The closure of schools, colleges, and skills training institutions for prolonged
periods of time has weakened learning outcomes to an extent which will have long
term implications for employment (ILO, 2022). In addition, the pandemic has not only
changed the kind of work that exists but also where and how work is performed (ILO,
2022). Remote work offers flexibility but exacerbates inequalities.
The above are some of the challenges which could be opportunities for some
described in the ILO (2022) report. While the content of the report will not be assessed
in this module students who are interested in detailed overview of the current labour
force the report is uploaded to the module site. Students may find it interesting to
reflect on these trends and what it might mean for themselves and/or their
communities.
In the section to follow we will look at the labour trends in Africa.
2.3 LABOUR TRENDS IN AFRICA

2.3.1 Labour trends in Africa
2.3.2 Labour trends in Northern Africa
8
2.3.3 Labour trends in sub-Saharan Africa
2.3.1 Labour trends in Africa
In 2022 the unemployment rate in Africa is 7.7%. The 2022 ILO report states that the
pandemic has hit Africa hard reversing some of the progress in poverty reduction
achieved in recent decades. Tourist dependent countries were hit the hardest. The
total working age population participating in the labour market in Africa is 62,6 %. The
highest percentage being in sub-Saharan Africa (67,4%). The quality of the
employment, however, is questionable. In most of Africa, unemployment is simply not
an option, and many people need to take up informal jobs of poor quality to meet basic
needs and escape poverty (ILO, 2019). Wage and salaried workers are still in the
minority, while the percentage of salaried workers is higher in Northern Africa than in
sub-Saharan Africa (ILO, 2019).
2.3.2 Labour trends in Northern Africa
According to the ILO 2022 report, North African labour markets are marked by high
levels of labour underutilisation particular for the youth and gender gaps in labour
market outcomes. The disproportionate impact on women is unclear in the region
owing to the underrepresentation of women in the labour market (ILO, 2022) as some
women left the labour force as they lost their jobs and others entered the labour market
to compensate for lost household income. It is expected that recovery will lag in the
coming years.
2.3.2 Labour trends in sub-Saharan Africa
The ILO (2019) report predicted that Sub-Saharan Africa would return to stronger, less
volatile economic growth over the next few years. The expected economic upturn
would be broad-based, driven by higher commodities, improved access to external
financing and a supportive macroeconomic environment. The ILO (2022) report states
that Southern Africa was the subregion hardest hit with GDP contracting by 7.0% in
2020. Recovery in sub-Saharan Africa remains highly uncertain according to the
report.
9
More than half of the workers in this region live in extreme to moderate poverty, with
creation of quality jobs being the greatest challenge (ILO, 2019). Due to the lack of
social security systems, a significant percentage of the population is forced to take up
any available form of employment to sustain basic living standards. The result is that
much of the employed population find themselves in informal jobs, characterised by
low pay and lack of social protection. Informal workers are also much more likely than
formally employed workers to live in conditions of poverty. Women remain vulnerable
to informality (ILO, 2019). The high informality rates reflect the productive structure of
the region (ILO, 2019).
Considering what you know about the international labour trends, search the Stats SA
website http://www.statssa.gov.za/?page_id=737&id=1 for the latest employment
figures. If you do not reside in South Africa, then search your own country's statistics
site.
2.4 ENTREPRENEURIAL ECOSYSTEMS

2.4.1 Self-employment
2.4.2 A South African perspective
2.4.1 Self-employment as a means of work
In the previous section the focus was mainly on formal waged or salaried workers. In
this section, we will consider self-employment as another means of work.
Entrepreneurs do not always own their own businesses; they could be also employed
as strategic managers earning a salary. According to Casson (2010), the demand for
entrepreneurship is driven by the volatility of the economic environment, while the
supply is determined by the number of people with suitable characteristics.
According to Spigel and Harrison (2017), the concept of entrepreneurial ecosystems

has recently emerged as a popular concept within entrepreneurship policy and
practitioner communities. It emerged out of debates in the 1980s and 1990s, when
scholars increasingly questioned the value of personality based on the more traditional
definitions and explanations of entrepreneurship. The entrepreneurial ecosystem is
seen as a regional economic development strategy centred around creating supportive
structures and environments that support and foster self-employment. It represents
10
the types of cultural, social, economic, and political environments within a region that
support high-growth entrepreneurship. The authors argue that successful and
unsuccessful entrepreneurship within an ecosystem generates critical
entrepreneurship resources such as investment capital, skilled workers, and
entrepreneurship knowledge, which in turn support future high-growth venture
creation. The types of resources available in an ecosystem and the ability of these
resources to flow through social networks help to create either strong, well-functioning
ecosystems or poorly functioning ones (Spigel & Harrison, 2017).
The main argument of the research is that the characteristics of a successful

ecosystem enable entrepreneurs to identify untapped market niches and draw on local
support, resources, and finance in order to grow new ventures into globally competitive
businesses. The authors further argue that a supportive culture is not enough to
sustain long-term entrepreneurial development. Entrepreneurs need to draw on social
resources such as risk capital, talented workers, and mentorship from experienced
entrepreneurs as they enter the world of self-employment. These resources are
termed "social" because they are accessed through social networks. Strong networks
connect entrepreneurs with key resources for venture growth, i.e., investment and
employees. Investors use their own social networks to vet upcoming entrepreneurs
and entrepreneurs use their social workers to identify talented workers with the right
skills. In addition, the social networks allow entrepreneurs to learn from one another,
helping them to avoid potential pitfalls associated with growth.
Material attributes such as research universities and support organisations also

support high-growth entrepreneurship. The particular region's communications and
office infrastructure are also among these. Material institutions include public policy as
regards financing, training activities and the strength of the local market to which
entrepreneurs can sell. Material attributes encompass both government and non-
government-sponsored programmes and more informal institutions such as legal
rights and open markets (Spigel & Harrison, 2017).
2.4.2 A South African perspective
According to Lombard (2005), within the African context where many organisations
are downsizing, and employees receive packages when leaving the organisation,
many previously employed individuals find themselves engaged in entrepreneurship
11
by default. In addition, there are many people in South Africa that have no access to
job opportunities and have no other recourse other than to become self-employed.
The ILO report (2019) identifies South Africa as an upper-middle income country per
capita. Yet, despite the relative wealth of the country, many households experience
outright poverty (Lombard, 2005) – a situation which still holds true today (Littlewood
& Holt, 2018). Due to the rife inequality in the country, many households have
inadequate access to education, health care and clean water. While there may be a
sense of powerlessness among poor people, Lombard (2005) states that there is a
certain will, hope and strength in people experiencing extreme poverty to initiate and
actively participate in interventions that could improve their lives.
According to the literature there are several types of entrepreneurs, which we discuss
next.
2.5.THE SELF-EMPLOYED ENTREPRENEUR

2.5.1 A Eurocentric definition of an entrepreneur
2.5.2 A South African definition of an entrepreneur
2.5.1 A Eurocentric definition of an entrepreneur
Several theorists have defined entrepreneurship. According to Casson (2010), an Irish

economist by the name of Richard Cantillon, in 1755, defined the entrepreneur as a
specialist in taking on risk. He/she ‘insures’ workers by buying their output for resale
before consumers have indicated how much they are willing to pay for it. The workers
receive an assured income (in the short run, at least), while the entrepreneur bears
the risk caused by price fluctuations in consumer markets. In 1921, Frank Knight
distinguished between risk, which are recurrent events whose relative frequency is
known from past experience, and uncertainty, which are unique events whose
probability can only subjectively be estimated. Profit is the reward for the pure
entrepreneur bearing risk (Casson, 2010).
Then entered the popular hero vision of entrepreneurship as proposed by Joseph A

Schumpeter (1934). states that According to this view, the entrepreneur is someone
who creates new industries and precipitates major structural changes in the economy
12
through innovation and adopting the inventions of others (Casson, 2010). An element
of calculation is evident as the entrepreneur takes crucial decisions and commits
resources to the exploitation of new ideas. Profit is not the only motivating factor, as
not all the relevant factors can be accurately measured. Other motivating factors
include the dream, the will to find a private kingdom, the will to conquer, the impulse
to prove oneself superior to others and the joy of creating (Casson, 2010).
This definition excludes the much more common low-level entrepreneurship of smaller
firms, which are no less important.
"Entrepreneurs are middlemen who provide price quotations as an invitation to

trade. While bureaucrats in a socialist economy have little incentive to discover
prices for themselves, entrepreneurs in a market economy are motivated to do
so by profit opportunities. They hope to profit by buying cheap and selling dear.
In the long run, such differentials, once discovered, generate a profit for the
entrepreneur". (Von Hayek, FA & Kirzner, IM (1973) as cited in Casson (2010).
As indicated in the discussion about entrepreneurial ecosystems, scholars began

realising that these traditional perspectives of entrepreneurship of innovation and risk-
taking were not the only dimensions of entrepreneurship, or what an entrepreneur
might be. Broader social and economic structures surrounding the entrepreneurship
process needed to be considered (Lombard, 2005; Spigel & Harrison, 2017).
2.5.2 A South African definition of an entrepreneur
In an article by Lombard (2005) a professor in the Department of Social Work at the

University of Pretoria, she states that the socio-economic climate has introduced
another dimension to what an entrepreneur might be. Downsizing of organisations and
paying out retrenchments packages have resulted in many former employees finding
themselves engaged in entrepreneurial activities by default, as some of them use their
packages to create sustainable businesses for themselves. Former employees are
not the only people who may find themselves in the informal labour market. In Africa
specifically, there are many socially excluded people who have no jobs or income,
simply because they have no access to jobs (Lombard, 2005). They too are
entrepreneurs by default, as they have no other choice to make ends meet. However,
this does not mean that they do not possess the potential to be entrepreneurs – it
13
means they do not have access to credit, knowledge, and skills of the Entrepreneurial
Ecosystem (EE) to put an entrepreneurial idea in action.
According to Lombard (2005) the definition of an entrepreneur in an African context is

more than income generation and profit making as contained in the more traditional
definitions of entrepreneurship. The entrepreneur in an African context entails the
concept of “authentic entrepreneurs”, who are successful because they tap into their
inner power to live purposefully and create a meaningful lifestyle, not just a business.
According to the author, authentic entrepreneurs have five major traits:
o Visionary: See the bigger picture

o Creators of destiny: Are inspired by something expansive
o Attractors: Possess a dream or goal
o Fulfilled: Create a business as self-aware individuals
o Inspirational: Know the importance of team spirit
Lombard (2005) states that the authentic entrepreneur is applicable to the African and
South African context, because it removes the more traditional stigma attached to
entrepreneurs, allows for growth and negates the belief that entrepreneurs are born
and not made. Entrepreneurship can be acquired by hard work and application in an
entrepreneurial ecosystem that is conducive to entrepreneurship, supporting the
sustainable self-employability of individuals.
2.6 THE FUTURE WORLD OF WORK

2.6.1 Gender and technology
2.6.2 Generations and Artificial Intelligence (AI)
2.6.3 Impact of technology in Africa
2.6.4 Just because we can, should we?
2.6.1 Gender and technology
According to a study by Ford (2019) 86% of people sampled across the globe, which
excluded African countries, said hope drives change while 33% of people stated that
14
change scared them. 87% of these adults felt that technology was the biggest driver
of today's technology.
2.6.2 Generations and Artificial Intelligence (AI)
Considering technology impacting much of the change that we will be faced with the
study by the company found that 44% of Women compared to 37% of men said they
were afraid of AI. What do you think? Is it true?
15
2.6.3 Impact of technology in Africa
Commenting on the Fourth Industrial Revolution (4IR) which embraces the systemic
intelligent/smart integration of multiple disciplines and sectors of society into a
seamless whole new world (Veldsman, 2021), in an extract from an article posted in
IOL news on 5 July 2019, President Cyril Ramaphosa said that South Africa must
embrace the 4IR and harness the opportunities it offers to eradicate the biggest
challenges society faces. These comments by the president were based on the global
trend of the internet, robotics, virtual reality, and artificial intelligence, which are
changing the way we work and live. President Ramaphosa said that it was the
country's collective ambition to harness opportunities offered by the digital revolution
to enhance economic transformation and job creation, improve education outcomes
and skills revolution, and enhance spatial integration, among others. In a report from
Fox and Signé (2022) a statement was posed that it might not be a question of “what
can 4IR technology do for Africa” but rather “what are Africa’s bottlenecks and could
4IR technology help relieve them?
At an ethics conference (2019) hosted by Unisa and the Department of Industrial and
Organisational Psychology, the question was posed whether we need to implement
technology indiscriminately. Perhaps we need to take a look at the human need and
16
design for that and evolve our understanding of work and what the human contribution
is in the system, while at the same time being able to learn faster and experiment
beyond the boundaries that inform our current way of thinking (Veldsman, 2019).
The questions we posed in this section of the lesson were posed before the Covid-19
pandemic, and since the writing of this lesson much has changed. We have had to
adapt much faster than we perhaps originally intended. What do you think?
2.7 TECHNOLOGY AND PSYCHOLOGICAL PROCESSES AT WORK

2.7.1 Fears in the digital era
2.7.2 Features of Industry 4.0 and beyond
2.7.1 Fears in the digital era
In the learning material for this section, you will learn that there are two key fears
individuals may face in the digital era (Schreuder & Coetzee, 2020), namely:
1. Digitisation will lead to the disappearance of work due to automation,

cognitive technologies, and Artificial Intelligence (AI).
2. Technological progress will lead to mass unemployment, dehumanised
work, and an increase in job loss.
Currently there are a number of challenges facing South African organisations in an

increasingly technological sophisticated world of work (Schreuder & Coetzee, 2020).
These challenges relate to
1. skills
2. limited technological innovation in the workplace
3. socio-economic challenges
Given the profound changes that will continue to exponentially escalate in the digital
era (and post-digital era), we now look at the some of the key features of the workplace
of Industry 4.0.
2.7.2 Features of Industry 4.0 and beyond
17
See section 2.2 of your learning material for this lesson. Schreuder and Coetzee
(2020) state that certain features seem to characterise the workplace in the digital era:
• Organisations are becoming self-driven, agile and data driven.

• The worker of the digital era prefers a flexible, collaborative, meaningful and
unconstrained workspace that upholds a continuous, agile learning culture.
• Jobs for life are a thing of the past; agile, boundaryless careers, protean career
mindsets, life-long learning for sustained employability, and gig-economy-oriented,
independent multiple project-based assignments, roles and work opportunities are
becoming the norm.
• Growing skills shortages globally made the leveraging and management of the
traditional pool of workers, along with “alternative workforces”, essential to
business growth and sustained competitive advantage in the industry 4.0 business
market.
• Employees will increasingly play an important role in the way in which they perform
their jobs. Job crafting may become an important feature of workplaces as the
human-technology interface continues to offer options for employees to modify
their jobs in order to better align the job with their personal needs and
characteristics.
• Alternative workforce jobs utilise workers’ unique set of skills and help to grow their
work experience while enabling such workers to maintain autonomy and control in
regulating their broader life balance (i.e., integrating and enriching their work-life
through their work).
• Human resource departments will increasingly utilise Artificial Intelligence (AI), i.e.,
machines that can imitate intelligent human behaviour, to create a personalised
employee and customer experience that enables organisations to understand and
deliver on the real needs of employees and customers (Kohl & Schwartz, 2019).
• AI will automatically and scientifically test, track and match employment (person-
job fit) based on job incumbent requirements (i.e., competencies, personal
characteristics, capabilities, experience, learning and skills) and the ideal future
profile for the ideal potential future career paths.
• The increasing use of AI, cognitive technologies, and robotics to automate and
augment work prompts the redesign of jobs in various domains.
18
• Modern-day flatter organisational structures create a greater need for internal

talent mobility, which is a key leverage for sustaining a competitive business
advantage.
Conclusion
This concludes lesson 2, in which you have learned that work is a multipurpose
function of organised production of products and services. Work is conducted in
systems, which each influence one another and the individuals within them, depending
on whether they have access to the resources in the various systems. All work is not
decent work.
Employment takes on different forms and labour is offered in exchange for pay or
profit. Entrepreneurs usually exchange their labour for profit in the traditional definition
of the word. However, in an African context the authentic entrepreneur has emerged,
focusing on a purposeful, meaningful lifestyle.
Entrepreneurs too are influenced by entrepreneurial ecosystems to which they may or

may not have access to. New research has indicated that it is no longer the personality
structure of the entrepreneur alone that drives her or his success, but also these
entrepreneurial ecosystems.
The current landscape of work and self-employment will have an impact on the future
world of work and the rapid technological advances this bring, requiring a more ethical
and emotional intelligent stance to work in the future, towards decent work for all.
References
Allvin, M., & Movitz, F. (2017). In N. Chmiel, F. Fraccaroli & M. Sverke, (Ed.), whose
side is technology on, really? On the interdependence of work and
technology. An Introduction to work and organizational psychology: An
international perspective (pp. 121-134). Wiley Blackwell: West Sussex
Fox, L. & Signé, L. (April 1, 2022). Technology and the future jobs in Africa.
Brookings. https://www.brookings.edu/blog/africa-in-
focus/2022/04/01/technology-and-the-future-of-jobs-in-africa/
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Garland, C. (2010). Introduction: groups and groupings. In C. Garland, (Ed.), the

group’s book: Psychoanalytic group therapy: principles and practice (pp.
175-195). Karnac Books London
International Labour Organization. (2019). World Employment and Social Outlook:

Trends 2019. Retrieved from https://www.ilo.org/global/lang--en/index.htm
International Labour Organization. (2022). World Employment and Social Outlook:

Trends 2019. Retrieved from https://www.ilo.org/global/research/global-
reports/weso/trends2022/lang--en/index.htm
Kou, C. Y., & Stewart, V. (2018). Group Accountability: A Review and Extension of
Existing Research. Small Group Research, 49(1), 34–61.
https://doi.org/10.1177/1046496417712438Kvale, S. (1995). The social
construction of validity. Qualitative Inquiry, 1(1), 19-40.
Littlewood, D., & Holt, D. (2018). Social Entrepreneurship in South Africa: Exploring
the Influence of Environment. Business & Society, 57(3), 525–561.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0007650315613293
Lombard, A. (2005). Entrepreneurship in Africa: social work challenges for human,

social and economic development. Social work journals. Retreived from
http://socialwork.journals.ac.za
Nel, P., Kirsten, M., Swanepoel, B., Erasmus, B., & Jordaan, B. (2016). South
African employment relations: Theory and practice (Eighth ed.) Hatfield,
Pretoria: Van Schaik. (2016). Retrieved August 27, 2019, from
www.worldcat.org
Shongwe, M. (2014). Systems psychodynamic experiences of professionals in

acting positions in a South African organisation. A thesis in Philosophy
(doctoral thesis). University of South Africa, South Africa.
Spigel, B., & Harrison, R. (2018). Toward a process theory of entrepreneurial

ecosystems. Strategic Entrepreneurship Journal, 12(1), 151–168.
https://doi.org/10.1002/sej.1268
20
IOP1501 LESSON 3: INDUSTRIAL AND ORGANISATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY
Lesson 3
Industrial and Organisational Psychology
LEARNING OUTCOMES
In this Lesson 3, the field and application of Industrial and Organisational Psychology
and its professional training is described. After completing this lesson, you should be
able to:
• Describe the purpose of Industrial and Organisation Psychology

• Describe the history of Industrial and Organisational Psychology
• Differentiate between Industrial and Organisational Psychology and Human
Resource Management
• Describe the fields of practice in Industrial and Organisational Psychology
• Understand all the professional aspects that distinguishes Industrial and
Organisational Psychology as a profession

This study guide contains a basic layout and explanation of Industrial and
Organisational Psychology. To reach the learning outcomes of this lesson
you need to study the following book chapter in conjunction with this
study guide. Download the book chapter from the library at this link:
http://oasis.unisa.ac.za/search/r
Section 3.2 access for free at https://openstax.org/books/psychology-2e/pages/13-1-what-is-

industrial-and-organizational-psychology
De Kock, F. (2018). Industrial, work, and organizational psychology in Africa. In D. O.

Anderson & H. K. Sinangil (Eds.), The sage handbook of industrial, work, and
organizational psychology (pp. 110–125). SAGE Publications Ltd.
https://doi.org/10.4135/9781473914964.n6
KEY CONCEPTS
The key concepts for Lesson 3 Industrial and Organisational Psychology
will be uploaded to the module site as these become available.
INTRODUCTION
The aim of this lesson is to introduce you to theory and research, sub-fields, and
professional practices within Industrial and Organisational (IO) Psychology. We
explain how IO Psychology applies psychological knowledge in the world of work and
the self-employed context. Industrial and Organisational Psychology has been broadly
defined as the application of principles, theory, values, and ethics across different
workplace from Individuals, Groups/teams, and organisations. Industrial and
Organisational psychology deals with scientific knowledge through concrete research
and engaging in scientific methods.
3.1 THE PURPOSE OF INDUSTRIAL AND ORGANISATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY
The term “industrial and organisational psychology” is used to describe the field where
human behaviour and mental processes are studied in the work context. Although
other terms (such as “occupational psychology” and “work and organisational
psychology”) are used in different countries, the content and implications are the
same.
The ambit of Industrial and Organisational Psychology (IOP) as a science (Veldsman,

2021) is an applied field and subfield of psychology. In IOP, the principles and

assumptions from psychology are also used in the work context to assess, utilise,
develop, and influence employees, groups, and organisational processes. It
embraces the psychology of work, in both the formal and informal labour force and the
place of work. As a scientific field of study IOP applies its own knowledge foundation
of theories of work, and work-related research. It is also a unique application aimed at
achieving the best fit between employees and workplaces, and optimising employee
and organisational performance. According to Veldsman (2021) humane workplaces
of both the present and future must be built on the premise that humans are complex
multidimensional holistic beings whose basic needs must be satisfied, allowing them
to mature in such a way that they will flourish, thrive, and feel fulfilled in the chosen
place of work. A concept which has its origins in the early 20th century.
3.2 THE HISTORY OF INDUSTRIAL AND ORGANISATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY
Industrial and Organisational Psychology had its origins in the early 20th century.
Several influential early psychologists studied issues that today would be categorized
as industrial psychology: James Cattell (1860–1944), Hugo Munsterberg (1863–
1916), Walter Dill Scott (1869–1955), Robert Yerkes (1876–1956), Walter Bingham
(1880–1952), and Lillian Gilbreth (1878–1972). Cattell, Munsterberg, and Scott had
been students of Wilhelm Wundt, the father of experimental psychology. Some of
these researchers had been involved in work in industrial psychology before World
War I. The Second World War further impacted on the way IOP evolved up to where
it is today. The history of IOP is discussed here as it evolved prior to World War II and
thereafter.
3.2.1 Before World War II

Cattell’s contribution to industrial psychology is largely reflected in his founding of a
psychological consulting company, which is still operating today called the
Psychological Corporation, and in the accomplishments of students at Columbia in
industrial psychology. In 1913, Münsterberg published Psychology and Industrial
Efficiency, which covered topics such as employee selection, employee training, and
effective advertising.

