considerable interest in d-c overpotential
D-C Overpotential Testing Experience
on Higk-Voltage Generators
R. J. ALKE
ASSOCIATE MEMBER AIEE
OVERPOTENTIAL tests are applied
to electric apparatus to demon-
strate the ability of the insulation to with-
stand a specific voltage for a certain
period of time. These tests are based
largely on experience and are established
by industry standards for new machines.
Practically all recognized standard over-
potential tests on electric machinery are
made with alternating current. During
the last several years, investigation of d-c
overpotential testing has indicated basic
advantages over a-c testing and that
direct current could be used as a satisfac-
tory overpotential test on large high-
voltage machines. From a practical
standpoint, the overpotential test does
not check the adequacy of the design or
inherent breakdown level of the insulat-
ing materials, but rather is a check for
flaws in the materials and manufacturing
methods. The test which is effective in
achieving this objective with the least
destruction to the basic materials ac-
cordingly would have the greatest merit.
Basic Advantages of D-C Over-
potential Testing
Recent investigations' have shown
some significant advantages to be ob-
tained using d-c overpotential tests:
1. The voltages which are equally search-
ing for defects and physical damage are far
less damaging than the equivalent alternat-
ing voltages.
2. The slope of the voltage endurance
curve is such that the time of voltage appli-
cation is not nearly so critical with direct as
with alternating current.
3. The problems associated with d-c test-
ing of large equipment are far simpler, as a
testing device with limited capacity can be
used. Therefore, the d-c tester is a small,
relatively portable device which can utilize
any convenient power supply.
Paper 52-151, recommended by the AIEE Rotating
Machinery Committee and approved by the AIEE
Technical Program Committee for presentation at
the AIEE Summer General Meeting, Minneapolis,
Minn., June 23-27, 1952. Manuscript submitted
February 19, 1952; made available for printing
April 9, 1952.
R. J. ALKE is with the Westinghouse Electric
Corporation, East Pittsburgh, Pa.
The author gratefully acknowledges the assistance
of G. IL. Moses and J. S. Johnson, Westinghouse
Electric Corporation, for their suggestions and
contributions.
AUGUST 1952
testing2 because of its convenience and
4. The use of the d-c test voltages required
will give assurance that the insulation has
passed a voltage test which can be co-
ordinated with conventional machine light-
ning arrester protection.
Experience in testing many specimens
of conventional high-voltage insulation
has given a basis for determining equiva-
lent alternating and direct voltages to pro-
duce insulation failures. Figure 1 is illus-
trative of tests of this nature. Also, a-c
and d-c breakdown tests on old stator
windings served to help establish a ratio of
direct to alternating current (rms) for
equally searching effect for common
types of insulation faults. It was found
that an equally searching value of direct
current is a smaller percentage of the in-
herent d-c strength of insulation than inl
the case with alternating current. On the
basis of these investigations, a value of
direct to alternating current (rms) of 1.6;
has been proposed for maintenance tests
of large high-voltage rotating machin-
ery.2
Figure 1 indicates the results of both a-c
and d-c dielectric strength studies of high-
voltage insulation samples. The flatness
of the voltage endurance curve for direct
current is of considerable interest as it
indicates that time of direct voltage ap-
plication is far less signiificant in its ef-
fect on failure voltage than when a-c
stress is applied. It further indicates
that there is nio fixed ratio of direct to
alternating voltage for equal destructive
effect, and that if a d-c to a-c ratio is to
be employed it must be at a specific time
of voltage applicatioll
For small apparatus. which has low
capacitance from the winiding to ground,
a-c test equipment is readily portable as
the size is not important. Oni larger and
higher voltage apparatus, where the
capacitance of the winding to ground is
large, the test equipment for overpoten-
tial testing with alternating current be-
comes quite large and testing, both in the
shop and in the field, presents some prob-
lems. On the other hand, d-c overpoteni-
tial test equipment can be made which is
reasonably small and portable. Figure 2
shows a commercial instrument suitable
for making high-voltage d-c overpotential
tests on generator windings. There is
Alke D-C Overpotential Testing Experience
the information obtained from current
leakage measurements. A-c overpoten-
tial testing usually involves no current
measurement and, therefore, must be de-
structive to detect faults. On the other
hand, d-c testing makes leakage current
measurements easy. Furthermore, the
leakage current is not masked by charging
current as is the case with a-c testing.
Previous Limitations of D-C Testing
D-c overpotential testing of insulation
is by no means a new subject. However,
in recent years there has been a renewed
interest in this controversial subject be-
cause of new information presented by
various investigators. Early investiga-
tions with d-c testing listed the following
disadvantages:
1. Different stress distribution with direct
current than with alternating current.
2. Lack of suitable high-voltage d-c test
equipment.
3. The wide variation of direct to alter-
nating voltage breakdown of solid insula-
tions.
It has been a usual practice in testing
that the stress applied during test should
be as similar as possible to the stress to
which the equipment is subjected in
normal service. In general, therefore,
a-c apparatus should be tested with al-
ternating current. However, present
tests of d-c equipment are made with
alternating current. A main objection to
d-c testing is that the stress distribution
of a-c apparatus is determined by the
leakage resistance when direct current is
applied and by the capacitance when al-
ternating current is applied. The stress
distribution with a d-c test therefore may
differ greatly from that in normal service.
It is true that the stress with direct cur-
rent extends much farther out on end
winding portions than an equivalent a-c
stress. This results in parts of the wind-
ing being subjected to stresses different
from operating conditions. However, the
stress with direct current appears to
build up slow enough so that it does not
constitute a major problem with the usual
times that such tests are applied. In
several cases, defective end-turn insula-
tion has been discovered at direct volt-
ages far below the peak of regular a-c tests
that could not be detected by alternating
current. For factory testing, it is ex-
pected that d-c tests will show up poor
insulation design on parts formerly of
little concern. During a-c tests on solid
insulation, the stress depends upon the
56S7

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crw
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z N
ow
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TIME LOG10 H10H
thickness and dielectric constant of the
components, thus stressing the binding
materials more than the mica because of
the lower dielectric constant of usual
binding materials. With d-c tests, the
stress distribution through the material
will be determined by the volume re-
sistivity of its components and the major
components of the insulation regarding
dielectric strength (the mica) will be sub-
jected to the greatest stress.
Even early investigations were quick
to note advantages of applying a direct
voltage which was considerably less than
the normal operating alternating volt-
age. The majority of insulation failures
in service are due to the presence of mois-
ture, which gives rise to conducting paths
on the internal or external surfaces of the
insulation. A d-c test is a very sensitive
detector of moisture penetration. In-
sulation resistance measurements have
provided a relatively simple criterion of
the condition of insulation for many
years.
Recent improvements in the last dec-
ade in high-voltage rectifying tubes have
largely eliminated the problem of equip-
ment. Several manufacturers are able to
supply d-c test apparatus with the volt-
age range and portability required. Three
conventional circuits for d-c test equip-
ment are shown in Figure 3. These
testers usually use one of two basic cir-
cuits with slight modifications.
1. Single high-voltage rectifier circuits-
full or half wave.
568
Figure 1 (left).
Alternating and
direct voltage
endurance for
high-voltage gen-
erator insulation.
Large symbols
indicate aver-
ages, small
symbols indicate
3u limits
D-c overpoten-
tial test of a large
turbine generator
-i- weeding out defective insulation that may
result in coil failures during final test. A
d-c test voltage is required that has equal
or greater destructive effect than the final
L
10
REARS 1-minute a-c test voltage to adequately
insure that any coils with weak insulation
2. Lower voltage rectifiers which use lad- are detected before the final test