Scott was one of the first psychologists to apply psychology to advertising,

management, and personnel selection. In 1903, Scott published two books: The
Theory of Advertising and Psychology of Advertising. They are the first books to
describe the use of psychology in the business world. By 1911 he published two more
books, Influencing Men in Business, and Increasing Human Efficiency in Business. In
1916 a newly formed division in the Carnegie Institute of Technology hired Scott to
conduct applied research on employee selection (Katzell & Austin, 1992). The focus
of all this research was in what we now know as industrial psychology; it was only later
in the century that the field of organisational psychology developed as an experimental
science (Katzell & Austin, 1992). In addition to their academic positions, these
researchers also worked directly for businesses as consultants.
When the United States entered World War I in April 1917, the work of psychologists
working in this discipline expanded to include their contributions to military efforts. At
that time Yerkes was the president of the 25-year-old American Psychological
Association (APA). The APA is a professional association in the United States for
clinical and research psychologists. Today the APA performs several functions
including holding conferences, accrediting university degree programs, and publishing
scientific journals. Yerkes organised a group under the Surgeon General’s Office
(SGO) that developed methods for screening and selecting enlisted men. They
developed the Army Alpha test to measure mental abilities. The Army Beta test was a
non-verbal form of the test that was administered to illiterate and non-English-speaking
draftees. Scott and Bingham organised a group under the Adjutant General’s Office
(AGO) with the goal to develop selection methods for officers. They created a
catalogue of occupational needs for the Army, essentially a job-description system and
a system of performance ratings and occupational skill tests for officers (Katzell &
Austin, 1992). After the war, work on personnel selection continued. For example,
Millicent Pond researched the selection of factory workers, comparing the results of
pre-employment tests with various indicators of job performance (Vinchur & Koppes,
2014).

From 1929 to 1932 Elton Mayo (1880–1949) and his colleagues began a series of
studies at a plant near Chicago, Western Electric’s Hawthorne Works (Figure 1).
Figure 1
Hawthorne Works provided the setting for several early I-O studies.
This long-term project took industrial psychology beyond just employee selection and
placement to a study of more complex problems of interpersonal relations, motivation,
and organisational dynamics. These studies mark the origin of organisational
psychology. They began as research into the effects of the physical work environment
(e.g., level of lighting in a factory), but the researchers found that the psychological
and social factors in the factory were of more interest than the physical factors. These
studies also examined how human interaction factors, such as supervisorial style,
increased or decreased productivity.
Analysis of the findings by later researchers led to coining the term the Hawthorne
effect, which describes the increase in performance of individuals who are aware they
are being observed by researchers or supervisors. What the original researchers
found was that any change in a variable, such as lighting levels, led to an improvement
in productivity; this was true even when the change was negative, such as a return to
poor lighting. The effect faded when the attention faded (Roethlisberg & Dickson,
1939). The Hawthorne-effect concept endures today as an important experimental
consideration in many fields and a factor that must be controlled for in an experiment.
In other words, an experimental treatment of some kind may produce an effect simply

because it involves greater attention of the researchers on the participants (McCarney

et al., 2007).
In the 1930s, researchers began to study employees’ feelings about their jobs. Kurt
Lewin also conducted research on the effects of various leadership styles, team
structure, and team dynamics (Katzell & Austin, 1992). Lewin is considered the
founder of social psychology and much of his work and that of his students produced
results that had important influences in organisational psychology. Lewin and his
students’ research included an important early study that used children to study the
effect of leadership style on aggression, group dynamics, and satisfaction (Lewin,
Lippitt, & White, 1939). Lewin was also responsible for coining the term group
dynamics, and he was involved in studies of group interactions, cooperation,
competition, and communication that bear on organisational psychology.
During that time between 1927 and 1932 in the United Kingdom and Europe there was
a shift in ideas about how to study groups (Fraher, 2004). During that time, several
theorists, such as, Sigmund Freud (1925/1955), and Wilfred Bion (1961/2004),
amongst others, studied group relations. Bion’s (1961/2004) focus was on group
attitudes to itself based on his theory of the will of the group. Observing the tensions
in groups, Bion acknowledged the primitive state of an individual in a group who
wished for everything to revert to the status quo as being a barrier to learning, but
nevertheless an opportunity for an onlooker to gain insight into groups (Bion,
1961/2004; Sher, 2003).
Parallel to these studies in IOP, the field of human factors psychology was also
developing. Frederick Taylor was an engineer who saw that if one could redesign the
workplace there would be an increase in both output for the company and wages for
the workers. In 1911 he put forward his theory in a book titled, The Principles of
Scientific Management. His book examines management theories, personnel
selection, and training, as well as the work itself, using time and motion studies. Taylor
argued that the principal goal of management should be to make the most money for
the employer, along with the best outcome for the employee. He believed that the best

outcome for the employee and management would be achieved through training and
development so that each employee could provide the best work. Personnel selection
is a process used by recruiting personnel within the company to recruit and select the
best candidates for the job. Training may need to be conducted depending on what
skills the hired candidate has. Often companies will hire someone with the personality
that fits in with others but who may be lacking in skills. Skills can be taught, but
personality cannot be easily changed.
Taylor further believed that by conducting time and motion studies for both the
organisation and the employee, the best interests of both were addressed. Time-
motion studies were methods aimed to improve work by dividing different types of
operations into sections that could be measured. These analyses were used to
standardise work and to check the efficiency of people and equipment.
One of the examples of Taylor’s theory in action involved workers handling heavy iron
ingots. Taylor showed that the workers could be more productive by taking work rests.
This method of rest increased worker productivity from 12.5 to 47.0 tons moved per
day with less reported fatigue as well as increased wages for the workers who were
paid by the ton. At the same time, the company’s cost was reduced from 9.2 cents to
3.9 cents per ton. Despite these increases in productivity, Taylor’s theory received a
great deal of criticism at the time because it was believed that it would exploit workers
and reduce the number of workers needed. Also controversial was the underlying
concept that only a manager could determine the most efficient method of working,
and that while at work, a worker was incapable of this. Taylor’s theory was
underpinned by the notion that a worker was fundamentally lazy, and the goal of
Taylor’s scientific management approach was to maximize productivity without much
concern for worker well-being. His approach was criticized by unions and those
sympathetic to workers (Van De Water, 1997).
Gilbreth was another influential Industrial and Organisational (IO) psychologist who
strove to find ways to increase productivity. Using time and motion studies, Gilbreth
and her husband, Frank, worked to make workers more efficient by reducing the
number of motions required to perform a task. She not only applied these methods to

industry but also to the home, office, shops, and other areas. She investigated
employee fatigue and time management stress and found many employees were
motivated by money and job satisfaction. In 1914, Gilbreth wrote the book title, The
Psychology of Management: The Function of the Mind in Determining, Teaching, and
Installing Methods of Least Waste, and she is known as the mother of modern
management. Some of Gilbreth’s contributions are still in use today: you can thank her
for the idea to put shelves inside on refrigerator doors, and she also came up with the
concept of using a foot pedal to operate the lid of trash can (Gilbreth, 1914, 1998;
Koppes, 1997; Lancaster, 2004). Gilbreth was the first woman to join the American
Society of Mechanical Engineers in 1926, and in 1966 she was awarded the Hoover
Medal of the American Society of Civil Engineers.
Taylor and Gilbreth’s work improved productivity, but these innovations also improved
the fit between technology and the human using it. The study of machine–human fit is
known as ergonomics or human factors psychology.
3.2.2 From World War II to Today

World War II also drove the expansion of industrial psychology. Bingham was hired as
the chief psychologist for the War Department (now the Department of Defense) and
developed new systems for job selection, classification, training, ad performance
review, plus methods for team development, morale change, and attitude change
(Katzell & Austin, 1992). Other countries, such as Canada and the United Kingdom,
likewise saw growth in IOP during World War II (McMillan, Stevens, & Kelloway, 2009).
In the years after the war, both industrial psychology and organisational psychology
became areas of significant research effort. Concerns about the fairness of
employment tests arose, and the ethnic and gender biases in various tests were
evaluated with mixed results. In addition, a great deal of research went into studying
job satisfaction and employee motivation (Katzell & Austin, 1992).
The research and work of IO psychologists in the areas of employee selection,
placement, and performance appraisal became increasingly important in the 1960s.
Organisations had to adjust to the social, political, and legal climate of Civil Rights

movements, and these issues needed to be addressed by members of IOP in research

and practice.
There are many reasons for organisations to be interested in IOP so that they can
better understand the psychology of their workers, which in turn helps them
understand how their organisations can become more productive and competitive. For
example, most large organisations are now competing on a global level, and they need
to understand how to motivate workers to achieve high productivity and efficiency.
Most companies also have a diverse workforce and need to understand the
psychological complexity of the people in these diverse backgrounds. Today, IOP is a
diverse and deep field of research and practice.
3.3 THE DEVELOPMENT OF INDUSTRIAL AND ORGANISATIONAL

PSYCHOLOGY ON THE AFRICAN CONTINENT
Open the learning material you downloaded from the library for this lesson.
Study the content under the headings “IWO psychology in South Africa”
(p.7) and the “Historical development of Industrial and Organisational
Psychology in Africa” (p.7) in De Kock, (2018) to gain an understanding of how IOP
developed on the African continent. The learning material written by De Kock (2018)
describes IOP as Industrial, Work and Organisational psychology (IWO). While the
terms differ, the concept is the same as IOP.
3.4 INDUSTRIAL AND ORGANISATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY VS HUMAN

RESOURCES MANAGEMENT
There are key differences between Human Resource Management and IOP. Bergh
and Geldenhuys (2013) describe Human Resource Management as a process that
involves supervision and management of employment systems i.e., personnel, labour
relations, and administrative content. Industrial and Organisational

Psychology, compared to human resource management, specialises in the application

of principles and theories related to solving and improving workplace behaviour in the
organisation. Mostly IO psychologists are hired by organisations to administer
assessments and are responsible for organisational development. In general, IO
psychologists are responsible for employee productivity, employee screening and
development and the mental wellbeing of employees. Barkhuizen and Venter (2005)
as well as Bergh and Geldenhuys (2013) indicate that IO psychologists play a
significant role in Human Resource Management, as they are regarded as behavioural
experts on human behaviour. As such, they are often classified under Human
Resource Management. As such, some IO psychologists have also become members
of the South African Board for People Practices (SABPP), because they sometimes
work in or with human resources functions in the organisation. The SABPP
endeavours to professionalise the human resources function and works towards
establishing human resources management in the workplace as a recognised and
respected profession. The SABPP published a human resources competency
framework and training guidelines. Registration as a human resources professional
with the SABPP offers a different career route to undergraduate students in IOP who
opted out of the postgraduate studies required for registration as an IOP with the
HPCSA. Should you like to know more about the SABPP, its role, practices and
activities, you are welcome to visit their website: https://www.sabpp.co.za/about-
us/index.
Study the section in De Kock (2018) about “Key issues in the profession”
(p.11). De Kock (2018) states that the profession of IOP in South Africa
has experienced several identity crises over the years. To secure
prospects for a more robust IOP profession in South Africa De Kock (2018) states
“less but better regulation” (p.12) is required. In addition, the profession needs to
“reach out” (p.12) to their counterparts in Africa.
3.5 THE FIELDS OF PRACTICE IN INDUSTRIAL AND ORGANISATIONAL

PSYCHOLOGY
10

Study the section in De Kock (2018) about the “Practice of IWO

Psychology” (p.12) and “What do IO psychologists do” (p.13) (De Kock,
2018). The author states that IOP in South Africa is a popular career
choice. Many IO Psychologists are employed in the private sector operating both
nationally and internationally. Figure 5.5 (p.14) in De Kock (2018) indicates what the
typical activities of IO Psychologists entail:
• Selection and assessment which explores the way in which organisations

choose candidates who have applied for opportunities and where they may
best fit in the organisation (Institute of employers, 2022).
• Consulting psychology which provides expert psychological guidance to
business and industry. Offering a wide range of services such as individual
assessment, individual and group process consultation, organisational
development, management coaching and change management, among
others (American Psychological Association, 2022).
• Career coaching which helps people find greater fulfilment in their careers.
Career coaches assist individuals to establish professional goals and to plan
for obstacles in career choice along the way (Noomii the professional coach
directory, 2022).
• Organisational development and change management which assists
organisations to build and sustain a new desired state for the entire
organisation. An objectives-based approach to systems changes (Ascender a
Ceridian company, 2020).
• Training and development which is the practice of growing employees’
knowledge skills and abilities. In addition to developing employees into
managers and managers into effective leaders (IBM, 2019).
• Human factors psychology which “focuses on creating and improving
products, machines and environments to compliment human capabilities and
maximise performance and safety” according to Cherry (2022).
• Researcher which through systematic effort discover and confirm facts when
investigating a new problem or topic to describe society and/or organisational
events in an effort to understand relationships and relatedness between
11

individuals, groups and systems often by scientific methods of observation

(American Psychological Association, 2022).
• Lecturer who is a subject matter expert who instructs students in secondary
institutions in their own fields of interest which is predominantly academic in
nature (123test, 2022).
Openstax (2022) summarises the main fields of IOP, its focus, and jobs within
each field in Table 1.
Table 1
Fields of Industrial Organisational Psychology
Field of I-O Psychology Description Types of Jobs

Industrial Psychology Specializes and focuses on Personnel Analyst
the retention of employees Instructional Designer
and hiring practices to ensure Professor
the least number of firings Research Analyst
and the greatest number of
hirings relative to the
organization’s size.
Organisational Psychology Works with the relationships HR Research Specialist
that employees develop with Professor
their organizations and Project Consultant
conversely that their Personnel Psychologist
organization develops with Test Developer
them. In addition, studies the Training Developer
relationships that develop Leadership Developer
between co-workers and how Talent Developer
that is influenced by
organisational norms.
Human Factors and Research advances and Professor
Engineering changes in technology in an Ergonomist
effort to improve the way Safety Scientist
technology is used by Project Consultant
consumers, whether with Inspector
consumer products, Research Scientist
technologies, transportation, Marketer
work environments, or Product Development
communications. Seeks to be
12

better able to predict the ways

in which people can and will
utilize technology and
products in an effort to
provide improved safety and
reliability.
Humanitarian Work Works to improve the Professor
Psychology conditions of individuals who Instructional Designer
have faced serious disaster or Research Scientist
who are part of an Counselor
underserved population. Consultant
Focuses on labor relations, Program Manager
enhancing public health Senior Response Officer
services, effects on
populations due to climate
change, recession, and
diseases.
Occupational Health Concerned with the overall Occupational Therapist
Psychology well-being of both employees Research Scientist
and organizations. Consultant
Human Resources (HR)
Specialist
Professor
As De Kock (2018) states, IO Psychologists do not generally limit themselves to a

single role but rather tend to execute a broad range of functions which may or may
not include the functions described in this section.
Study the “Key issues in practice” (p.14) De Kock (2018) mentions,

because these pertain to “selection fairness” (p.14), a contentious issue in
the history of South Africa. Opportunities and caution around “Social
entrepreneurship” (p.15) which seems to be a hot topic in business and business
education. In the previous section you learnt one of the fields of practice in IOP is that
of researcher. De Kock (2018) stated that there are diverse “research themes” (p. 16)
for South African researchers to investigate commonly studied in the rest of the world
as well. In Figure 5.6 (P.16) the author indicates IOP research trends and major
themes in IOP research you need to take note of. There are however several
13

“Research challenges” (p.17) De Kock (2018) identifies. Familiarise yourself with these
and the suggestion for “Building scientific capacity” (p.17) in South Africa and Africa
the author mentions.
3.6 INDUSTRIAL AND ORGANISATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY AS A PROFESSION
Study the section in De Kock (2018) “The profession of industrial and

organisational psychology” (p.9). De Kock (2018) defines what
professional work entails. The author further describes the “Professional
bodies” (p.9) to which professionals in the fields of industrial and organisational
psychologists in South Africa belong. The “Regulatory institutions” (p.10) which
governs the profession and the “Professional associations” (p.10) which have been
established over the years to promote the IO psychologists’ interests as psychology
professionals. Familiarise yourself with the regulations in the profession around
“certification and training” (p.10), the “certification categories” (p.11), “scope of
practice” (p.11) and “continuous professional development “(p.11) for IO
psychologists.
Should you be following a career in IOP you may be interested in additional reading
material found below.
• HPCSA web page at
https://www.hpcsa.co.za/?contentId=0&menuSubId=52&actionName=For%20
Professionals
o The scope of practice of the profession
o Minimum standards for the training of Industrial Psychology
You can download these documents in the additional resourcrs folder of Lesson 3 on
the module site.
• The Masters degree offered by the department of Industrial and
Organisational Psychology
https://www.unisa.ac.za/sites/corporate/default/Colleges/Economic-and-
Management-Sciences/Schools,-departments,-bureau,-centres-&-
institutes/School-of-Management-Sciences/Department-of-Industrial-and-
Organisational-Psychology/Masters-degrees
14

3.7 CONCLUSION
In this lesson we have provided a broad overview of the profession of Industrial and
Organisational Psychology specifically within the South African context. Looking
back on the origins of the profession you have an understanding about the purpose
of Industrial and Organisational Psychology after studying this lesson. How the
profession developed, the key issues in the field and the field of practice. Lastly you
would have an understanding about the scope of practice and the regulatory bodies
which governs IO Psychologists and the profession.
15

REFERENCES
123 test. (2022). Profession psychology lecturer. Retrieved September 28, 2022, from
https://www.123test.com/professions/profession-psychology-lecturer/
American Psychological Association. (2022a). APA dictionary of psychology.
Retrieved September 28, 2022, from https://dictionary.apa.org/consulting-
psychology
American Psychological Association. (2022b). APA dictionary of psychology.
Retrieved September 28, 2022, from https://dictionary.apa.org/research
Ascender a Ceridian company. (2020, November 15). What is organisational
development? Ascender HCM Pty Ltd. Retrieved September 22, 2022, from
https://www.ascenderhcm.com/what-is-organisational-development/
Bion, W. R. (2004). Experiences in groups and other papers. Taylor & Francis.
(Original work published 1961)
Cherry, K. (2022, March 8). The basics of Human Factors Psychology. Verywell Mind.
Retrieved September 28, 2022, from https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-
human-factors-psychology-2794905
de Kock, F. (2018). Industrial, work and organizational psychology in Africa. In D. O.
Anderson & H. K. Sinangil (Eds.), The Sage Handbook of Industrial, Work and
Organizational Psychology (pp. 110–125). SAGE Publications Ltd.
https://doi.org/10.4135/9781473914964.n6
Fraher, A. L. (2004). Systems Psychodynamics: The formative years of an
interdisciplinary field at the Tavistock Institute. History of Psychology, 7(1), 65–
84. https://doi.org/doi:10.1037/1093-4510.7.1.65
Freud, S. (1955). Group Psychology and the analysis of the ego. The standard edition
of the complete psychological works of Sigmund Freud, XVIII (1920-1922:
Beyond the pleasure principle, group psychology and other works (J. Strachey,
Trans.). Hogarth Press and the Institute of Psycho-analysis. (Original work
published 1925)
IBM. (2019). What is training and development? Retrieved September 28, 2022, from
https://www.ibm.com/za-en/topics/training-development
Institute of student employers. (2022). Selection and assessment. institute of student
employers. Retrieved September 28, 2022, from
16

https://ise.org.uk/page/practice-selection-and-
assessment#:~:text=Selection%20%26%20assessment%20explores%20the
%20way,be%20deployed%20in%20the%20organisation.
Noomii the professional coach directory. (2022). Career coaching. Retrieved
September 28, 2022, from https://www.noomii.com/career-coaching
Openstax. (2022). What is Industrial and Organisational Psychology. Retrieved
September 28, 2022, from https://openstax.org/books/psychology-
2e/pages/13-1-what-is-industrial-and-organizational-psychology
Sher, M. (2003). From groups to group relations: Bion’s contribution to the Tavistock
‘Leicester’’ conferences. In R. M. Lipgar & M. Pines (Eds.), Building on Bion:
Branches contemporary developments and applications of Bion’s contributions
to theory and practice (pp. 175–195). Jessica Kingsley.
Veldsman, T. H. (2021). Industrial-organisational psychologists engaging with the new
world of work. The unfolding challenge of future-fitness for the 4th Industrial
Revolution. KR Publishing.
17

THE ENTREPRENEURIAL
ECOSYSTEM OF SOUTH AFRICA:
A STRATEGY FOR GLOBAL LEADERSHIP 2017
T h is rep o rt was co m m i s s i o n e d a n d f u n d ed by SAB Foundat i on a nd Al l a n G ray Orbi s Foundat i on,
in p a rt n ersh ip w i t h t h e Th e G l o b a l E nt rep rene urshi p a nd Devel opm ent I nst i t ute,
T h e Glo b al E nt re p ren e u rs h i p Netwo r k S o u th Afri ca a nd S EA Afri ca .
Contents
Introduction........................................................................................................................................ 4
1. Literature review.................................................................................................................................... 8
1.1 Structural context of the South African economy................................................................................. 8
1.2 Context of entrepreneurship data for africa.......................................................................................... 9
2. TEA vs GEI: contrasting pictures of the entrepreneurial ecosystems.................................................... 10
3. Analysis of the entrepreneurial ecosystem of South Africa.................................................................. 14

3.1 The building blocks of the ecosystem................................................................................................ 14
3.2 A unique position: South Africa’s leadership in aspirations and examples from the ecosystem....... 16
3.2 South Africa in the context of sub-Saharan Africa............................................................................. 16
3.3 Strengths of the South African entrepreneurial ecosystem.............................................................. 17
3.4 South Africa in the global entrepreneurial ecosystem...................................................................... 19
4. Causal map of the South African entrepreneurship ecosystem............................................................ 22

4.1 Ecosystem bottlenecks...................................................................................................................... 22
Figure 14: Survey validation with GEI data:............................................................................................ 25
4.3 Structural causes of bottlenecks........................................................................................................ 24
4.4 Impact of bottlenecks........................................................................................................................ 26
5. Policy recommendations........................................................................................................................ 28
The entrepreneurial ecosystem of South Africa: 5.1 Improving startup skills..................................................................................................................... 28
A strategy for global leadership 5.2 Banking and finance for all................................................................................................................ 30
5.3 Technology absorption...................................................................................................................... 30
South Africa is an entrepreneurial leader in sub-Saharan Africa. The country has made
significant progress to overcome structural factors and produce some of the most innovative
6. Conclusion............................................................................................................................................... 32
and successful enterprises on the continent. The country provides the institutional support
necessary for high-growth businesses to emerge and thrive, while government policies work to
Appendix A: GEDI methodology ............................................................................................................... 33
close historical gaps. With the addition of targeted, coordinated policies to address remaining
bottlenecks, the country is poised to achieve greater growth through entrepreneurship.
Introduction
To develop a strategy for action in the generating the greatest impact for and growth-oriented entrepreneurs
entrepreneurship ecosystem of South entrepreneurs in the country. that are motivated to grow and prosper
Africa (EESA), this analysis begins with an within the South African environment
in-depth examination of the ecosystem Entrepreneurship is a key driver of and through engagement with the global
data for South Africa. Next, we examine economic growth. South Africa is in a economy. To facilitate this goal, South
new survey data from key ecosystem unique position in sub-Saharan Africa, Africa needs a national entrepreneurship
actors from both the private and public with stronger supporting institutions policy framework based on the strengths
sectors to identify insights from within than much of the rest of the continent and weaknesses and causal factors that
the ecosystem on what issues are present and a resulting strong entrepreneurial define the entrepreneurship ecosystem.
in the ecosystem, and the causes and ecosystem foundation. Since the 1990s, This report will offer that framework.
effects of ecosystem bottlenecks. These the South African government has
insights are synthesised in tandem with been actively engaged in incorporating Entrepreneurship ecosystems are
supplementary data to produce detailed more of the South African population complex: they comprise numerous
feedback on the health of 14 different into the formal economy, whether into different stakeholders and are shaped by
ecosystem components. Based on the wage employment or entrepreneurship. laws, regulations and formal and informal
results of this analysis, we present a To further strengthen the potential of institutions. A national entrepreneurship
prioritised strategy for action that assists entrepreneurship and innovation, South ecosystem policy needs to look at the
investors, stakeholders, and policy actors Africa does not necessarily need more ecosystem as a whole, and it needs to
in directing their resources towards entrepreneurs, it needs better, innovative understand the ecosystem dynamic.
4 5
Only by taking an ecosystem-wide in its 9th year of refinement, to analyse on stakeholder input via a survey of key
perspective and by identifying strengths the South African entrepreneurship ecosystem actors to add insight that is
and bottlenecks at the eco-system ecosystem and pinpoint policies that not captured in codified data. Combining
level, it is possible to design policy target bottlenecks and build upon recent “hard” data and “soft” experience-based
actions that systematically address and efforts and progress. This methodology insights, we then identify priority actions
correct ecosystem bottlenecks, thereby draws on extensive data from the Global to address the bottlenecks identified
paving the way for a higher-quality Entrepreneurship Index2 to provide an through this combined data. The research
entrepreneurial dynamic in the economy. overall, internationally benchmarked report has five parts, each centered on
look into the South African ecosystem a question:
To address this challenge, this report and identify bottlenecks that hold back
applies the GEDI1 methodology, now its performance. The report then draws
1. What research has already been done on the South African

entrepreneurship ecosystem? We take a macro view of research on the ecosystem,
examining factors that influence the health of the entrepreneurial ecosystem in South Africa –
primarily the interaction of individual entrepreneurial motivation and institutional support in
sub-Saharan Africa and the rest of the world.
2. What analytical tools are available for understanding the South African
entrepreneurship ecosystem? In this section we examine various analytical Our recommendations based on the GEDI South Africans. Remove most regulations (3) build global brands and further
approaches that have been taken to understand entrepreneurship on a global level, along with model and GEDI policy tool are: that hinder the starting of a business; integrate South Africa into the digital
revolution by making digital access
the results they produce and the implications for the South African ecosystem.
(1) continue to build on the work already (2) improve the financing of SME and available to all.
underway towards eliminating the dual entrepreneurs by engaging in bank
3. What path is South Africa on in its entrepreneurship development? economy by increasing startup skills, reform, mobile banking and crowd
Why? In this section we take a deep dive into the South African entrepreneurship ecosystem, improving education and training for all funding for all South Africans.
with an analysis of South Africa’s GEI performance at the variable level over the past ten years.
This analysis produces a list of key bottlenecks to entrepreneurship development based directly 1. The Global Entrepreneurship and Development Institute (The GEDI Institute) is a research organization that advances knowledge on links
on the story in the GEI data. between entrepreneurship, economic development and prosperity. The institute was founded by world-leading entrepreneurship scholars from
the LSE, George Mason University, University of Pécs and Imperial College London. The main contribution of The GEDI Institute is the Global
4. Are there opportunities to use leverage points to produce more Entrepreneurship Index, a breakthrough advance in measuring the quality and dynamics of entrepreneurship ecosystems at a national, regional
and local level. The GEI methodology, has been validated in rigorous academic peer reviews and has been widely reported in media, including in
benefit with less effort? Using survey data we formulate a causal map of the South
The Economist, The Wall Street Journal, Financial Times and Forbes. The methodology has also been endorsed by the European Commission and
African entrepreneurial ecosystem using input we gather from a survey of stakeholders3 – has been used to inform the allocation of EU Structural and Cohesion Funds. The theoretical approach of The GEDI Institute has also influenced
entrepreneurs and policy makers from within the ecosystem. This map will link elements of the entrepreneurship policy thinking in trans-national organizations such as United Nations Conference on Trade and Development.
system and reveal significant bottlenecks and causal chains. Using this causal map, we’ll identify
leverage points where addressing a particular bottleneck may affect multiple links in the chain 2. The Global Entrepreneurship Index sources data from Transparency International (Corruption Perception Index), UNESCO (tertiary education
enrollment, GERD), World Economic Forum (domestic market size, business sophistication, technology absorption and technology transfer
of entrepreneurship development
capability, staff training, market dominance), International Telecommunication Union (Internet usage), The Heritage Foundation and World Bank
(Economic freedom), United Nations (Urbanization index), KOF Swiss Economic Institute (Economic globalization), Coface (Business climate risk),
5. How can South Africa prioritise actions that produce the largest impact? Groh et al (2012) (Depth of capital market), and the Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (individual-level data). A detailed description of the GEI
This concluding section identifies policy recommendations based on evidence from research for methodology is provided as an appendix.
strategies to improve the entrepreneurial ecosystem in South Africa. We synthesise the previous
3. (Economic globalization), Coface (Business climate risk), Groh et al (2012) (Depth of capital market), and the Global Entrepreneurship Monitor
sections to produce a cohesive strategy that addresses key bottlenecks in the South African
(individual-level data). A detailed description of the GEI methodology is provided as an appendix.
ecosystem with concrete policy actions. Proposed central themes for the survey include the following questions:
1. Name the top five factors that are holding back the entrepreneurship ecosystem in South Africa.
2. In your opinion, what is the cause of each of these bottleneck factors?
3. What would keep entrepreneurs from leaving South Africa?
4. What would bring back entrepreneurs that have already left the ecosystem?
6 7
1. Literature review 1.2 Context of entrepreneurship
data for Africa
Muffatto and Cooper, 2016). This may be
due to a multitude of reasons including
Each one of these indices measures
a different slice of the cultural and
but not limited to the scarcity of local institutional ecosystem. What is of
Research shows that entrepreneurship entrepreneurship scholars, the under- importance here is that each one covers
plays a significant role in the economic researched nature of the subject, the only an incomplete set of countries.
1.1S tructural context of the Bureaucracy and red tape. In Infrastructure. While South Africa growth of countries. It is also lack of interest in the subject, or the lack
South African economy combination with these two, the leads sub-Saharan Africa in terms acknowledged that entrepreneurship of entrepreneurs to study. A notable For example, GEM, in 2012 covered only
existence of large and well-established of infrastructure across categories, differs within and across countries and exception is the work of Acs, Szerb, 69 countries while the GCR for the same
Six structural factors identified by state-owned enterprises prevents private the economy struggles with energy across continents. Entrepreneurship in Jackson (2015) “Entrepreneurship in year covered 144 countries.
international sources impact the South sector enterprises from entering key constraints. In response, in 2012, general is the interaction of entrepreneurs Africa through the Eyes of GEDI.”
African entrepreneurial ecosystem: the sectors dominated by these SOEs. In its President Jacob Zuma singled out (agents) with the entrepreneurial When we look at Africa GEM in 2012 only
current recession in part caused by a 2012 National Development Plan, the infrastructure development for special environment (ecosystem) to produce In the past decade, there has been an covered 13 African countries, about 19%
slowdown in China, bureaucracy and red Government of South Africa identified government focus.7 The South African goods and services. increased effort to create databases while the GEDI covered 28 countries or
tape, an economy dominated by large that “procurement policies blur the line government has since developed a plan that attempt to measure both the about 54%. Country coverage over time
firms, a dual economy where a large in matters of corruption, and the state that includes maintenance of major There is much literature on the static, dynamic, quality and context of is even sparser, as some of the surveys
proportion of the population is excluded procurement system has become overly power stations, increasing electricity entrepreneur, both from a psychology entrepreneurial activities at the national above are only carried out periodically
from the formal economy, inadequate bureaucratised,” and proposed greater generation capacity and managing and a social psychology perspective level and enhanced comparison at the (for example, the last HI was 2005).
energy infrastructure and an education centralisation to address these issues.5 electricity demand.8 but existing knowledge about the international level. These are all complex
system that is struggling against historical entrepreneurial ecosystem in which the indices that look at the diverse culture
inequality. Action has been underway to Large firm dominance. In addition to The education system. “Eighteen years entrepreneur operates is limited and and institutional context. They are:
address a number of these issues, and has state-owned enterprises, the South into democracy, South Africa remains a fragmented (Acs, Szerb and Autio, 2014).
benefited the entrepreneurial ecosystem African economy is dominated by large highly unequal society where too many
as well as the economy as a whole. companies that prefer doing businesses people live in poverty and too few work. Knowledge about entrepreneurial
with trusted suppliers they have built a The quality of school education for most environments in less-developed societies • The Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM)
The current recession. The South African long-term relationship with over doing black learners is poor.” 9 Appropriately, like South Africa is limited in the existing
• The World Bank Group Enterprise Survey (WBEGS)
economy has been growing slowly with business with startups that are new to government action in the education literature. This makes it difficult to form
0.1% growth in 2016. Unemployment is the market. Large firms account for more sector is focused first on reducing an evidence-based understanding of • The Economic Freedom of the World Report(EFWR)
almost 27.1% and incomes are falling. than 90 percent of the South African inequality in education. In addition to the underlying factors that influence • Hofstede’s Indicators (HI)
Why is growth slow? The major cause of market.6 inequality, the structure of the education entrepreneurs. • The Global Competitiveness Report (GCR)
this recession is the rebalancing of the system doesn’t allow for creativity and
• The Legatum Prosperity Index (LPI)
Chinese economy, which is reducing the The dual economy. One-third of the innovation, which impacts the level of There are a plethora of indices and
demand for South Africa’s raw material working population is effectively excluded innovative entrepreneurship activity reports that measure entrepreneurship • The Global Entrepreneurship and Development Index (GEDI)
exports. However, the Government from the formal economy. A majority which is needed for growth. at the global level, but most African
of South Africa has taken steps to of entrepreneurs from disadvantaged countries are not included (Sheriff,
address this. communities tend to suffer from lack
of resources due to their communities
As part of the Budget Law 2016/17, the being underserved. The current market
government announced an adjustment structure is not conducive to new market
package of expenditure savings, for entrants, as there are structural barriers
one-third, and tax measures, for two- to market access for new entrants and
third, to reduce the budget deficit from small businesses, which contribute
3.9% of GDP in 2015/16 to 3.0% of GDP to their failure. To address this, the
in 2017/18 and stabilise the gross debt Government of South Africa has made
burden at about 51% of GDP, helping reducing inequality central to the
minimise pressures on the sovereign National Development Plan.
rating.4
4. http://www.worldbank.org/en/country/southafrica/overview
5. National Planning Commission. (2012). National Development Plan 2030: Our future–make it work. Presidency of South Africa, Pretoria, 1.
6. http://www.mckinsey.com/~/media/McKinsey/Global%20Themes/Middle%20East%20and%20Africa/Realizing%20the%20potential%20of%20
Africas%20economies/MGI-Lions-on-the-Move-2-Full-report-September-2016v2.ashx
7. Presidential Infrastructure investment Conference Issued by The Presidency, South Africa 19, Oct. 2012.
8. http://www.gov.za/issues/energy-challenge
9. National Planning Commission. (2012). National Development Plan 2030: Our future–make it work. Presidency of South Africa, Pretoria, 1.
8 9
2. TEA vs GEI: contrasting pictures of the zero-sum – it takes from one group and
gives to another without increasing the
drives the allocation of resources toward
productive use in the economy. In short,
ecosystems by “entrepreneurial
attitudes, entrepreneurial abilities,
entrepreneurial ecosystems total amount of value. This form of rent
seeking is prevalent in many countries.
entrepreneurs create new ventures to
pursue perceived opportunities.
and entrepreneurial aspirations by
individuals, which drives the allocation
Where rent seeking by governments and However, it is impossible to know in of resources through the creation and
other groups is present, entrepreneurs advance that a perceived business operation of new ventures.” Utilising
are reluctant to make the long-term opportunity will actually succeed in these dimensions, we propose four levels
This next section compares two of the investment in time and money to create the marketplace and the only way of index-building: (1) variables, (2) pillars,
measures mentioned above, the Global productive, high-impact firms. to test this is to mobilise resources. (3) sub-indices, and finally (4) super-
Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM) data If the opportunity is not real, or if index. For a detailed explanation of the
and the Global Entrepreneurship and There is a growing recognition that national institutions do not support index construction please see
Development Institute (GEDI) data. entrepreneurship focused only on the conversion of opportunities into the appendix.
As countries develop, more and more the entrepreneur may be too narrow. business growth, entrepreneurs will
people leave self-employment and join This is why researchers now discuss abandon the opportunity and put their
organisations. This is true in every country entrepreneurship ecosystems11. The resources to other uses. We recognise
TEA
over the centuries. For example, the level concept of a national entrepreneurial that country-level entrepreneurship is
of self-employment in the United States ecosystem is based on three important a multifaceted phenomenon whereby
declined from 80 percent in 1800 to less premises that provide an appropriate individual capabilities and actions are
than 10 percent today. In most countries platform for analysing entrepreneurial contextualised through institutional
that are developed we see the same trend ecosystems. incentives; hence the building blocks
today. They shift from quantity denoted pillars of entrepreneurial activity
GDP
to quality as entrepreneurs become First, entrepreneurship is fundamentally cannot be viewed in isolation. On the
more innovative. Figure 1: A measure of GDP and TEA for 2016 an action undertaken and driven by contrary, they constitute a system where
agents on the basis of their incentives. the final outcome is moderated by the
GEM measures entrepreneurial activity Therefore, individual level data is weakest performing pillar.
with the TEA rate. TEA stands for total needed to capture the dynamics of an
entrepreneurial activity. The implication entrepreneurial ecosystem. The National Entrepreneurial Ecosystem
is that the higher the TEA rate the Second, the individual action is affected is fundamentally a quality rather than
more entrepreneurial your country is. by a country’s institutional framework for a quantity phenomenon; the most
The TEA rate stresses the quantity of entrepreneurship. important aspect of entrepreneurship
entrepreneurship rather than the quality from an economic perspective is its
and suggests that more self-employment Therefore, country-level data on quality. We have constructed an index,
is always good for a country.10 Two entrepreneurship framework conditions Global Entrepreneurship Index (GEI),
illustrations call this relationship into are also needed to capture the dynamics to measure this phenomenon. Perhaps
question. First, as shown in the Figure 1 of an entrepreneurial ecosystem. its most important feature arises from
above TEA declines as GDP goes up. In the “penalty for bottleneck” approach,
other words, the data shows that richer Third, entrepreneurship ecosystems which stems from the notion that,
countries have less entrepreneurship as are complex, multifaceted structures in because ecosystem elements work
measured by TEA. which many elements interact to produce together to produce system performance,
Figure 2: TEA is negatively correlated with development measures systems performance, thus, the index bottlenecks in one element can hinder
Second, we look at the relationship method needs to allow the constituent performance across the ecosystem12.
among three of the leading measures of harder it is to start a growing business countries in general need less self- elements to interact. Therefore, to produce real and
economic development and TEA: Global the more people will stay self-employed. employment - not more - as incomes rise lasting change in the dynamics of
Competitive Index, Index of Economic Finally, TEA is negatively correlated and organisations get bigger. This approach implies that countries’ entrepreneurial ecosystems,
Freedom and the Ease of Doing Business (-0.46) with the Global Competitiveness entrepreneurship is a trial-and-error entrepreneurship policies need to
with TEA. As we can see in Figure 2, Index. The Global Entrepreneurship and process of knowledge spillovers and address bottlenecks first, and in a
the TEA index is negatively correlated Development Institute (GEDI) has resource allocation that is driven by coherent and coordinated way. We
with the Index of Economic Freedom This means that the less competitive developed a measure of entrepreneurial individuals and regulated by context that operationalise national economic
(-0.27). This means that less economic your country is internationally, the more ecosystems that focuses on quality
freedom gives you more self-employment people will become self-employed. rather than quantity, high growth
because entrepreneurs can’t build enterprises rather than self employment 11. W e use the concept National System of Entrepreneurship (Acs, Autio and Szerb, 2014) and National Entrepreneurial
larger businesses. TEA is also negatively This means that the amount of TEA in and productive entrepreneurship rather Ecosystem interchangeably in this paper.
correlated with the Ease of Doing a country is negatively correlated with than unproductive entrepreneurship. 12. For example, funding-focused policies will be effective only if financing is a bottleneck that is inhibiting the creation and growth of new
Business (-0.57). This means that the growth and prosperity. As a policy, then, Unproductive entrepreneurship is productive businesses. However, if the real bottleneck is entrepreneurial skills, providing additional money for new business may not improve the
economy’s entrepreneurial performance.
10. Marcotte, 2013 13. Acs, Autio and Szerb, 2014, p.479
10 11
In Figure 3 we replicate the analysis
that we carried out for TEA. The GEI is
positively correlated with the Index of
Economic Freedom (0.74), positively
correlated with the Ease of Doing
Business (0.68) and positively correlated
with the Global Competitiveness
Index (0.88).
We can see that the GEI measures

entrepreneurship as a phenomenon that
is positive for growth and development.
That is, a higher GEI score also usually
means that a country has more economic
freedom, is more competitive and has an
environment in which it is easier to start Figure 3: GEI is positively correlated with development measures
a business.
In Figure 4 we compare the Global

Entrepreneurship Index (GEI), Total
entrepreneurial activity ratio (TEA) and
economic development measured by per
capita GDP (all data points 2006-2015).
We see that the relationship between
GEI/TEA SCORES
TEA and per capita GDP is negative with
a correlation of 0.41. This is because TEA
measures the level of self-employment –
more prevalent in lower income countries
– and not entrepreneurship.
The relationship between GEI and per

capita GDP is positive with a correlation
GDP WORL BANK INTERNATIONAL 2011
of 0.80. In other words, as the GEI score
goes up a country becomes richer. As we Figure 4: The relationship between GEI, TEA and GDP14
can see above, what a country needs is a
low TEA score and a high GEI score.
CORRELATIONS GDP GEI TEA
South Africa has a TEA score of 9.2 and
a GEI score of 34.0 in 2015. These two GDP 1 **875. **531.-
trends are summarised in the figure
below. Figure 5 is a correlation table GEI 1 **435.-
among TEA, GEI and GDP. The data
TEA 1
indicates that achieving high GDP means
a country should strive for a low TEA and ** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
a high GEI. Table 5: The correlation between GDP per capita, GEI and TEA (2011-2015)
14. A poly is a three-degree polynomial. It is a nonlinear fitting of a curve to explain the correlation between s set of points.
12 13
3. Analysis of the entrepreneurial ecosystem One measure of aspirations leadership
is whether a country is able to produce
Looking beyond unicorns, Crunchbase’s
top ten South African companies all rank
has operations in 21 countries across the
Middle East and Africa.24 The company is
of South Africa unicorns - private, venture-backed
companies valued at a billion dollars
in the top 15,000 companies globally20,
out of more than 100,000 companies
valued at $224 billion in terms of market
cap25 and ranked #523 on Forbes’ 2000
or more.16 In sub-Saharan Africa only catalogued. MTN, Dimension Data and biggest companies.26 In addition to these
two countries have produced a unicorn: Yoko rank in the top 5,000 globally, and large companies, smaller, high-tech
South Africa and Nigeria. South Africa’s all three are in the top ten in Africa. startups are disrupting traditional models
This section lays out the strengths of Promasidor Holdings, valued at $1.58 with mobile technology and reaching
the entrepreneurial ecosystem of South billion17 is in the food and beverage These rankings, as well as the companies previously underserved markets.
Africa (EESA) based on data from the industry and Nigeria’s African Internet detailed below, further demonstrate that
Global Entrepreneurship Index. The first Group, valued at $1.1 dollars is in South Africa is and has been producing Yoco: Founded in 2012, Yoko is a mobile
section presents the building blocks of the the internet provider business. Other high-growth, high-tech, globally credit card payment processing platform
ecosystem. The second section looks at noteworthy startups in South Africa are:18 competitive startups. used primarily by small businesses.27
EESA in the context of sub-Saharan Africa.
The third section looks at the strengths of Top 10 South African tech startups by Naspers: Founded in 1915, Naspers is a The company raised $1.65 million in
the EESA. Section four looks at the global Crunchbase rank19 $60bn global media and internet group funding in 2014, and launched publicly in
standing of the EESA and its strengths as with investments and operations in more 2015. More than 5000 users rely on the
a global leader in entrepreneurship and than 130 markets. The company is active platform to process payments.
innovation. both in the venture capital space and
in conventional operations - funding, Travelstart: Founded in 1999 in Sweden,
3.1 The building blocks of the acquiring and building more than 100 Travelstart provides cheap flights, car
ecosystem companies. Notable Naspers investments hire, hotels and holiday packages to
include Tencent in China and Flipkart destinations in South Africa and abroad.28
As we outlined above, the GEI is in India.21 The company ranked #683 Since 2010 the company has been
composed of three building blocks or globally in terms on Forbes’ list of the headquartered in South Africa, and
sub-indices—what we call the 3As: world’s 2000 biggest companies in 2016.22 has operations in 16 countries
entrepreneurial attitudes, entrepreneurial Its market capitalisation is $74 billion.23 throughout the Middle East and Africa.29
abilities, and entrepreneurial aspirations. In 2016, the company raised $40 million
Entrepreneurial attitudes explain how MTN Group: Founded in 1994, MTN is in venture funding. It is one of Africa’s
the population of a country feels about a JSE-listed multinational company that largest online travel-booking websites.
entrepreneurship. The attitudes should Figure 6: The GEI scores and the three sub-indices of South Africa, 2011-2015 average offers voice and data, mobile financial, Companies like the above both enable
be positive. Entrepreneurial abilities are enterprise, and digital services to clients growth, and, as Africa’s middle class
about the abilities and skills needed to ranging from individuals to corporate and expands, reap the benefits of customers
start and run a successful business. The an attempt to capture the open-ended In the following sections, a key public sector organisations. The company that growth creates.
main abilities are relevant education nature of entrepreneurship; analysing characteristic of the South African
and technology absorption. That is them can provide an in-depth view of ecosystem emerges – the country’s
the ability to use technologies that the strengths and weaknesses of those leadership in the aspirations sub-index, 16 https://hbr.org/2016/01/how-unicorns-grow
already exist. Finally, entrepreneurial listed in the Index. Figure 6 shows the which captures the highest level of 17 h ttps://www.cbinsights.com/research-unicorn-companies , though the company is not listed in Fortune’s unicorn list http://fortune.com/unicorns/
aspirations are about the type of relationship between GDP the three sub- ecosystem development. This leadership or in Cruchbase https://techcrunch.com/unicorn-leaderboard/
business entrepreneurs want to build. indices as well as the GEI. is demonstrated by a number of 18 https://digitalskillsacademy.com/blog/5-south-african-tech-startups-to-watch-in-2015
They should want to change the status noteworthy firms from the ecosystem 19 https://www.crunchbase.com/
quo and not just accept it. These three The three sub-indices for South Africa that have overcome barriers at the lower 20 T he Crunchbase Rank uses Crunchbase’s intelligent algorithms to score and rank entities (e.g. company, people, investors, etc.) so you can quickly
building blocks stand on 14 pillars, each show that it performs above the global levels of the ecosystem to take advantage see what matters most in real time. The algorithms take into account many different variables, ranging from Total Funding Amount to that entity’s
of which contains an individual and an trend line in the GEI index. It performs of a highly developed growth engine strength of relationships with other entities in the Crunchbase ecosystem to how many times the entity has been viewed recently. The Crunchbase
institutional variable that corresponds to above the global trend because of a at the top of the ecosystem. A recent Rank shows where an entity falls in the Crunchbase platform relative to all other entities in that entity type (i.e. if searching for companies, you
the micro- and the macro-level aspects strong showing in aspirations indicators, McKinsey study noted that “only in South will see where a specific company ranks relative to all other companies). An entity with a Crunchbase Rank of 1 has the highest rank relative to all
of entrepreneurship. For example, an an ecosystem characteristic that leads to Africa is there a globally comparable other entities of that type. - https://about.crunchbase.com/pro-support-resources/faq-cb-rank-trendscore
individual variable is an entrepreneur that growing companies. prevalence of large companies; its 21. https://www.crunchbase.com/organization/naspers#/entity
wants to start an innovative business. The economy has 9.6 companies per $10 22. http://www.forbes.com/global2000/#/country:South%20Africa
institutional variable measures how easy 3.2 A unique position: South Africa’s billion in revenue, compared with 1.9 in 23. http://www.marketwatch.com/investing/stock/npsny
it is to acquire technology, for example leadership in aspirations and North Africa and 1.1 in Nigeria.”15 24. https://www.crunchbase.com/organization/mtn#/entity
technology transfer. These pillars are examples from the ecosystem 25. http://www.marketwatch.com/investing/Stock/MTN?countrycode=ZA
26. http://www.forbes.com/global2000/#/country:South%20Africa
27. https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=za.co.yoco&hl=en
15. h
ttp://www.mckinsey.com/~/media/McKinsey/Global%20Themes/Middle%20East%20and%20Africa/Realizing%20the%20potential%20of%20 28. https://www.crunchbase.com/organization/travelstart#/entity
Africas%20economies/MGI-Lions-on-the-Move-2-Full-report-September-2016v2.ashx 29. http://www.travelstart.co.za/lp/about-us?language=en
14 15
3.2 S outh Africa in the context of GEI Country ATT ABT ASP GEI
sub-Saharan Africa
52 Botswana 47.5 32.3 23.5 34.4 **Countries with estimated individual
The emergence of the companies data are not shown, as confidence
detailed above, both large and small, is 55 South Africa 28.8 31.2 38.0 32.6 intervals for these countries cannot
partly explained by South Africa’s strong 60 Namibia 33.0 28.3 30.7 30.7 be calculated. The confidence interval
performance vis-à-vis the rest of the depends on the sample size of the
continent. South Africa benefits from a 75 Gabon 25.3 22.6 25.9 24.6 survey and the size of the country. The
multitude of entrepreneurial support smaller the country for a given sample
programs, as well as infrastructure that is 86 Ghana 33.3 19.1 13.8 22.0 size the smaller the confidence interval.
better than most other African countries.
88 Swaziland 19.8 20.4 25.2 21.8
Africa’s individual countries and 96 Zambia 23.9 19.4 18.4 20.5

economies exhibit considerable Figure 7: C
onfidence intervals for sub-Saharan African countries
heterogeneity, with significant cultural 100 Nigeria 21.6 20.1 17.9 19.9 **Countries with estimated individual data are not shown, as confidence intervals for these countries cannot be calculated.
and economic differences between the The confidence interval depends on the sample size of the survey and the size of the country. The smaller the country for a given
North and the South, and between the 102 Senegal 26.7 14.0 18.2 19.7
sample size the smaller the confidence interval.
East and the West. South Africa is a clear 103 Rwanda 21.5 21.7 15.7 19.6
leader in this regional context, and is
second only to Botswana in its overall 107 Kenya 15.2 19.4 19.9 18.2 3.3 Strengths of the South African
GEI score. entrepreneurial ecosystem
109 Ethiopia 14.5 22.7 16.1 17.8
Shown in Table 1 Botswana achieves a In contrast to the weak showing of the
112 Côte d’Ivoire 21.4 14.3 14.3 16.6
GEI score of 34.4, which ranks it 52nd sub-Saharan African region on average,
among the 137 countries analysed in the 115 Gambia, The 18.1 17.5 12.7 16.1 the South African entrepreneurial
global GEI ranking. ecosystem outperforms the region in
116 Cameroon 17.8 15.2 14.9 16.0 the most growth-oriented components.
South Africa scores 32.6, ranking 55th The reason for this is found in Table 2
118 Tanzania 15.0 17.1 15.3 15.8
globally, and has a substantial lead in the below, which shows the pillar-level scores
aspirations sub-index – the cornerstone 119 Mali 15.8 15.4 15.8 15.6 for the South African ecosystem. South
of high-growth enterprise development Africa performs better where it counts: in
– achieving the region’s highest score by 121 Liberia 19.2 15.3 12.3 15.6 entrepreneurial aspirations, innovation,
almost 30%. The aspiration sub-index high growth, internationalisation and
measures if entrepreneurs want to create 123 Mozambique 16.4 15.0 14.0 15.1 risk capital are the pillars that lead to
high-growth businesses. economic growth. South Africa is also
124 Madagascar 16.1 15.2 11.6 14.3
very strong on the depth of its capital
Generally speaking, the average 125 Angola 12.2 13.4 16.7 14.1 markets, performing in the top 20 percent Table 2: The full indicator level scores of South Africa (2011-2015 average)
performance of the region’s sub-indices is of countries. It also performs in the top
relatively equal, with aspirations posting 126 Uganda 14.4 15.7 9.6 13.2 20 percent of countries for new products Africa has an average GEI score of 0.33
the lowest average score at 16.1 and and new technologies and is a leading out of 1.00 with an institutional score of The pillars give us a clue. At the pillar level
127 Benin 17.2 13.2 8.8 13.0 South Africa’s weakest pillars are startup
attitudes posting the highest average economy in terms of risk perception and 0.55 and an individual score of 0.63. This
score at 19.1. Countries that depart 130 Malawi 10.6 14.3 12.5 12.5 competitiveness and regulation. The means that South Africa’s institutions skills (0.07). This score is made up of
from the regional pattern include leader pillars that hold back overall performance are holding people back by not creating education 0.20 and skill perception 0.49.
Botswana, whose attitudes score is almost 131 Guinea 11.1 14.2 11.1 12.1 are largely a factor of the dual economy adequate incentives. While South People think they have the skills to start a
50% higher than its other scores. – South Africa has the right institutional African institutions are strong relative to business but the education level suggests
132 Burkina Faso 12.5 14.1 9.2 11.9 environment for high-growth firms to African countries they are rather weak that they do not. Multiplied together we
Ethiopia stands out for an abilities score thrive, and efforts to address attitudes compared to developed countries. This arrive at the 0.07 pillar score. Risk capital
134 Mauritania 15.5 9.4 9.8 11.6
that is 40% higher than its other sub-index and abilities across the population will is demonstrated by other measures like (0.21) is the second lowest score out
scores. As noted, South Africa scores 135 Sierra Leone 10.4 12.8 11.0 11.4 further strengthen this environment. economic freedom. They need to be of 1.00. This is arrived at by combining
highest in aspirations – an uncommon strengthened. For example, according the depth of capital markets score 0.86.
phenomenon globally for lower-income 136 Burundi 9.1 15.0 10.0 11.4 The colours in the table above show the to the Economic Freedom of the World This is an institutional variable. It is very
countries. behavior of all 31 variables in a quartile (015), South Africa ranks 121 in the size strong, one of the strongest in the world.
137 Chad 7.8 9.0 9.4 8.8 However, the informal investment is very
with red the lowest and blue the highest, of government, 61st in legal system and
Sub-Saharan Africa 19.1 17.6 16.1 17.6 averaged over the 2011-2015 time property rights and 88 in freedom to weak at 0.33. It suggests that the capital
period: 1.00 is the highest score for each trade internationally. Which ones should markets are not evenly spread over the
Table 1: GEI Ranking of the Sub-Saharan African Countries variable and 0.00 is the lowest. South be strengthened? whole country.
16 17
The third weakest pillar is human capital 3.4 South Africa in the global Indonesia lags in technology absorption
(0.23). It is another way of trying to entrepreneurial ecosystem and Internationalisation too.
understand if entrepreneurs have the
skills and education to start a business. It While the EESA is strong generally, unique When compared to the other BRICS
is a combination of the flexibility of labour patterns of strengths and weaknesses are countries South Africa looks more like
markets, an institutional variable and staff revealed when compared to peers. As a China and India than it does other African
training, an individual variable. What is start we compare South Africa, Botswana countries. It is strong on innovation,
weak here is staff training. and Namibia. While the latter two are growth and competition. It is also
smaller countries they have similar GEI stronger on internationalisation. It is
The final weak pillar is technology scores. We see that South Africa has a weak on two fronts compared with
absorption (0.22) out of 1.00. This stronger position in the key variables of Russia and China. Russia has better
suggests that South Africa is not very innovation, high-growth companies and human capital and China has better risk
good at absorbing technology from the internationalisation. All three are very capital. Among the five, China scores
rest of the world. The weakness is more similar in human capital and technology highest at 36.3, followed by South Africa
at the individual level 0.40 and not the absorption. at 32.6, India and Russia at 25.8 and 25.4,
institutional level 0.70. This implies that Figure 8: T he change of the three sub-indices and the GEI scores of South Africa, and Brazil at 20.1.
training and technical education are 2006-2015 Figure 9 shows the comparison between
needed. South Africa, Botswana and Namibia.
weak because of the education system If we look at the data over time we see Botswana’s overall strength comes from
At the pillar level South Africa is strong on (0.20). It is the weakest institutional pillar that the GEI scores in South Africa since entrepreneurial attitudes as compared
competition (0.75) followed by product for the country as a whole by a factor of 2008 have not really improved and can entrepreneurial aspirations. In other
innovation (0.62), high-growth firms at least two. The highest score is for the be seen actually declining – largely due words Botswana has better attitudes
(0.55) and process innovation (0.50). The depth of capital markets (0.86). A look at to the impact of the global recession. towards entrepreneurship but not better
aspiration scores are very strong in the the individual variables reveals that the Figure 8 shows the trend line for the four skills or aspirations. Namibia is stronger
second quartile. weakest variable is the education level measures over the time period 2008 to on entrepreneurial aspirations but it is not
of entrepreneurs (0.30) and the level of 2015. What we can conclude is that there strong across all of the pillars. For example
South Africa is able to innovate and create informal investment (0.33) followed by had not been any improvement over the attitudes are much weaker than in South
high-growth businesses. If we dig down a the level of technology (0.40). last decade. This is a situation that Africa. However, all three countries are
little deeper we see that startup skills are needs improvement. leaders in sub-Saharan Africa.
We next look at South Africa, Zambia

and Angola. When we compare South
Africa, Angola and Zambia we see that
South Africa has a much more developed
entreprenerurial ecosystem then Angola or
Zambia. Neither country shows any strength Figure 9: Pillar-level performance of South Africa, Namibia, and Botswana
in the key aspiration components of the
entrepreneurial ecosystem. While Zambia
is similar in a few pillars, Angola lags far behind
South Africa despite a very high TEA score.
If we look at the MENA countries and

look outside of sub-Saharan Africa
we might get a better perspective on
the South African ecosystems. When
compared with Egypt and Indonesia,
South Africa performs rather well. It
continues to outperform both countries
in product and process innovation and
has similar levels of human capital and
technology absorption. While Indonesia
has a GEI score equal to Egypt’s, South
Africa is 10 percentage points above
both. Egypt has parts of a strong
aspirational ecosystem but it is very weak
on product innovation. Figure 10: Pillar-level performance of South Africa, Angola, Zambia
18 19
Table 3 uses a heat map to compare South Africa to a set of countries that fall into the middle-income range including Colombia,
Brazil, China, Russia, Vietnam, the UK and the USA, and shows that South Africa performs exceptionally well on most pillars.
Comparing South Africa on the key aspirational pillars it performs alongside the leading economies of the world. It would appear
that the South African ecosystem is strong and competitive with similar countries.
Figure 11: South Africa, Egypt and Indonesia
Table 3: 2011-2015 Average scores for African countries
Figure 12: South Africa, Brazil, China and India
20 21
4. Causal map of the South African substantially more than a small business
can afford to pay them, and we often
Government do have some initiatives to
help “Go Global” but having tried to be part
Finance, identified by survey
respondents, has a clear and direct match
entrepreneurship ecosystem lose the two-year investment in these
graduates.
of this in the past, we have given up these
efforts as it simply is too hard to get any co-
in the GEI bottlenecks: risk capital. The
same is true with skills and the GEI’s
payments for any international expansion startup skills.
The fifth factor is networks, primarily in plans. We have tried three different
terms of support structure and accessing initiatives and the weight of the red tape Markets, identified by 25 survey
To further develop our understanding and point towards key issues that, if Access to finance from formal finance opportunities, which is strongly influenced has killed off the enthusiasm to make this respondents, have a slightly less direct
of the South African entrepreneurship addressed, will have a disproportionate institutions, the criteria being used is not by structural inequality in the country. happen. Entrepreneurs cannot afford to connection with the technology-
ecosystem we interviewed 79 individuals positive impact on the overall ecosystem. in favour for small businesses, due to waste weeks of time trying to be approved absorption bottleneck.
that represent entrepreneurs, investors, The factors holding back the South their high-risk factor. Culture in South Africa has an important and then paid for any of these initiatives.
policy-makers and academics on African ecosystem can be narrowed down role to play in choosing entrepreneurship As identified in the indicator-level
the specific causes and impacts of to six areas. They are: Finance of new and South Africa does not have a large, as a career choice, and many families In order to validate the bottlenecks analysis above, the driving force behind
ecosystem bottlenecks. The purpose growing firms, access to markets for firms well-developed venture-capital market. and community members do not find this that emerged from our survey data and the low score in technology absorption is
was to develop a matrix of linked both domestic and international, skills, Many investors are also hesitant to choice sustainable. the bottlenecks that the GEI’s globally low rates of firm-level technology – a rate
causes and effects based on inputs education, networks and culture, and invest due to the high degree of risk (be benchmarked dataset identifies, we heavily influenced by access to markets
from individuals operating within the regulation. it actual or perceived) associated with The final factor is the role of regulation compare the list identified by each in both directions: firms have difficulty
South African ecosystem. The free- entrepreneurial activities. and red tape. The government does method and find that the two match acquiring new technology, and little
response structure of the survey allows The word cloud below shows the relative not always work efficiently to promote relatively well: incentive to use it when market access
us to collect qualitative data. We asked frequency of keywords within the The second most frequently mentioned entrepreneurship. impedes both technology acquisition
three questions. First, what are the top- responses on the key factors holding back factor holding back the ecosystem was and sales.
five factors that are holding back the South Africa’s ecosystem. access to markets. Many small firms do
entrepreneurship ecosystem in South not have access to markets because of Networks are directly related to social
SURVEY BOTTLENECK GEI BOTTLENECLK
Africa? Second, what is the cause of The most consistently mentioned factor large firms dominating the economy. capital, as is education with human
each of these bottleneck factors? Third, holding back the ecosystem was access capital.
what additional impacts do each of these to finance. Forty-one of the seventy- Distribution network challenges.
factors have? nine respondents mentioned access The market is largely dominated by Finally, regulation and red tape has a
to finance as one of the top-five most established brands thus making it difficult relationship with technology absorption
4.1 Ecosystem bottlenecks important issues in the South African for small businesses to distribute their as well: Regulation and red tape both
entrepreneurship ecosystem – both at products to large retail stores such as make it more difficult to acquire new
The results of the survey give us a clearer the venture-capital stage and at the seed- Woolworths and Pick n Pay. technology, in addition to reducing the
picture of the South African ecosystem, funding stage. incentives for producing and using it.
The third most frequently mentioned
factor holding back the ecosystem was When regulatory burdens make it
the level of skills. Skills represent those difficult to operate in the market,
tools that individuals need to start and acquiring and using new technology does
run a business. not provide the same benefits to firms as
it would absent said burdens.
Small businesses are not able to employ
skilled labour which limits their barrier to The two survey bottlenecks (markets and
growth. regulation/red tape) are also connected
with the technology absorption GEI
The fourth factor holding back the bottleneck through a fourth, latent
ecosystem was education. Education is variable – the legacy of apartheid,
important because it provides the human which established institutions poorly
capital needed to develop an economy. suited for their context, institutions
that have left their mark as bureaucracy
The lack of suitably qualified graduates and inefficiency that slow the rates of
coming out of technikon or university. technology absorption in the current
To overcome this we have instituted an entrepreneurship ecosystem.
internship programme for two years
where we take graduates through an “on
the job” training program, after which
they are suitably qualified. Often at that
time these qualified people are in such
Figure 13: Frequency of keywords demand that they can get poached for Figure 14: S urvey validation with GEI data
22 23
4.3 Structural causes of bottlenecks rural areas and townships. Entrepreneurs and skills, and is particularly acute when Causes of the regulation-and-red-tape respondents include: Regulatory in lack of skills and education, networks,
in rural areas face additional barriers combined with structural inequality and bottleneck environment designed for large firms (5) and directly to access to finance and
The word cloud below shows the in scaling stemming from low ICT the failure of government programs to and labour laws (2). access to markets. A second causal factor
relative frequency of keywords within penetration and historical failure to effectively address it. Almost all respondents who identified is cultural: Entrepreneurship is perceived
the responses on the causes of factors invest in human capital. the regulation-and-red-tape bottleneck The causal map below depicts the as risky. This influences the willingness to
holding back South Africa’s ecosystem. The factors listed by multiple respondents cited the burden that small businesses relationships identified through survey finance new businesses as well as those
Causal factors listed by multiple include: Innovation is not taught in bear when trying to operate in a responses. businesses access to markets.
Causes of the access-to-finance respondents were: Knowledge and skills schools (6), cost of education (5), regulatory environment designed for
bottleneck: The most frequently listed (12), exposure (4), large-firm dominance education system favours employment large firms. Labour laws and short-term Four causal factors were present across A third factor is also cultural: innovation
cause of limited access to finance is the (4), lack of funding (3), trust (3), over entrepreneurship (4), quality policy-planning horizons were also listed survey responses and each impacted is undervalued. This results in skills and
low-risk appetite within the traditional structural inequality (3) and red tape (2). of basic education (3), networks (2), as underlying factors in the regulation- multiple ecosystem bottlenecks. The education that do not adequately support
banking system. In addition, red tape, structural inequality (2). and-red-tape bottleneck. first is structural inequality, which the startup and growth of businesses.
collateral requirements and other lending Causes of the skills-and-education Factors identified by multiple respondents identified as a causal factor Finally, the dominance of large firms
criteria make accessing existing funding bottlenecks Causes of the networks bottleneck contributes to an environment where
particularly difficult for startups, and the red tape impedes the functioning of new
poor credit rating of some entrepreneurs There are two facets to the skills-and- A lack of qualified mentors in the market entrants and smaller firms, as
further inhibits finance access. education bottlenecks as discussed ecosystem was the most commonly well as influencing the structures that
by respondents: A lack of business mentioned cause of the networks determine financial and market access.
Of the respondents that listed access to skills among entrepreneurs and a lack bottleneck, followed closely by structural
finance as a primary issue, the following of innovation curriculum in schools. inequality. In addition, some respondents Responses also revealed a causal
causes were identified by multiple The lack of business skills is connected noted that many lack the knowledge relationship between bottlenecks: A lack
respondents (along with the number with a lack of networks through which and skills to build and use networks of of skills impacts both access to finance
of respondents that identified each entrepreneurs discover their own other entrepreneurs. Finally, respondents and access to markets, education impacts
cause): Startups perceived as high risk knowledge gaps. Within the realm of cite rivalry/trust issues, as well as and access to finance, availability of networks
(15), red tape (10), knowledge/skills gap basic (not entrepreneurship-specific) a failure of government programs to impacts access to finance and access to
among entrepreneurs (7), networks (4), education, many respondents pointed connect entrepreneurs with appropriate markets, and regulation and red tape
corruption (2). out a lack of innovation curriculum and mentors. impact access to finance and access
a system that favours employment over to markets.
Causes of the access-to-markets entrepreneurship. The factors identified by multiple
bottleneck respondents include: Lack of mentors (6),
The cost of education was also listed as a structural inequality (4), trust/rivalry (2),
Lack of necessary knowledge and skills cause of the follow-on lack in knowledge knowledge and skills (3).
was a causal factor listed by a large
number of respondents as a contributing
factor to market access issues. This
was typically connected to a failure to
accurately assess market potential and
plan for market entry and expansion.
Large-firm dominance impacts the

establishment and growth of new
businesses through several pathways.
Lack of finance contributes to scaling
issues, and scaling issues make new firms
less competitive in a market dominated
by large firms. Difficulty establishing
trust with new buyers in an environment
that favours large, established firms was
also listed as an issue. Red tape inhibits
small-firm establishment and growth in
addition to discouraging trade between
industries.
Structural inequality impacts the

market-access potential of black-owned
businesses, and is particularly acute in Figure 15: Structural causes of bottlenecks Figure 16: Causal map: Entrepreneurship ecosystem bottlenecks and their underlying causal factors
24 25
4.4 Impact of bottlenecks
The word cloud below shows the

relative frequency of keywords within
the responses on the impacts of factors
holding back South Africa’s ecosystem.
We see that the words that show up
most frequently below are growth,
opportunity, survival and discouraged.
We were able to identify six outcomes
of the bottlenecks in the South African
ecosystem. They are failure of existing
firms, a difficulty of survival, hard to start
new firms, discouraged entrepreneurs,
hard-to-grow existing businesses and a
lack of innovation.
The most frequently mentioned impacts

of the bottlenecks are that it is hard
to grow a business. Without growing
businesses it is hard for the economy to
grow. This was mentioned 30 times. Figure 17: Business
The South African economy has This makes it hard for small businesses to environment. This situation not only
become stagnant, making it difficult for expand and experience growth. impacts new businesses directly but
entrepreneurs to grow their businesses. also indirectly due to lower levels of
This leaves slim chances of business The second most frequently cited impact economic activity in the South African
success. of bottlenecks is business failure. The economy overall. These factors make it
recession and lack of finance are making difficult for entrepreneurs to kick-start
it difficult for firms to survive. their businesses.
The lack of entrepreneurial preparation The next impact is that entreprenerus are
in schools will result in entrepreneurs discouraged from starting businesses.
that fail because they lack knowledge
and mentorship. They also have limited Too few consider starting a business and
knowledge of the proper channels to rely on government and large business
follow in order to operate successful to offer job opportunities. Pressure to
businesses. import goods that SMEs can manufacture
locally.
SMEs wait too long to receive assistance
and this makes them think that the Finally, innovation suffers in this
success of their business is dependent on environment and keeps entrepreneurs
people working in the government SME from achieving high growth for
A lack of capital restricts growth and support agencies. This leads to a lot of their firms.
prevents others to get into business. frustration and slows down the uptake
Entrepreneurs will resort to desperate of businesses. Therefore the government The lack of supportive infrastructure
measures to obtain finance including loan needs to ensure that they recruit not only limits the development and
sharks, selling of personal assets and individuals who are passionate about the success of new businesses, but also
extort suppliers finance. SME development. reduces the level of innovation achieved
in our economy.
The depressed state of the economy will In the current environment it is hard to
discourage investors in funding SME. start a new business. Very often, innovation is driven by new
businesses, and if these businesses are
The traditional models used by suppliers, Local businesses are facing reduced not supported, these new ideas cannot be
financiers, incubators do not cater to levels of international trade due to the converted into innovative products
the unique needs of each small business. instability of the international economic and services.
26 27
5. Policy recommendations PILLAR
Required Increase Percentage of Total
voucher34 “led to a higher employment
one year after receiving the voucher.
in Pillar New Effort
This impact is relatively large – between
5.4 and 7.4 percentage points. Given
Opportunity Perception 0.00 %0 that only 24 percent of those not in
If we are to summarise our results for the other African countries like Nigeria, balanced approach also improving social wage employment in the control group
Startup Skills 0.17 63%
South African entrepreneurial ecosystem Egypt or Ghana. While the South capital (networking), human capital and in 2010 transitioned into employment
they fall into four categories. First, the African entrepreneurial ecosystem is opportunity startups. Risk Acceptance 0.00 0% in 2011 and overall only 31 percent
major problem we observe is due to the underdeveloped and unbalanced South of those in the control group were in
demographic structure of the country Africa is stronger than most of its peer • F or startup skills GEDI measures Networking 0.00 0% wage employment in 2011 these results
with almost 50% of the population under countries in competition, product and the level of skill perception, tertiary suggest that the voucher increased
24, youth unemployment close to 50% process innovation. For example, it is education and the quality of tertiary Cultural Support 0.00 0% employment by 24 percent.”35 Such
and unemployment of 25%. South Africa more like China than Russia and Brazil education (see appendix). Both of these an intervention addresses “a troubling
Opportunity Startup 0.00 0%
ranks 116 on the Human Development with weak innovation. This is the good should be strengthened. equilibrium... [where]... the demand
Index, putting the country at a mid-range news. However, it is like Russia and Technology Absorption 0.03 11% for labour is lower than it would be if
level of human development overall. Brazil in technology absorption and • F or risk capital GEDI measures the workers’ types were observable (since
South Africa ranks 80th of 166 on the human capital, the skills needed to depth of capital markets and informal Human Capital 0.00 0% firms hire based on expected skill
Index of Economic Freedom, 74th of 190 close the distance to frontier gap. The investment. Depth of capital markets is levels), the incentives to obtain skills are
Competition 0.00 0%
on the Ease of Doing Business, and 47th distance to the frontier is the difference very strong but informal investment is diminished (since workers cannot be
of 138 on the Global Competetiveness between countries that are using the best not. In other words the formal capital Product Innovation 0.00 0% sure they will reap the benefits of their
Index. How do we interpret these technologies and those that are not. That sector, banking, insurance and risk acquired skills). Wage subsidies provided
statistics? A young population could difference is the distance to the frontier capital are strong. However, the less Process Innovation 0.00 0% to SMEs could be particularly impactful
be an advantage for a country. Even a that needs to be overcome. formal sector of the economy, angel in terms of both unemployment and the
large advantage. Young people are more financing by people is weak. High Growth 0.00 0% affordability of skilled labor.
energetic, more ambitious, and should Fourth, the results of the analysis using
Internationalization 0.00 0%
be better-educated than the older the Global Entrepreneruship Index to • F or technology absorption GEDI
population. However, a young population gauge weaknesses in the South African measures the level of technology. Risk Capital 0.07 26%
also poses challenges for a country. entrepreneurial ecosysem are confirmed
Human development and education are by the survey results. The weaknesses Execute strategies for supporting and Table 4: Effort to improve the entrepreneruial ecosystem by five points
crucial for a young population if they are are, startup skills, risk capital, technology promoting entrepreneurship in South
to achieve their dreams and if a country absorption, human capital and social Africa as well as around the continent. Employment training: An ecosystem- economy should not and cannot be a
is to benefit from their vitality. In other capital. Each one of these weaknesses centric unemployment/re-employment burden on SMEs. “Some people are self-
words a young population needs to be have both an institutional and an 5.1 Improving startup skills: training program that prioritises employed in the informal sector because
educated and be able to find employment individual component. training of individuals without current they want to avoid registration and
to contribute to economic growth. Education: A country that has the employment options into new or existing taxation. But many people work in the
Where should policy efforts be put and demographic structure of South Africa firms or industries. For example, the informal sector through necessity,
Second, South Africa, despite a real what should be emphasised is provided should make education the number-one United States offers an online service that not choice. Today, there are two features
effort to improve the state of small by the GEDI policy tool. Table 4 shows priority for all of South Africans. This is matches the unemployed with training of the informal sector that are well-
business policy and the entrepreneurship the percentage of effort and the pillars not a quick fix but it is the only policy for jobs with new or existing firms.31 recognised. Firstly, much of the informal
ecosystem over the last decade, has not where they should be focused. If South that cannot be ignored. economy contributes greatly to the
made much progress in improving the Africa wants to improve its ecosystem Informal to formal: Legitimise a formal economy. Secondly, women
overall entrepreneurial ecosystem or its score by five points, that is increase Starting a business: South Africa should pathway to formal entrepreneurship in constitute the majority of precarious,
constituent components according to the it from 0.33 to 0.38 it should focus be the easiest country in Africa to start a the informal sector. It is important for underpaid, informal workers.”33
GEI data. In fact, while entrepreneurial on improving the three bottlenecks business on account of its well-developed enterprises to be able to become a part
aspirations have more or less stayed identified below. They are startup skills, infrastructure - not the hardest. South of the formal economy in order to grow Wage subsidies can be used to address
constant, the level of entrepreneruial risk capital and technology absorption Africa ranks 131st on the ease of starting the businesses and ensure that firms structural inequality: A randomised
abilities has declined by about 10 points. and human capital. The effort should be a business index. It ranks 111th in pay taxes. However, entering the formal control trial (RCT) of a wage subsidy
We see this in the time-series data, we 63% for startup skills, 26% risk capital getting electricity services connected.
see it in the snapshot and we see it in and 11% technology absorption. This South Africa should engage in a massive 30. http://www.doingbusiness.org/rankings
the survey data as well as reports of the would raise startup skills by 0.17 points, deregulation of the startup ecosystem 31. http://www.unemployment-assist.com/index_adwords.html
Human Development Index. risk capital by 0.07 points and technology process for all sectors of the population.30 32. http://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---ed_norm/---relconf/documents/meetingdocument/wcms_218128.pdf
absorbtion by 0.03 points. This could 33. http://blogs.worldbank.org/jobs/moving-informal-formal-sector-and-what-it-means-policymakers
Third, South Africa, however, is a lot increase GDP by $80 billion dollars. If 34. This voucher was based on the Levinsohn (2008) proposal and although similar to, is not the same as the National Treasury (2011) proposal nor
different from other countries at similar we want a 10 percentage point increase the Employment Tax Incentive Bill.
levels of development in Africa. It has a in the GEI score, a ten percentage 35. Levinsohn, J., Rankin, N., Roberts, G., & Schöer, V. (2014). Wage subsidies and youth employment in South Africa: Evidence from a randomized
much better-developed ecosysem than point increase would require a more control trial. Stellenbosch economic working papers 02/14.
28 29
5.2 Banking and finance for all: adopt a hands-off regulatory approach Although the country is perceived by Encourage digital entrepreneurs: • Continue to rely on market forces Build digital platforms: South Africa is in
to all crowd-funding donation, debt, South African business executives to be South Africa must enable digital to develop and expand broadband a unique position to become a leader in
Mobile banking: While South Africa has equity. Once the system is up and running performing relatively well in terms of its entrepreneurship at all levels of society. networks and facilities. the platform revolution.45 South Africa’s
a very well-developed banking system, it regulation can always be introduced regulatory and political environment, its inequality presents an opportunity
has a weakness that is easy to address. afterwards.38 innovation and business environment is Empower digital users: It must become • Ensure that broadband access to create and harness disruptive
First, most of the country does not have rated significantly worse and, in addition, easier for South Africans to use digital initiatives in rural areas where market platforms that provide needed products
access to formal banking while other Reduce lending risk among SME shows strong signs of deterioration— technologies in their daily lives. forces are insufficient by working with and services to large underserved
African countries made a serious effort borrowers: Evidence from India shows especially regarding technology and As part of a strategic implementation non-profits and public organisations. populations. This is possible by applying
to introduce mobile banking. In 2004 in that “SME borrowers, who are regularly venture capital availability, government for the digital economy in Cameroon, resources from well-developed portions
Kenya, one of the poorest countries in called either by a single assigned procurement of the latest technologies, researchers suggest the following • Promote digital literacy as an essential of the ecosystem efficiently through
the world, people traveled about 200 relationship manager, or by one manager and days as well as procedures to government actions, which apply both to aspect of skills development. digital platforms that disrupt traditional
kilometres to deliver or pick up cash, randomly selected from a small team of start a business… South Africa’s digital digital entrepreneurs and to digital users: product and service providers.
or relied on friends or family to make managers, show much better repayment transformation is mostly business-driven, • Harness the private sector to increase
the journey. Less than ten years later, in behaviour and greater satisfaction with as the country notably performs best • Accelerate ICT network investment e-business adoption among SMEs.
2014, more than 84 percent of Kenyan the bank services than borrowers who in business usage (32nd), followed by by changing tax policies to stimulate
mobile-phone users, including many of either receive no follow up or only individual usage (77th), followed by investment across all geographic areas • Reduce regulatory barriers to ensure
the very poor, were able to use their receive follow up calls from the bank government usage (105th),” said the and technologies. efficient, secure and productive use of
mobile phones to transfer money to when they are delinquent.”39 World Economic Forum in its note on digital technologies by companies.44
each other, to pay their bills, and to pay South Africa.41
at stores. A company figured out how The use of credit scores can reduce
to ignite a multi-sided platform in trying lending friction for SMEs: Evidence Increase digital inclusion: South Africa
circumstances, to massively reduced from Colombia shows that “Credit must reverse this trend and make digital 44. Etoundi, R. A., Onana, F. S. M., Olle, G. D. O., & Eteme, A. A. (2016). Development of the Digital Economy in Cameroon: Challenges and
important market frictions (Evan and scores improved the productivity of technologies, broadband, smartphones, Perspectives. The Electronic Journal of Information Systems in Developing Countries. https://144.214.55.140/Ojs2/index.php/ejisdc/article/
Schmalensee, 162.) Research shows credit committees, reduced managerial mobile phones available to the whole viewFile/1774/656
that “m-banking services are valued involvement in the loan-approval process, population and make it available quickly, 45. Choudary, S. P., Van Alstyne, M. W., & Parker, G. G. (2016). Platform revolution: How networked markets are transforming the economy--and how
by poor people in South Africa and, for and increased the profitability of lending cheaply and easy to use. The 2014 UK to make them work for you. WW Norton & Company.
the WIZZIT users surveyed, are more to SMEs.”40 This could be particularly Digital Inclusion Strategy states that
affordable than traditional banking.”36 important in reducing structural “helping more people to go online can
Mobile banking took off in Côte d’Ivoire, inequality through removing some also help tackle wider social issues,
Ghana, Kenya, Rwanda, Somaliland, subjectivity from lending processes. support economic growth and close
Uganda, Tanzania, and Zimbabwe. South equality gaps.”42
Africa is now catching up but this should 5.3 Technology absorption:
be accelerated.37 Research has identified four key
Improve digital technologies: We live in processes in the institutionalisation
Crowd funding: The second modern a digital age. Any country that does not of digital inclusion projects: “getting
approach to entrepreneurial finance is embrace the digital age will fall behind symbolic acceptance by the community;
crowd funding. However, this depends the technological frontier and will not be stimulating valuable social activity
not only on banking but also on being able to compete in the global economy. in relevant social groups; generating
connected to the internet. While this South Africa ranks 65th globally in linkage to viable revenue streams; and
report will not go into the details for information technologies according to enrolling government support. The
crowd funding South Africa should take the World Economic Forum. paper concludes with some theoretical,
the lead of the United Kingdom and methodological and policy implications.”43
36. Gautam Ivatury and Mark Pickens (2006) “Mobile-Phone Banking and Low-Income Customers Evidence from South Africa.” Consultative Group to
Assist the Poor, The World Bank and United Nations Foundation https://www.cgap.org/sites/default/files/CGAP-Mobile-Phone-Banking-and-Low-
Income-Customers-Evidence-from-South-Africa-Jan-2006.pdf
37. ttp://www.howwemadeitinafrica.com/mobile-banking-catching-on-in-south-africa/
38. http://southafrica.smetoolkit.org/sa/en/content/en/56582/What-is-crowdfunding-
39. Antoinette Schoar, “The Personal Side of Relationship Banking.” Working Paper
40. Paravisini, Daniel, and Antoinette Schoar. “The Incentive Effect of IT: Randomized Evidence from Credit Committees.” NBER Working Paper No.
19303, August 2013.
41. http://reports.weforum.org/global-information-technology-report-2016/country-and-regional-trends-from-the-nri/
42. GOV.UK., Policy Paper: Government Digital Inclusion Strategy. https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/government-digital-inclusion-
strategy/government-digital-inclusion-strategy, 2014.
43. Madon, S., Reinhard, N., Roode, D., & Walsham, G. (2009). Digital inclusion projects in developing countries: Processes of institutionalization.
Information Technology for Development, 15(2), 95-107.
30 31
6. Conclusion Appendix A: Measuring national
entrepreneurial ecosystems: a methodology
South Africa is an entrepreneurial leader with the global economy. As with all In SME lending, higher touch-loan
in sub-Saharan Africa. The country has entrepreneurship ecosystems, some management and using credit scores
made significant progress to overcome bottlenecks do remain – in South Africa’s could improve the risk environment. The GEDI methodology has been country. This framework variable is used of the pillars across the system; that is a
structural factors and produce some case these are large-firm dominance, Wage subsidies could go some distance to designed to capture the core features because the higher a country’s level of unique feature of the methodology.
of the most innovative and successful cultural perceptions of entrepreneurship, address structural inequality, and prove of the NEE in three ways. First, we education, the higher the quality of its The methodology captures two
enterprises on the continent. The country and structural inequality. particularly beneficial if targeted at SMEs. approach country-level entrepreneurship entrepreneurial ventures tends to be. other important aspects that define
provides the institutional support as a systemic phenomenon, which is Each individual variable is then weighted entrepreneurial ecosystems. First, it
necessary for high-growth businesses to However, South Africa benefits from Improving market access could help ease determined by the interaction between by a relevant framework condition that recognises that the different pillars
emerge and thrive, while government some of the best infrastructure in Africa, large-firm dominance, and public and individual-level capabilities and initiations regulates a given individual-level variables need to work together to create a high-
policies work to close historical gaps. With resources generated from growth- private sector programs will continue to and country-level possibilities measured potential to contribute to a high-quality quality ecosystem dynamic. Traditional
the addition of targeted, coordinated orientated enterprises, and strong add to South Africa’s growing culture by institutional framework conditions. entrepreneurial dynamic. In other words, indices fail to capture this aspect. In
policies to address remaining bottlenecks, policy momentum for addressing of entrepreneurship. Second, we take into account that the this approach captures the notion that traditional indexing methods, the
the country is poised to achieve greater remaining issues. marginal improvement of the fourteen entrepreneurship ecosystems are brought different components (pillars) are allowed
growth through entrepreneurship. pillars of entrepreneurship may differ; to life by individual agents, but the to substitute for one another. If one or
Evidence suggests that several targeted and equalise the marginal effects over ultimate impact of individual-level more pillars perform poorly, it is likely to
Data shows that for growth-oriented actions could address key bottlenecks and the pillars. This feature is vital for action is regulated by institutional hold back the performance of the entire
entrepreneurs there is a vibrant portion further improve the entrepreneurship resource allocation, optimisation and framework conditions. system. Second, the notion of bottlenecks
of the ecosystem that is engaged ecosystem in South Africa. improvement. Third, we respect the derives directly from the notion that
imbalance of the fourteen pillars in the The idea of the harmonisation of the ecosystem elements interact to co-
country level and adjust scores according components of a system goes back to produce ecosystem performance. Because
46. Miller, 1986 to the relative size and magnitude of the configuration theory and is also found one cannot fully substitute individual
dis-harmonisation. in the work on complementarities such pillars for others, poorly performing
as Michael Kremer’s (1993) O-ring of pillars can create bottlenecks that prevent
This produces a multifaceted index Development.46 The interrelation of the the ecosystem from fully leveraging its
that reflects the complexity of country- system’s elements is the core feature of strengths. To simulate this effect the
level entrepreneurial ecosystems. the Theory of the Weakest Link (TWL) and index methodology applies a “penalty
It measures 14 different aspects of Theory of Constraints (TOC) constructs for bottleneck” algorithm. This algorithm
entrepreneurship ecosystems that are which argue that the performance of systematically penalises ecosystem pillars
organised into attitudes, abilities and the system depends on the lowest-value according to its poorly performing pillars.
aspirations. Positive attitudes are needed component in the structure. The TOC These methodological innovations of the
so that competent individuals choose proposes that system improvement index provide important insights into the
entrepreneurship over alternative can only be accomplished if the binding workings of entrepreneurship ecosystems.
occupations. The ability aspect reflects constraint is removed (Goldratt, 1994).
the quality of the resulting new ventures The scores for all the countries are
within their national context. Aspirations The TWL holds that the elements of a calculated according to the following
reflect these ventures’ potential system can only be partially substitutable methodology.47
to achieve rapid growth and high with one another (Yohe and Tol, 2001);
productivity. this is a feature of our own approach – 1 The selection of variables: We start
the Penalty for Bottleneck methodology. with the variables that come directly
Each pillar is measured as a composite The weakest-link postulate is also in from the original sources for each
of individual-level data and data that Lazear who claims that entrepreneurs country involved in the analysis. These
describe relevant framework conditions are rather generalist than specialist; variables can be at the individual level
for entrepreneurship: Institutional a “jacks-of-all-trades.” (Lazear, 2004). (personal or business) derived from
data. For example, startup skills capture In our framework, as a consequence, the Global Entrepreneurship Monitor
whether adult individuals think they success of a business will depend on (GEM), Adult Population Survey or the
have the necessary skills to start a new the entrepreneur’s weakest skill. The institutional/environmental level from
venture, weighted by a measure of optimisation of the additional resources various other as shown in Appendix
the degree of tertiary education in the requires equalising the marginal effects A Table A1. Individual variables for a
47. These index building points mainly follow the OECD methodology guide (OECD Handbook 2008).
32 33
particular year are calculated as the given value require different effort and 6 Penalising: After these transformations, here hi,j is the modified, post-penalty
w interpreted as a measure of efficiency
two-year moving average48. Institutional resources. The additional resources for the penalty for bottleneck methodology (13a) value of pillar j in country i of the entrepreneurship resources in a
variables reflect the most recent the same marginal improvement of the was used to create indicator- i = 1, 2,……n = the number of countries particular institutional setting:
available data in that particular year. indicator values should be the same adjusted values. The marginal rate of j= 1, 2,.……14= the number of pillars
Altogether we employ 16 individual and for all indicators. Therefore, we need a compensation means that a loss in one (13b) GEDI = ¹/³ (ATTi + ABTi + ASPi)
15 institutional variables (for details see transformation to equate the average pillar can be compensated by the same 8 The super-index is simply the average (14)
Acs et al., 2014). values of the components. Equation 5 increase in another pillar. However, of the three sub-indices. Since 100
shows the calculation of the average this is not realistic because of the law (13c) represents the theoretically available where i = 1, 2,……n = the number of
2 The construction of the pillars: value of pillar j: diminishing returns. Therefore, the limit the GEDI points can also be countries.
We calculate pillars by multiplying the penalty should rise at an increasing
individual variable with the appropriate rate. Modifying Casado, Tarabusi and
institutional variable. Palazzi’s (2012) original function for our INDIVIDUAL VARIABLE Description
(10) purposes we define the penalty
Zi,j = indi,j × insi,j (8) function as: The percentage of the 18-64 aged population recognising good conditions to start
Opportunity Recognition
e want to transform the Xi,j values
W business next six months in area he/she lives
for all j= 1 ... k, the number of pillars, such that the potential minimum value h(i),j = min y(i),j + The percentage of the 18-64 aged population claiming to possess the required
individual and institutional variables is 0 and the maximum value is 1: a (1 - e-b(y
(i),j -min(y(i),j)) (13) Skill Perception
knowledge/skills to start business
where Zi,j is the original pillar value for
k
country i and pillar j Yi,j = xi,j (11) where hi,j is the modified, post-penalty The percentage of the 18-64 aged population stating that the fear of failure would not
Risk Acceptance
indi,j is the original score for country i value of pillar j in country i prevent starting a business
and individual variable j where k is the “strength of adjustment”, yi,j is the normalized value of index
The percentage of the 18-64 aged population knowing someone who started a business
insi,j is the original score for country i the k-th moment of Xj is exactly the component j in country i Know Entrepreneurs
in the past 2 years
and institutional variable j needed average, Yj. We have to find the ymin is the lowest value of for country i.
root of the following equation for k. The percentage of the 18-64 aged population saying that people consider starting
3 Normalisation: Pillars values were i = 1, 2,……n = the number of countries Carrier
business as good carrier choice
first normalised to a range from 0 to 1 j= 1, 2,.……m = the number of pillars
according to equation 4: (12) 0 ≤a, b ≤ 1 are the penalty parameters; The percentage of the 18-64 aged population thinking that people attach high status to
Status
the basic setup is a=b=1 successful entrepreneurs
Xi,j = Zi,j It is easy to see based on previous Career Status The status and respect of entrepreneurs calculated as the average of carrier and status
max zi,j (9) conditions and derivatives that the The PFB pillars improved the correlation,
function is decreasing and convex which implying a closer relationship between Opportunity Motivation Percentage of the TEA businesses initiated because of opportunity startup motive
for all j= 1 ... k, the number of pillars means it can be quickly solved using the entrepreneurial features. The
where Xi,j is the normalised score value the Newton-Raphson method with an positive connection between the pillars Technology Level Percentage of the TEA businesses that are active in technology sectors (high or medium)
for country i and pillar j initial guess of 0. After obtaining k, the is vital for proper policy interpretations Percentage of the TEA businesses owner/managers having participated over secondary
Zi,j is the original pillar value for country computations are straightforward. Note and suggestions. If the connection Educational Level
education
i and pillar j that if between the pillars were negative, it
max zi,j is the maximum value for would imply that one pillar can only be Percentage of the TEA businesses started in those markets where not many businesses
Competitors
pillar j x̄j < ȳj k < 1 improved at the cost of the other pillars. offer the same product
x̄j = ȳj k = 1 Percentage of the TEA businesses offering products that are new to at least some of the
4 Capping: All index building is based on x̄j > ȳj k > 1 7 The pillars are the basic building blocks New Product
customers
a benchmarking principle. We selected of the three sub-indices: Entrepreneurial
the 95 percentile score adjustment that is k be thought of as the strength attitudes, entrepreneurial abilities, and Percentage of the TEA businesses using new technology that is less than five-years-old
New Tech
average (including 1 year)
meaning that any observed values (and direction) of adjustment. entrepreneurial aspirations. The value
higher than the 95 percentile is lowered of a sub-index for any country is the Percentage of the TEA businesses having high job-expectation average (over 10 more
to the 95 percentile. The benchmarking The adjusted pillar values are arithmetic average of its PFB-adjusted Gazelle
employees and 50% in 5 years)
calculation is based on the data set calculated for the 2006-2010 time pillars for that sub-index multiplied
containing 77 countries and 234 data period. The frequency distributions by a 100. The maximum value of the Percentage of the TEA businesses where at least some customers are outside country
Export
(over 1%)
points for the 2006-2010 time period. for the average pillar adjustments are sub-indices is 100 and the potential
shown in Appendix B with means, minimum is 0, both of which reflect Informal Investment Mean The mean amount of three-year informal investment
5 Average pillar adjustment: The different standard deviations and the number of the relative position of a country in a
averages of the normalised values of observations. particular sub-index. The percentage of the 18-64 aged population who provided funds for new business in
Business Angel
the indicators imply that reaching a past three years excluding stocks and funds, average
Informal Investment The amount of informal investment calculated as INFINVMEAN* BUSANG
48. Provided a country has two consecutive years’ individual data. Single year data are used if a country participated in the survey only in a
particular year. Table A1: The description of the individual variables used in the GEI
34 35
INSTITUTIONAL Source INSTITUTIONAL Source
Description Data Availability Description Data Availability
VARIABLE of Data VARIABLE of Data
“Business freedom is a quantitative measure of the ability Pillar 2, Infrastructure and connectivity in the World
Competitiveness Report: “(...) in addition to assessing The Global
to start, operate, and close a business that represents World Economic Competitiveness
the overall burden of regulation, as well as the efficiency Infrastructure the quality of the transport infrastructure, the pillar
Forum Report 2015-2016,
of government in the regulatory process. The business also measures the quality of domestic and international p. 47
Heritage http://www. transport networks.”
Economic freedom score for each country is a number between
Foundation/World heritage.org/
Freedom 0 and 100, with 100 equaling the freest business
Bank index/explore.aspx
environment. The score is based on 10 factors, all Connectivity Urbanisation * Infrastructure Own calculation
weighted equally, using data from the World Bank’s Doing
Business study”. (http://www.heritage.org/Index/pdf/
The Corruption Perceptions Index (CPI) measures the
Index09_Methodology.pdf). Data are collected from 2015. http://files.
perceived level of public-sector corruption in a country.
“The CPI is a "survey of surveys", based on 13 different transparency.org/
Transparency content/down-
“The property rights component is an assessment of Corruption expert and business surveys.” (http://www.transparency.
International load/702/3015/
the ability of individuals to accumulate private property, org/policy_research/surveys_indices/cpi/2009) Overall file/CPI2013_Data-
secured by clear laws that are fully enforced by the performance is measured on a ten point Likert scale. Data Bundle.zip
state. It measures the degree to which a country’s laws are collected over the last 24 months.
protect private-property rights and the degree to which http://www.
Heritage
heritage.org/
Property Rights its government enforces those laws. It also assesses the Foundation/ Paying taxes scores, “(…) addresses the taxes and http://www.
index/explore.
likelihood that private property will be expropriated and World Bank
aspx mandatory contributions that a medium-size company doingbusiness.
analyses the independence of the judiciary, the existence Taxation must pay or withhold in a given year, as well as measures World Bank org/data/
of corruption within the judiciary, and the ability of the administrative burden in paying taxes.” (http://www. distance-to-
individuals and businesses to enforce contracts.” (http:// doingbusiness.org/data/exploretopics/paying-taxes) frontier
www.heritage.org/index/property-rights)
The effectiveness of the government “the capacity of http://qog.pol.

Freedom and
Economic Freedom * Property Rights Own calculation Good the government to effectively formulate and implement gu.se/data/
Property World Bank
Governance sound policies” (http://info.worldbank.org/governance/ datadownloads/
wgi/#home) qogbasicdata
http://data.
Tertiary Gross enrolment ratio in tertiary education, 2015 or worldbank.org/
World Bank
Education latest available data. indicator/SE.TER. Measures the effectiveness of using the taxes by
ENRR Taxgovern combining together the level of the tax by the quality of Own calculation
government services, Taxation* Good Governance
Answers to the question: “In your country, how do you The Global
Quality of assess the quality of math and science education? [1 = ex- Competitiveness The Global
Education tremely poor – among the worst in the world; 7 = excellent Report 2015-2016, Firm-level technology absorption capability: “Companies in
World Economic Competitiveness
– among the best in the world]” p. 377 Tech Absorption your country are (1 = not able to absorb new technology,
Forum Report 2015-2016–
7 = aggressive in absorbing new technology)”.
. p. 379
Education Tertiary Education * Quality of Education Own calculation
Measures the freedom of the labour as “(...) that
The country-risk classifications are meant to reflect considers various aspects of the legal and regulatory
country risk. Under the participants’ system, country risk framework of a country’s labour market, including http://www.
is composed of transfer and convertibility risk (i.e. the Labour Heritage
regulations concerning minimum wages, laws inhibiting heritage.org/
risk a government imposes capital or exchange controls Freedom Foundation
http://www.oecd. layoffs, severance requirements, and measurable index/download
Country Risk that prevent an entity from converting local currency into OECD org/tad/xcred/crc. regulatory restraints on hiring and hours worked.”
foreign currency and/or transferring funds to creditors htmx (http://www.heritage.org/index/labor-freedom)
located outside the country) and cases of force majeure
(e.g. war, expropriation, revolution, civil disturbance,
floods, earthquakes). The extent of staff training: “To what extent do The Global
companies in your country invest in training and World Economic Competitiveness
Staff Training
employee development? (1 = hardly at all; 7 = to a great Forum Report 2015-
http://data. extent)”. 2016, p. 377
Urbanisation that is the percentage of the population
worldbank.org/
Urbanisation living in urban areas, data are from the Population United Nations
indicator/SP.URB.
Division of the United Nations, 2010 estimate
TOTL.IN.ZS Labour Market Labour Freedom * Staff Training
Table A2: The description and source of the institutional variables used in the GEI
36 37
INSTITUTIONAL Source INSTITUTIONAL Source
Description Data Availability Description Data Availability
VARIABLE of Data VARIABLE of Data
Effectiveness of anti-monopoly policy, answering to The Global “The complexity of an economy is related to the
the question: “In your country, how effective are anti- World Economic Competitiveness multiplicity of useful knowledge embedded in it. Because
Regulation
monopoly policies at ensuring fair competition? Forum Report 2015-2016, individuals are limited in what they know, the only way
[1 = not effective at all; 7 = extremely effective] “ p. 395 societies can expand their knowledge base is by facilitating Observatory http://atlas.media.
Economic
the interaction of individuals in increasingly complex of Economic mit.edu/en/
complexity
The Global networks in order to make products. We can measure Complexity resources/data/
Extent of market dominance: “Corporate activity in your economic complexity by the mix of these products that
Market World Economic Competitiveness
country is (1 = dominated by a few business groups, countries are able to make.” (http://atlas.media.mit.edu/
Dominance Forum Report 2015-
7 = spread among many firms)”. 2016, p. 471 en/resources/economic_complexity/)
Compregulation Regulation * Market Dominance The Depth of Capital Market is one of the six sub-indices
of the Venture Capital and Private Equity index. This EMLYON
These are the innovation index points from GCI: a variable is a complex measure of the size and liquidity of Business School
Depth of Capital http://blog.iese.
complex measure of innovation including investment the stock market, level of IPO, M&A and debt and credit France and IESE
The Global Market* edu/vcpeindex/
in research and development (R&D) by the private market activity. Note that there were some methodolog- Business School,
Technology World Economic Competitiveness ical changes over the 2006–2015 time period so previous Barcelona, Spain
sector, the presence of high-quality scientific research
Transfer Forum Report 2015-
institutions and the collaboration in research between years comparison is not perfect.
2016, p. 22
universities and industry, and the protection of
intellectual property.
http://stats.uis.
Gross domestic expenditure on Research & Development
unesco.org/une-
(GERD) as a percentage of GDP, year 2014 or latest availa-
GERD UNESCO sco/TableViewer/
ble data Puerto Rico, Dominican Republic, and United Arab
tableView.aspx?Re-
Emirates are estimated.
portId=2656
Quality of scientific research institutions. Answering to

The Global
the question: “In your country, how do you assess the
Scientific World Economic Competitiveness
quality of scientific research institutions? [1 = extremely
Institutions Forum Report 2015-
poor – among the worst in the world; 7 = extremely good
2016, p. 381
– among the best in the world]”
Availability of scientists and engineers. Answering to the The Global

Availability of question: “In your country, to what extent are scientists World Economic Competitiveness
Scientist and engineers available? Forum Report 2015-2016,
[1 = not at all; 7 = widely available]” p. 381
GERD* Average of Scientific Institutions and Availability

Science Own calculation
of Scientist
Venture-capital availability. Answering to the question: The Global

“In your country, how easy is it for startup entrepreneurs World Economic Competitiveness
Venture Capital
with innovative but risky projects to obtain equity Forum Report 2015-
funding? [1 = extremely difficult; 7 = extremely easy]” 2016, p. 379
The Global
Refers to the ability of companies to pursue distinctive
Business World Economic Competitiveness
strategies, which involves differentiated positioning and
Strategy Forum Report 2015-
innovative means of production and service delivery.
2016, p. 22
Finance and
Venture Capital Business Strategy Own calculation
Strategy
38 39
SAGE Reference
The SAGE Handbook of Industrial, Work and

Organizational Psychology
Author: François S De Kock

Pub. Date: 2017
Product: SAGE Reference
DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781473914964
Keywords: organizational psychology, Africa, psychology, subsaharan Africa, South Africa, journals,
publications, journal articles
Disciplines: Occupational/Industrial Psychology, General & Applied Psychology, Psychology
Access Date: February 6, 2023
Publishing Company: SAGE Publications Ltd
City: 55 City Road
Online ISBN: 9781473914964
© 2017 SAGE Publications Ltd All Rights Reserved.

SAGE SAGE Reference
© Deniz S
Industrial, Work and Organizational Psychology in Africa
François S De Kock
Introduction
This is an exciting time to be an industrial, work, and organizational (IWO) psychologist in Africa. Africa is
growing rapidly and the world is taking note of its ascent (Trustfull, 2014; Walt, 2014). Judging from recent
economic data, the ‘Africa rising’ narrative is gaining increasing support. For example, between 2010 and
2015, a survey of foreign direct investment (Ernst & Young Emerging Markets Center, 2015) revealed the fol-
lowing:
[C]apital investment into the continent surged to US$128b, up 136%. Africa's share of global capital
investment and job creation hit an all-time high in 2014. Only Asia-Pacific attracted more FDI funds
than Africa last year. Africa attracted more FDI funding than North America, Latin America and the
Caribbean, and Western Europe. (p. 4)
Consequently, it is predicted that in the next few years, ‘growth in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) will beat the
emerging markets average, and be outstripped only by developing Asia’ (Ernst & Young Emerging Markets
Center, 2015, p. 2). But despite the major growth in capital investment and jobs in Africa, the development
of human capital resources in many of its countries remains hamstrung by serious historically persistent ills
– these are related to socio-economic, technological, educational, and health factors. Together, they set the
stage for IWO psychologists to contribute meaningfully to human capital development in African organiza-
tions. But how are IWO psychologists responding to these challenges? And what does the profession of IWO
psychology look like on the African content?
In this chapter, I will first sketch the overall landscape of African research and practice in IWO psychology.
Against this background, I move on to discuss an example of IWO psychology in a particular country, South
Africa, being the most developed in this field. Following an historical overview of IWO psychology in this coun-
try, I will cover some basic issues relating to the profession, science, and practice of IWO psychology in South
Africa. Furthermore, given the international nature of this Handbook, particular attention will be given to key
issues that may be specific to South African IWO psychology.
The SAGE Handbook of Industrial, Work and Organizational Psychology

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IWO Psychology in Africa
Research Trends
The research trends in African IWO psychology hold clues to understanding the issues that are important to
scholars and practitioners on the continent. To explore these trends, I examined the published journal arti-
cles2 emanating from countries in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), as indexed within the Social Sciences Citation
Index (SSCI). A review of these studies reveals a few interesting trends. First, there has been an explosion
of African research output in the last eight years (2008 to 2015).Figure 5.1 displays the number of peer-re-
viewed journal articles published by authors residing in SSA countries, by year (until 2014). Between 1980
and 1992, the number of peer-reviewed articles per annum were in the twenties – a figure that increased to
between 40 and 50 annually between 1993 and 2007. In 2008, the number of annual publications more than
doubled and reached a peak in 2012. Keep in mind, however, that these figures do not reflect some African
academic research journals (e.g. the South African Journal of Industrial Psychology) that are not indexed in
the Web of Science indices (e.g. SSCI), nor shifts in the indexing (on Web of Science) of various journals on
the continent.

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Figure 5.1 Bar chart of the annual frequency of peer-reviewed academic jour-
nal articles published in IWO psychology by African scholars (sub-Saharan
Africa) by year
Not only has African research output grown substantially in recent years, but also the citations of research
conducted within Africa. Figure 5.2 displays the citations of African research articles since 1965. Annual cita-
tions have increased steeply between 1994 and 2014. This growth in research output and citations reflects, in
part, increased international collaboration with the external world, as evidenced in the author profiles of these
studies. Similar patterns of ‘South–North’ authorship patterns emerge in other fields of psychology. For exam-
ple, a review of publication patterns between Africans and international scholars in social psychology (Quayle
& Greer, 2014) indicated that:
There are very few social psychologists working in Africa, with the majority of these located in South
Africa. Indeed, some small European countries boast more social psychologists than the entire con-
tinent of Africa. African authors published less than their non-African collaborators, but had com-
parable status on joint publications. Co-authorship relationships between African researchers from

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different African countries were generally mediated by partners from other continents, and direct col-
laboration between non-compatriot African authors was very rare. (p. 498)
I take from these observations that, in order to increase African IWO research, African scholars should seek
to build stronger intra-African research networks, in addition to expanding international research networks.
At the same time, African researchers should strive to join relevant international research ‘conversations’ by
publishing their work in outlets that are familiar and accessible to international scholars. In doing so, they
would open up their work to the international community.
Figure 5.2 Bar chart of the annual frequency of citations of peer-reviewed aca-
demic journal articles in IWO psychology by African scholars (sub-Saharan
Africa) by year
The second trend is a shift in the nature of the scientific contribution of these articles. Earlier studies often
contributed to literature by replicating contemporary research conducted abroad in the African context, in oth-
er words, generalizability was the focus of these studies. For example, it was a popular trend to conduct
studies of the nature of ‘Topic X in Africa', such as the investigation by Orpen and Pors (1972) on ‘Race and

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belief – Test of Rokeach's theory in an authoritarian culture'. However, the tendency to focus on contextual
replications to Africa appears to have shifted to more substantive contributions in their own right. More recent
research focused less on the fact that it was conducted in Africa, and more on research questions that are
scientifically interesting to the broader international community. For example, Obi (2015) experimentally stud-
ied the effectiveness of constructionist career counseling interventions of undergraduate students – a topic
that appears to generalize fairly well internationally.
Table 5.1 Number of publication units for each country in sub-Saharan Africa (1994–2014)
Country f %
South Africa 1346 95.87
Nigeria 27 1.92
Zimbabwe 17 1.21
Botswana 9 0.64
Kenya 6 0.43
Uganda 6 0.43
Cameroon 5 0.36
Malawi 3 0.21
Mozambique 2 0.14
Namibia 2 0.14
Tanzania 2 0.14
Zambia 2 0.14
Ghana 1 0.07

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Lesotho 1 0.07
Rwanda 1 0.07
Swaziland 1 0.07
Transkei 1 0.07
Total 1432 100.00
Third, research produced by African researchers was characterized as multidisciplinary (91.6%) or applied
psychology (5.2%), with only a few studies addressing basic psychology (2.2%). African research in this field
is frequently published in journals such as the South African Journal of Psychology (649), Journal of Psychol-
ogy in Africa (537), and Psychological Reports (283). The majority of published articles originated in South
Africa (87.5%), Nigeria (6.7%), Zimbabwe (1.4%), and Senegal (1.25%), with each of the remainder of coun-
tries contributing less than 1% of published research articles. To focus on more recent research published by
African authors, I filtered the search list to include only the most recent 20 years (between 1994 and 2014).
A final list of 1432 journal article publications resulted. Table 5.1 and Figure 5.3 display the total publica-
tion count by country, whereas Figure 5.4 reports the results excluding South Africa, the largest contributor
(95.9%).

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Figure 5.3 Number of publication units for each country in sub-Saharan Africa
(1994–2014); all countries included
The most highly cited African studies in the broad area of interdisciplinary psychology was by Hudson (1967)
on the topic of pictorial perception among African groups (70 citations until July 2015) published in the Inter-
national Journal of Psychology, followed by the investigation by Wissing and van Eeden (2002) on psycholog-
ical well-being (68 citations) published in the South African Journal of Psychology. The data further suggest
that, similar to international trends, most of the contributions are made by relatively few authors. The most
published African authors in our research list were K. Peltzer (52 published articles), A. L. Pillay (42), and
T. S. Mwamwenda (38). However, it was notable that not a single research study by an African author was
published in some top IWO psychology journals, including the Journal of Applied Psychology, Personnel Psy-

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chology, and Journal of Management.
Figure 5.4 Number of publication units for each country in sub-Saharan Africa
(1994–2014); excluding South Africa
Practice Trends
As emerging market economies, SSA countries experience human resource-related issues somewhat differ-
ent to those experienced in the developed world. Instead of concerns about dealing with recovery from the
recent global financial crisis, chief executive officers (CEOs) are worried about rising wages and talent attrac-

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tion – issues that are forcing companies in these markets to find new ways to compete (Saratoga, 2014). A
closer look at IWO psychology practice trends in African countries leads to three broad conclusions. First,
the level of development of IWO psychology practice between countries varies considerably. For example,
IWO psychology in South Africa appears to be highly developed, whereas many other less-developed coun-
tries show almost no activity on this front. In countries with low economic development, firms are generally
engaged with core transactional human resource management (HRM) (see Saratoga, 2014) rather than the
‘higher functions’ offered by IWO psychology science (Kamoche et al., 2015). Extrapolating from these trends,
IWO psychology has much room for growth in Africa and it should grow faster in countries with higher eco-
nomic growth relative to countries with lower economic growth.
Second, various international consultancies have successfully entered the African market for general and
specialized human capital services. For instance, in the last decade, several global human capital consulting
firms have established a foothold in Africa. At the time of writing this chapter, a number of large human re-
source (HR) ‘mega-consultancies’ had an extensive African footprint, including Aon plc (12 countries, 36 of-
fices, and 2000 consultants) and Kenexa, an IBM company (offices in at least 39 countries), to name a few.
Most of these firms have local offices, whereas others operate through local franchises or partners. For ex-
ample, international firms that specialize in psychological assessment appear to prefer either forming a small
number of local subsidiaries (e.g. CEB-SHL, in South Africa and Egypt; Psytech International, in South Africa
and Nigeria; and BIOSS, in South Africa and Zimbabwe) or to operate in partnership with local partners (e.g.
DDI, Hogan Assessment Systems). However, in some countries, a well-developed local industry (e.g. JvR
Africa Group in South Africa) has flourished to meet the demand for IWO psychology services. Finally, many
large organizations in South Africa, and some multinational corporations that operate in the rest of Africa,
employ in-house IWO psychologists (SIOPSA, 2010). However, it is clear that the broader African market is
relatively untapped as far as specialized IWO psychology services are concerned – this market stands to
grow in line with economic development of these countries.
IWO Psychology in South Africa
As one of the most developed countries in Africa (World Bank, 2014), South Africa stands at the nexus of the
developing and the developed world. It is a land of many contrasts, exhibiting characteristics of both devel-

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oping and developed countries. However, human capital development may lie at the heart of its potential for
future success, as highlighted by Cascio (2001):
South Africa is indeed blessed with abundant natural resources. Those resources are harvested to
trade on world markets and to earn money to support the nation […] However, in the long term mon-
ey per se has its shortcomings. After all money talks, but it doesn't think. Machines work efficiently,
but they do not invent. Only people think and invent, and this is why people are the most valuable
resource of all. (p. 14)
The profession, practice, and science of IWO psychology in South Africa have developed in accordance with
the premium placed on human capital development. These areas show interesting trends that reflect the
unique characteristics of the country, its opportunities, and challenges.
Historical Development
The development of IWO psychology in Africa can be traced back to the contribution of South African psy-
chologists in the Second World War era. In 1946, the National Institute for Personnel Research (NIPR) was
established, headed by Simon Biesheuvel, who is widely regarded as the father of South African IWO psy-
chology (Schreuder, 2001). Biesheuvel was acknowledged internationally for his work in personnel selection
and testing of intelligence in different population groups (Biesheuvel, 1952; 1954; 1965). So, for instance, he
conducted one of the earliest empirical investigations of factors that may act as potential bias in cross-cultural
assessment of cognitive abilities in a multicultural society (Meiring, Van de Vijver, Rothmann, & Barrick, 2005).
In the same era, significant contributions were made through the development of intelligence and aptitude
measures by R. W. Wilcock and the Human Sciences Research Council (HSRC) and its institutes, as well
as the study of racial attitudes by I. D. MacCrone (Muchinsky, Schreuder, & Kriek, 2002; Schreuder, 2001).
According to Schreuder (2001), the first doctoral degree conferred in IWO psychology in South Africa was on
the topic of training in cross-cultural contexts: A Mr. G. F. de W. Steyn earned a D.Com in Industrial Psychol-
ogy at the University of Stellenbosch in 1957, and the title of his dissertation was (translated from Afrikaans),
‘The Training of Colored Supervisors in a Textile Factory'.
In parallel with these developments, the professional identity of IWO psychology in South Africa developed
to reflect its growing levels of maturation as a discipline relevant to the business world. Schreuder (2001) de-
scribes how the maturation of IWO psychology manifested in a shift in where it was taught: Whereas earlier

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IWO psychology originated from the ‘mother science’ of general psychology, situated in the humanities, later,
in the 1960s, 1970s, and 1980s, most South African universities subsumed IWO psychology within general
HRM departments or as separate IWO psychology departments within Commerce Faculties. In fact, as early
as the 1960s, IWO psychology as an academic teaching subject was transferred from traditional humanities
faculties to management sciences in most South African universities. This largely reflects the status of IWO
psychology in South African universities today. The early ‘identity crisis’ of IWO psychology as a separate dis-
cipline (Watkins, 2001) has, therefore, largely dissipated, and IWO psychology is flourishing as an academic
and professional subject at most South African universities.
In more recent years, the status of the profession of IWO psychology in South Africa shows increasing regu-
lation and professionalization through legislation and other statutory requirements (Foxcroft & Roodt, 2013).
The roots of these movements lie in the tumultuous socio-political history of the country. The transition of
the South African government from a race-based apartheid state to a democratically elected government in
1994 led to a flurry of legislation aimed at protecting labor rights and restitution of ‘previously disadvantaged’
employees in organizations, both public and private. For example, the Employment Equity Act (1998) was
established with the broad aim of restitution in the workplace. In its Preamble, it is stated:
Recognising that—as a result of apartheid and other discriminatory laws and practices, there are
disparities in employment, occupation and income within the national labour market; and that those
disparities create such pronounced disadvantages for certain categories of people that they cannot
be redressed simply by repealing discriminatory laws … Therefore, in order to—promote the consti-
tutional right of equality and the exercise of true democracy; eliminate unfair discrimination in em-
ployment; ensure the implementation of employment equity to redress the effects of discrimination;
achieve a diverse workforce broadly representative of our people; promote economic development
and efficiency in the workforce … (Republic of South Africa, 1998)
In addition, the Promotion of Equality and Prevention of Unfair Discrimination Act (Act No. 4 of 2000) (Re-
public of South Africa, 2000) was promulgated to ‘prevent and prohibit unfair discrimination and harassment;
to promote equality and eliminate unfair discrimination’ (Preamble). This latter law defines unfair discrimina-
tion explicitly, establishes equality courts to deal with alleged unfair discrimination, and discusses methods of
determination of fairness and burden of proof. An interesting provision is that, despite a prohibition of discrim-
ination on any grounds other than inherent job requirements, the Act provides little guidance for determining

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job relevance of assessment dimensions and measures. Is criterion-related validity evidence required, and if
so, what are the criteria for such evidence? Based on limited South African legal precedent on issues of unfair
discrimination in personnel selection and assessment, more litigation is necessary to develop a consensus
about appropriate psychometric evidence to determine adherence to employment equity legislation.
Our laws also do not show how practitioners may appropriately balance traditional applicant ‘merit’ criteria
(i.e. demonstrating the characteristics required for effective criterion performance) with employee diversity cri-
teria in personnel decisions. According to South African legislation, quotas are not only allowed, but are also
legislatively enforced. Employers who do not reflect the national demography carry the risk of incurring strict
financial penalties. Moreover, the use of separate selection criteria for various population groups (in other
words, differential interpretation and use of test scores) is widespread, as it is considered a sensible response
to the adverse outcome that would result from strict top-down reliance on predictor measure scores (Kriek &
Dowdeswell, 2010). On the whole, it appears that South Africa is still grappling with similar issues related to
the ‘diversity–validity’ dilemma (Theron, 2009) as is experienced in the United States (Kravitz, 2008; Ployhart
& Holtz, 2008) and elsewhere.
Together, these acts embody a powerful reaction against the race-based discrimination that may have been
common in the era before transition to a democratic government (i.e. the pre-1994 era). The inadvertent con-
sequence of this increased regulation, however, was a widespread hesitance among organizational clients
to rely on psychological testing in personnel selection, as psychometric tests were blamed in some sectors
of society of discriminating unfairly against the majority African population (Foxcroft & Roodt, 2013; Kriek &
Dowdeswell, 2010).
More recently, a comprehensive list of psychological tests (Republic of South Africa, 2014) has been certified
by the Professional Board for Psychology of the Health Professions Council of South Africa (HPCSA) as ‘le-
gal-for-use’ measures. These tests have undergone formal review and subsequent test classification accord-
ing to strict validity, reliability, and fairness criteria and, as such, assessment practitioners may not use in their
practice any measures that are not contained in this list. The inherent danger in these developments, how-
ever, is that critical test use is not encouraged. Can tests be certified as reliable, valid, and fair, irrespective
of the particular application? A view may therefore have taken hold in some corners of the South African as-
sessment industry that tests can be certified as ‘valid and reliable’ in their own right (see the discussion of this
issue by Theron, 2007) instead of their appropriate use as a basis for validity and fairness (Guion, 2011).

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In the last 15 years, large-scale internationalization of IWO psychology in South Africa seems to have oc-
curred as well, judging from recent events. For instance, international conferences hosted on the country's
shores have brought not only much needed external insights into local IWO psychology, but also helped es-
tablish growing relationships with professionals abroad. Several major international conferences have recent-
ly been hosted in South Africa, including the International Congress of Psychology (2012), the First World
Congress of Personality (2013), the International Cross-cultural Psychology Conference (2012), the World
Assessment Center Congress (2013), the World OD Congress (2009), and others. At the same time, a greater
number of exchanges of academics occur, through bilateral partnerships, joint PhD programs, and hosting
of international post-doctorate researchers. Increasing international funding also supports these exchanges.
African partnerships with the rest of the world may offer mutual benefit, as scientists from abroad enjoy the
opportunity to investigate the potential generalizability of their theories, models, and methods to other cultural,
societal, and developmental contexts and, in turn, African scholars may gain from the transfer of knowledge
and skills required to conduct world-class IWO psychology research and practice.
The Profession of IWO Psychology
Status of the Profession
In order to examine the status of the profession of IWO psychology in South Africa, a consideration of what a
profession is may be warranted. Peterson (1976) states the following:
Professional work requires the intelligent, disciplined design of complex services to serve a clientele
whose needs and resources differ from one case to another and for whom the most helpful services
may change from one occasion to another. For the most part, the fundamental attitude of the profes-
sional practitioner, though not the product of his work, resembles that of the scientist. (p. 573)
Furthermore, a profession exists where individuals conduct work that meets a number of conditions, amongst
others (Flexner, 1915, as cited in Peterson, 1976),
[A]pplications of techniques involve essentially intellectual operations, and practitioners exercise re-
sponsible discretion in matching techniques to individual problems … techniques are related to a

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systematic discipline, such as science … whose substance is large and complex, and hence ordi-
narily inaccessible to laymen … members of a profession are organized in some kind of society, with
rules for membership and exclusion based in part on professional competence … The aims of the
professional organization are at least in part altruistic rather than merely self-serving, and entail a
code of ethics. (p. 573)
Judged against these conditions, I would argue that IWO psychology in South Africa has matured to the point
where it adheres to most (if not all) of Flexner's criteria, as demonstrated in its various vibrant professional
bodies and their activities.
Professional Bodies
One of the key characteristics of a profession is that it organizes and regulates its membership and continued
growth through professional associations (Peterson, 1976). In South Africa, various professional bodies have
been established over the last few decades. These may be broadly classified as those that serve a regulato-
ry function, generally mandated by law or statute, and those that exist to advance IWO psychology practice,
generally self-initiated by IWO psychology professionals.
Regulatory institutions
Broadly speaking, there are two regulatory bodies that guide the practice of IWO psychology in South Africa.
First, the Commission for Employment Equity (CEE) was brought into life by the Employment Equity Act (No.
55 of 1998) to ‘research and report to the Minister [of Labour] on any matter relating to the application of this
Act, including appropriate and well-researched norms and benchmarks for the setting of numerical goals in
various sectors’ (par. 30)(2)(b) (Republic of South Africa, 1998). Furthermore, the CEE monitors compliance
of public and private sector organizations with employment equity and affirmative action regulations. As such,
the CEE was established by government, has a regulatory function, and is focused on regulating the activities
of organizations (for example, their demographic representation).
The second regulatory body, the Health Professions Council of South Africa (HPCSA), was established to as-

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sist the enactment of the Health Professions Act (No. 56 of 1974) and coordinate the activities of the various
professional boards representing various medical fields (Republic of South Africa, 2011). Amongst others, the
Professional Board for Psychology (PBP) and its various committees, including the Psychometrics Commit-
tee, is charged with the duty of reviewing and classifying psychological tests for use in practice. The HPCSA
was established by government, has a regulatory function, and is focused mostly on regulating the activities
of professionals. In addition to the CEE and HPCSA, various other institutions play an indirect regulatory role
in IWO psychology, such as those involved in resolving labor litigation (e.g. courts).
Professional associations
In contrast to these regulatory bodies, several professional associations have been established over the years
to promote the interests of IWO psychology professionals. The largest of these, the Society for Industrial and
Organisational Psychology (SIOPSA), was established to promote the profession of IWO psychology specif-
ically (SIOPSA, 2014b). A major activity of SIOPSA is hosting an annual academic conference, bringing to-
gether researchers and practitioners from South Africa, Africa, and abroad. SIOPSA also seeks to build con-
sensus on the strategic direction of the profession of IWO psychology in South Africa, as well as establishing
a framework outlining the core competencies of IWO psychologists in South Africa. In addition to its gener-
ic focus, SIOPSA convenes various special interest groups, including Coaching and Consulting Psychology
(CCP), People Assessment in Industry (PAI), Systems Psychodynamics Organizations (SPO), Cross-cultural
Psychology (CCP), and the Assessment Center Study Group (ACSG). For example, the ACSG brings togeth-
er practitioners and academics in the field of assessment centers by hosting an annual academic conference
to consider research and practice contributions from local and international scholars. Finally, other stakehold-
ers in IWO psychology are represented by specific interest groups, such as the Association of Test Publishers
(ATP) which represents the interests of test distributors and testing houses. Also, the Psychometrics Teach-
ing and Research (PTR) interest group represents the interests of academics and academic departments
involved in training psychologists and psychometrists at various universities. Taken together, it is clear that
IWO professionals in South Africa enjoy a strong presence of professional organizations that help to build the
profession locally.

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Certification and Training
In contrast to most other African countries, the professional practice of IWO psychology in South Africa is
heavily regulated (Myors et al., 2008). Regulated matters include who may gain access to the profession,
how they should be trained and developed, and what they may do from a psychological assessment perspec-
tive (Foxcroft & Roodt, 2013). In South Africa, the activities of IWO psychologists (and all other psychology
professionals) are designated by national legislation as ‘psychological acts’ (Department of Health, 2008, p.
3) broadly defined as any activity related to the evaluation of behavior or mental processes or psychological
characteristics through the use of psychological methods and measures. Psychological acts are strictly re-
served for appropriately trained personnel who have obtained appropriate certification with the HPCSA.
Certification categories
There are three broad categories within which IWO psychology practitioners may seek professional certifica-
tion (Department of Health, 2011), namely psychologists, psychometrists, and counselors. These categories
are vertically differentiated and arranged in their level of task autonomy, breadth, and responsibility, from
high to low, respectively. Each of these categories has different qualification criteria, for example, psycholo-
gists have to complete: at least five years of full-time academic training in psychology (a master's degree); a
12-month full-time structured internship program; and finally, pass a final certification test administered by the
PBP (2015). In order to certify as a psychometrist – a specialist psychological assessment practitioner – one
requires an appropriate four-year degree in psychology, accompanied by a six-month internship in psychome-
tric practices, as well as a certification examination (PBP, 2015). These criteria make it clear that internships
play a key role in providing new entrants into the profession the opportunity to acquire professional skills while
they apply their academic training under the supervision of an experienced professional. The internship pro-
grams are broad and highly structured to provide deep exposure to typical activities IWO psychologists must
be able to do (as opposed to simply know or understand).

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Scopes of practice
In addition to the training and registration requirements toward different vertical levels, the activities that pro-
fessionals may conduct within these levels are heavily regulated in a horizontal fashion. For instance, a for-
mal ‘scope of practice’ guideline (Department of Health, 2011) outlines clear professional boundaries for the
respective horizontal categories of professionals in psychology. In South Africa, one may seek certification
in (and practice within) one of a few professional categories that reflect the different psychology subfields,
namely clinical, counseling, educational, research, and industrial-organizational psychology.
Continuous professional development
After acquiring their professional certification, psychologists must maintain their accreditation by partaking in
ongoing annual continuous professional development (CPD) activities (HPCSA, 2011). Academic training in
IWO psychology is well established in South Africa and programs are offered in at least 14 local universities.
In only a few other African countries (e.g. Cameroon, Nigeria), particular universities offer selected programs
in IWO psychology curricula. However, the profession in South Africa (and elsewhere in Africa) may also ben-
efit from the experience in some developed countries (e.g. USA) with frameworks for scientific and practical
skills required of IWO psychologists (e.g. Byrne et al., 2014).
Key Issues in the Profession
Professional identity
The profession of IWO psychology in South Africa has experienced a number of identity crises over the years
(Watkins, 2001). As such, there have been, and still are, parallels with those experiences of their IWO coun-
terparts in the United States of America, as outlined by Ryan and Ford (2010):
[O]rganizational psychologists are at a tipping point with regard to identity. Assertions regarding a

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lack of distinctiveness from other fields, ambiguity in individual identification with the field among
new entrants, hyperadaptation to external forces, and a failure to manage within-identity dynamics
associated with science and practice. (p. 241)
For example, in one survey of 129 psychologists (Benjamin & Louw-Potgieter, 2008), it was found they identi-
fied strongly with their profession, yet their daily work activities involved spending most of their time perform-
ing general HR work. In contrast, some are concerned that a preoccupation with HRM applications of our
science may lead to an estrangement from our roots in psychology. As one author aptly put it, ‘Lest we forget
that industrial and organizational psychology is psychology’ (Strumpfer, 2007, p. 1). This concern has led to a
move by SIOPSA to explicitly define the scope of practice for and the role of the IWO psychologist as ‘We give
organisations a strategic advantage through the science of psychology and the practice of staffing, workforce
development and motivation, and organisational design’ and ‘we are behavioral scientists at work’ (SIOPSA,
2014a, p. 2), respectively. Only the future will tell how the IWO profession in South Africa will emerge from
the continued identity crisis and what the outcome will be. When evaluated against Flexner's criteria for a pro-
fession, I am of the view that IWO psychology is a well-established profession in South Africa, comparable to
the state of IWO professions in many developed countries. Given the wide range of activities and structures
through which the IWO psychology profession is organized and developed, the country is in a prime position
to lead efforts on the continent to address many of its people management challenges.
Less but better regulation
In order to secure prospects for a more robust IWO psychology profession in South Africa, I foresee two is-
sues that may be relevant to policy makers involved in professional matters. First, although regulation of pro-
fessional activities (such as psychological assessment) has certain benefits, too much regulation may para-
doxically be counterproductive. For example, by publishing a list of ‘certified’ tests (Republic of South Africa,
2014), the HPCSA may encourage practitioners to rely too heavily on the official certification status of assess-
ment measures (as determined by the Psychometrics Committee), rather than applying their professional,
critical judgment and training to evaluate the suitability of psychological measures for particular uses. In this
way, overregulation may actually subdue critical and competent test use in professional practice. Instead, to

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determine whether tests may be used in a valid and fair manner, assessment practitioners should be trained
(and required) to routinely build local validity evidence prior to adopting new measures for practical use. Given
that a key characteristic of a profession is that it is self-regulating and adheres to a strict ethical code, I am of
the view that psychologists should be entrusted with more responsibility to apply their trade in an ethical way.
The second key issue that relates to better professional regulation involves the certification examinations that
intern professionals are required to write upon completion of their internships (PBP, 2007). These exams do
not appear to evaluate the demonstration of competence in the domain of IWO psychology, but rather, they
focus on knowledge and understanding of the regulatory framework (governing the practice of professional
psychology) and general psychological concepts and principles. At the moment, prospective IWO profession-
als are required to undergo a formal internship where they build competence in various roles, but a common
standard is not applied to assess their mastery of the activities that IWO are expected to perform on a day-
to-day basis. To add more value to the profession, these certification examinations should – in line with the
dominant practice in certification within other professions, such as chartered accounting and actuarial sci-
ences – be revised to assess whether a prospective entrant is able to demonstrate the skills required of an
IWO psychologist.
Reaching out
Finally, the profession in South Africa needs to reach out to their counterparts on the African continent. It ap-
pears that the profession of IWO psychology is not well established in broader Africa, most likely because of
the poor state of industrialization in many countries (personal communication with the Founding Secretary of
the Africa Academy of Management, Professor D. Zoogah, July 10, 2015). Not only may ‘reaching out’ be the
right thing to do (to build the professional practice of IWO psychology), but it may also hold long-term bene-
fits for developing the quality of human resources increasingly relied upon by multinational firms that seek to
expand their trade on the continent.

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Practice of IWO Psychology
In South Africa, becoming an IWO psychologist is a popular career choice and, therefore, a fair number of
psychologists in this category practice as independent consultants or as general HR managers. For example,
according to Cooper (2014), as of March 11, 2014, 2414 of the licensed psychologists in South Africa (19.6%
of all psychologists across categories) were registered within the IWO category. Annually, a substantial num-
ber of new entrant professionals achieve certification status. For example, in 2014, 96 new IWO psychologists
and 192 new psychometrists were added to the roll, with a pass rate in the certification examination of 62.3%
and 65.6% respectively (HPCSA, 2014). It is interesting to note that psychologists in South Africa are large-
ly female (75%), and those in the African ethnic group make up a relatively small proportion (25%) despite
being the overwhelming majority of the national population. As such, reflecting the national population (de-
mographically speaking) has been identified as a medium-term strategic goal (SIOPSA, 2014b). The reasons
why there are relatively few African IWO psychologists, compared with white IWO psychologists, are unclear
and more should be done to seek an understanding of patterns of attraction, recruitment, selection, and train-
ing of entrants from various population groups.
What do IWO psychologists do?
In 2014, SIOPSA (2010) conducted a survey comprising 2346 professionals in their membership database
in order to establish the scope of practice of IWO psychologists in South Africa, in other words, what do
they generally do? Responses indicated that the majority were employed in the private sector (64.2%) and
in organizations that operate nationally (31.3%) or internationally (27.5%). Of the latter, 23.3% of companies
also did business in African countries outside South Africa. Most of these psychologists worked in firms in
finance/banking (32.1%), the mining industry (20%), the public sector (20%), consulting firms (17.9%), ed-
ucation (12.9%), and others. The typical roles (see Figure 5.5) in which respondents routinely participated
were selection and assessment consulting (32.9%), general consulting (32.9%), coaching/career counsel-
ing (31.7%), organizational development and change (31.3%), and training and development (24.2%). The
least likely roles that IWO psychologists performed were those of human factors specialist (9.2%), researcher
(5.8%), or lecturer (5.4%). In other similar surveys, it was revealed that many IWO psychologists spend a
great deal of time in general HRM activities (Benjamin & Louw-Potgieter, 2008), while a small minority also

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conduct psycho-legal work, that is, serving as expert witnesses and consultants for litigation, such as occu-
pational injury or accident claims (Van Lill, 2013). In addition to these roles, IWO psychologists engage in var-
ious other activities. For example, organizational development (OD) is widely practiced in large South African
firms (such as mines, manufacturing, retail, and other sectors) reflecting the increasing importance that OD
is showing in Africa (Jones & Blunt, 1993). On the whole, it appears that IWO psychologists do not generally
limit themselves to a single role, but rather, they tend to execute a broad range of functions.
Figure 5.5 Typical activities of IWO psychologists in South Africa across

broad domains. Adapted (pending permission) from Professional Action Do-
main: Second Scope of Practice Report by the Society for Industrial and Or-
ganisational Psychology of South Africa, 2010. © 2010 by the author.

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As IWO psychology in South Africa is relatively exposed to the international arena, it tends to follow interna-
tional trends relatively closely. For example, in a survey of 43 South African organizations’ assessment center
practices, Krause, Rossberger, Dowdeswell, Venter, and Joubert (2011) found that respondents’ firms used
sophisticated methods of job analysis relative to countries in Europe and the USA. They also used dimen-
sions with high construct and criterion-related validity, and exercises that were from a broad spectrum. The
authors suggested that firms might benefit from greater consideration to assessor constructs, statistical inte-
gration of scores, and using fewer dimensions (rather than too many).
Key Issues in Practice
Selection fairness
One of the most contentious areas in the history of the country has been psychological assessment (Laher &
Cockcroft, 2014). During the apartheid era, it was not uncommon to use imported tests on all ethnic groups
despite being developed within specific populations abroad (Foxcroft, 2004). As such, some professionals
were concerned about the fair use of psychometric tests, that is, they may have been used to discriminate
directly against the majority African population (Foxcroft & Roodt, 2013). However, the status quo in the as-
sessment industry today seems to reflect a heightened awareness of, and sensitivity for, the need to use tests
that show acceptable and defensible measurement and predictive properties across different ethnic groups,
and to use them in a fair and unbiased manner (Foxcroft, 2004; Theron, 2007). In fact, the Employment Equity
Act (No. 55 of 1998) takes an exceptionally strong stance – it prohibits ‘psychological testing and other similar
assessments … unless the test or assessment being used (a) has been scientifically shown to be valid and
reliable; (b) can be applied fairly to all employees; (c) is not biased against any employee or group’ (Republic
of South Africa, 1998, p. 16). Relative to other countries in the world, South Africa may be one of the most
conservative in this regard (Myors et al., 2008). Anecdotal evidence suggests that IWO practitioners seem to
be adhering to the requirements for fair assessment and selection. For example, there are minimal (almost
none) formal complaints lodged with the HPCSA against psychologists in terms of concerns about their test-
ing practices (Health Professions Council of South Africa, 2014).

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However, adverse impact as a result of the use of cognitive ability tests may be somewhat larger than trends
in the United States (e.g. Sackett & Wilk, 1994). In a few South African studies conducted by a large consul-
tancy house (Kriek & Dowdeswell, 2010), d-scores on cognitive ability tests were relatively large (d = 1–1.5),
that is, White applicants scored better than African applicants by between one and one and a half standard
deviations. In addition, predictive bias, while it may exist, may not be disadvantaging the majority African pop-
ulation group. Their studies show that predictive validity was higher for Africans than for Whites, largely due
to higher variance in scores for Africans as compared with range restricted scores for White applicants.
As a way to explore further potential sources of adverse impact (and predictive bias) in South Africa, attention
has also shifted to the role of criterion mean differences (Theron, 2009), rather than focusing on predictor
issues alone. Decades of systematic disadvantagement in education and development (during the Apartheid
era) left a legacy of job performance score (i.e. criterion) mean differences between ethnic groups. This legacy
is likely to remain for some time to come, failing more intensive interventions (e.g. human resource training
development) by government and the private sector to address the problem.
More research is needed about adverse impact and bias (in measurement and prediction) resulting from the
use of selection measures. These studies should be reported more routinely in local and international re-
search journals. Moreover, they need to be pulled through to impact policy frameworks. Finally, such local
research should feature more strongly in equal employment opportunity litigation. It is interesting to note that,
despite the plethora of laws and regulations concerning test fairness, there is a paucity of South African case
law and legal precedent on this issue in South African courts. To develop maturity about appropriate local
criteria for test validity and fairness, for example, we need to debate these issues more in our courts. Finally,
far more research attention is also needed to the use of psychological assessments in other African countries
and cultural contexts, as the bulk of work has been devoted to South Africa.
Social entrepreneurship
In the field of management ‘there may be no hotter topic in business and business education today’ (Walsh,
2015, p. 3) than social entrepreneurship. Social entrepreneurship sees the kinds of challenges that are wide-
spread in Africa – poverty, low standards of living, and poor education – as opportunities for business solu-

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tions that may involve innovative solutions, such as the use of technology to enhance education in rural areas
and mobile banking solutions using cellphone technology.
Wary of encouraging fads or fashions (Dunnette, 1966) in African IWO psychology, social entrepreneurship
suggests that we should look beyond social relevance of our science to also consider collateral financial or
other benefits. What these solutions may involve is not yet clear, but they leave ample opportunity to scientists
and practitioners to demonstrate their relevance (cf. Anderson, Herriot, & Hodgkinson, 2001; Kagee, 2014;
Renecle, 2001). Perhaps there are opportunities to address the scourge of unemployment. For example, a
construct with emerging importance is employability, defined as ‘a form of work specific (pro)active adaptabil-
ity that consists of three dimensions – career identity, personal adaptability, and social and human capital’
(Fugate, Kinicki, & Ashforth, 2004, p. 15). Recent studies have shown that training may enhance employabili-
ty (Hodzic et al., 2015) and, therefore, this type of work in the local context may help to reduce unemployment
(McArdle et al., 2007). Finally, IWO practices that may help to enhance the productivity of human capital in
South Africa will remain important, especially in the face of an increasingly competitive global economy.
Research in IWO Psychology
A discussion of research in South African IWO psychology involves aspects of research focus, theory, and
scientific methods. What are the typical research themes that IWO scientists in South Africa study and what
are their particular challenges?
Research Themes
Research in IWO psychology in South Africa reflects a broad and diverse interest in themes that are also
commonly studied elsewhere in the world. In addition to the historically important research themes addressed
earlier, I wish to make a number of observations. In their review of IWO psychology research in South Africa
from 1950 to 2008, Schreuder and Coetzee (2010) report interesting trends in the number of published ar-
ticles across broad fields in IWO psychology (see Figure 5.6). In addition to a general increase in research
overall in the most recent period (2000 to 2008) being reported, there was a spike in research topics in the

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organizational psychology (n = 247) and individual and organizational wellness (n = 248) domains. Popular
topics in these fields included aspects such as emotional intelligence, leadership, personality, and burnout
and stress. It is important to point out that Schreuder and Coetzee (2010) reviewed only articles published in
South African peer-reviewed journals and completed master's and PhD dissertations. As such, South African
research reported in international journals was not included.
However, South African studies conducted since the review appear to straddle both local and international
journals. A major theme in these studies involves the study of personality across cultures (e.g. Valchev et al.,
2011; 2013; 2014) and the development of indigenous personality inventories such as the South African Per-
sonality Inventory (SAPI) (Fetvadjiev et al., 2015; Hill et al., 2013; Nel et al., 2012). In addition, it is a popular
choice to conduct research on the generalizability of constructs and measures in terms of the South African
population groups (e.g. Laher, 2008; Meiring, Van de Vijver, & Rothmann, 2006; Visser & Viviers, 2010; Zecca
et al., 2013). On the whole, the intersection of personality and culture appears to be a growth area for study
in South Africa which is likely to propagate in future.
Figure 5.6 Trends in IWO research in peer-reviewed South African journals

from 1950 to 2008. Adapted with permission from Schreuder & Coetzee (2010).
© 2010 by the authors.

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Research Challenges
Science–practice gap
The perennial gap between science and practice internationally (Cascio & Aguinis, 2008) is also evident in
South African IWO psychology (Augustyn & Cillie, 2008) and ‘this divergence is likely to result in irrelevant
theory and in untheorized and invalid practice’ (Anderson et al., 2001, p. 391). Given this state of affairs, I
see a few areas where the gap between IWO research and HRM practice may be narrowed with most effect.
First, should we try to address the legacy of unequal development (brought about by a long history of relative
underinvestment in schooling, training, and professional development of disadvantaged sections of society)
and, if so, how? In the South African workplace, disparities are evident in applicant test scores (see Kriek &
Dowdeswell, 2010). However, these differences are also likely to translate to criterion mean score differences.
Therefore, adverse impact is likely to become a permanent feature of the South African workplace if dispari-
ties are simply ignored (or, even worse, when they are addressed by seeking alternative predictor measures
that do not show adverse impact, as cautioned by Theron, 2009).
Adverse impact and criterion mean differences are persistent and may originate from issues outside of the
control of organizations, such as primary and secondary school education, nutrition, freedom from social ills,
etc. Therefore, what is needed is research that uncovers if, and how, the effect of cognitive ability differences
(between racio-ethnic groups) on criterion outcomes in the workplace (e.g. job performance) may be amelio-
rated. For this reason, studies that investigate effective and sustainable affirmative action interventions and
the aggressive developmental support required to make them work, the early identification of learning poten-
tial and other ways to find talented individuals likely to benefit from accelerated development, and work on the
malleability and development of fluid versus crystallized intelligence are likely to remain important in South
Africa.
Second, we need more sophisticated ways to reconcile the often-competing objectives of diversity and validity
in personnel selection decisions. In addition to a moral imperative for redressing inequity in the workplace,
South African firms stand to incur substantial penalties for failing to reach equity targets (Republic of South
Africa, 1998). As such, affirmative action becomes a bottom-line issue. Given that quotas and differential
treatment of test scores are legal in our context, we find that not only do organizations typically differ in their
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compliance to quota targets (Commission for Employment Equity, 2015), but some roles/positions within the
same firm may have ‘over-representation’ (of one ethnic group), whereas others are ‘underrepresented'. In
such a scenario, which decision-making approaches would be most effective to balance the potential payoff
value for addressing equity targets in a particular role, with the potential loss or gain from using valid pre-
dictors that show adverse effect? In other words, how do we integrate issues of diversity and fairness into
classical estimates of selection utility? We are still looking for more elegant ways to balance diversity and va-
lidity given our unique legal, historical, and economic realities.
A third area where the gap between science and practice is especially evident is in addressing the scourge
of unemployment. South Africa has a very high unemployment rate (24.3%; Statistics South Africa, 2015).
As such, IWO psychologists should seek to enhance our understanding of how job seekers may be drawn
into, prepared for, and ‘on-boarded’ within the active labor market. For example, a recent experimental study
(Noordzij et al., 2013) conducted learning goal orientation training amongst unemployed job seekers in the
Netherlands and found improved self-regulation in, and effectiveness of, job search activities of unemployed
people. Studies like these would have high societal impact in South Africa and Africa at large.
In order to address the three ‘science–practice gap’ issues outlined here, more attention should be given
to the training of psychologists’ skills to ‘identify [and develop] the competencies needed to articulate and
translate these theories, models, and systems for the decision-makers who are responsible for people-related
business issues in the world of work’ (Augustyn & Cillie, 2008, p. 74).
Building scientific capacity
As elsewhere in Africa, South Africa struggles to build and retain the necessary scientific capacity to address
its challenges and fully exploit available opportunities. With many good initiatives afoot to develop local re-
search capacity, such as government research funding and development programs by the National Research
Foundation (NRF), our research is also benefiting from increased international collaboration. South African
IWO psychology researchers can attract the interest of international collaborations on themes that have gen-
eralizable interest, such as diversity and culture in the workplace, curbing unemployment, effective affirmative
action, and so forth. These scientific partnerships may further enable African IWO psychology to contribute to

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the international conversation on topics that are interesting to the world of IWO psychology at large.
Conclusion
In this chapter, I have provided a broad overview of trends in IWO psychology research and practice in Africa.
Overall, it is a story of growth and opportunity, as IWO psychology in African countries appears to be in its
infancy, with a few exceptions, such as South Africa. Following my overview of trends in broader Africa, I fo-
cused on IWO psychology trends in South Africa. I outlined the interesting history of IWO psychology in South
Africa and pointed out both parallels with, and differences between, its development and the experience of
some of our counterparts abroad. Furthermore, this chapter has given an overview of the profession, practice,
and science of IWO psychology in South Africa and raised salient issues in each of these domains. While this
chapter may not be an exhaustive coverage of IWO psychology work on the African continent, it provides a
fresh look at how IWO psychology has developed in other corners of the globe.
Notes
1. I wish to thank Professor Deon Meiring for help with data collection for this chapter and Brenton Wiernik
for comments on an earlier version of the manuscript. I also acknowledge the help of Jackie Viljoen with lan-
guage editing of the manuscript. The views expressed in this chapter are my own and do not reflect the views
of any organization with whom I am associated.
2. To compile the research list described here, I requested all published journal articles from scholars residing
in sub-Saharan African countries over the period from 1962 to 2015 from Web of Science (SSCI). The search
was limited to research areas of psychology or operations research management science, and territories were
limited to sub-Saharan African countries. Further filters were applied to exclude research areas irrelevant to
IWO psychology, such as criminology, psychoanalysis, and clinical psychology. This resulted in a final list of
1844 journal article items. However, it must also be noted that many African IWO psychology journals are not
indexed in the SSCI, including a total of 2501 IWO research studies (peer-reviewed journal articles, master's
dissertations, and doctoral theses) completed in South Africa between 1950 and 2008 (Schreuder & Coetzee,
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2010). The latter research is discussed later in this chapter.
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https://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781473914964

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IOP1501 LESSON 6: MOTIVATION AND EMOTION

• explain the connection between motivation and emotion

PRESCRIBED RESOURCE FOR LESSON 6

6.1 INTRINSIC AND EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION

Image by: Pixaby

These apparent discrepancies in the researchers’ findings may be understood by

In educational settings, students are more likely to experience intrinsic motivation to

6.2 BIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES TO MOTIVATION

William James (1842–1910) was an important contributor to early research into

Another early theory of motivation proposed that the maintenance of homeostasis is

Extensions of drive theory consider levels of arousal as potential motivators. These

6.3 SELF-EFFICACY AND SOCIAL MOTIVES

Self-efficacy is an individual’s belief in her own capability to complete a task, which

competence in general and across various situations. Self-efficacy is more situational

A number of theorists have focused their research on understanding social motives

6.4 MASLOW'S THEORY OF THE HIERARCHY OF NEEDS

We discuss Maslow’s theory in terms of motivation and what motives people to

6.5 DRIVE-REDUCTION THEORY OF MOTIVATION

6.5.1 Drives and Homeostasis

The purpose of biological drives is to correct disturbances of homeostasis. Unsatisfied

6.5.2 Primary and Secondary Drives

Drive-reduction theory distinguishes between primary and secondary drives. Primary

6.5.3 Drive-Reduction Theory and Learning

6.5.4 Critiques of Drive-Reduction Theory

6.6 THE COGNITIVE AND ACHIEVEMENT APPROACHES TO MOTIVATION

Cognitive and achievement approaches to motivation examine how factors like

6.6.1 Achievement Motivation

6.6.2 Mastery and Performance Goals

Mastery goals tend to be associated with the satisfaction of mastering something—in

(Midgley, Kaplan, & Middleton, 2001). A possible reason is that measures of

6.7 COGNITIVE DISSONANCE

Cognitive approaches to motivation focus on how a person’s motivation are influenced

6.8 TEMPORAL MOTIVATION THEORY

studying/working or socializing. The student enjoys socializing but needs to achieve a

6.10 THEORIES OF EMOTION

According to Spielman et al. (n.d.) our emotional states are combinations of

The Schachter-Singer two-factor theory of emotion is a cognitive variation on

Figure 9 presents a comparison of the aforementioned theories of emotion.

6.11 CULTURAL IMPACT ON THE WAY WE DISPLAY EMOTIONS

Emotions are subjective experiences that consist of physiological arousal and

The ability to produce and recognize facial expressions of emotions seems to be

Lumencandela, (n.d.). Theories of Motivation. OER Commons. Retrieved June 5,

Learning outcomes of lesson 7

After studying lesson 7, students should be able to explain and apply

• differentiate the processes and principles of sensation and perception.

Prescribed Reading Material for Lesson 7

Nevid, JS. 2018. Sensation & Perception. In JS Nevid, Essentials in Psychology.

7.1 The difference between sensation and perception

7.2 Basic principles of sensation

7.3 Our senses and their functions

7.5 Attitudes and values

7.1 THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SENSATION AND PERCEPTION

Study Chapter 3, in Sensation & Perception. In JS Nevid, Essentials in

7.2 BASIC PRINCIPLES OF SENSATION

Click on the link to watch the video of an increasingly higher-frequency

7.3.1 Vision (seeing)

Phenomena we often refer to as optical illusions provide misleading information to

People can be defined as trichomats, monochromats and dichromats, depending

7.3.2 Audition (hearing)

7.3.5 Smell and taste: the chemical senses

Your reading material contains a very interesting section on pain management

7.3.4 Kinaesthetic and vestibular senses

7.4.1. What is perception

7.4.2. Principles or theories of perception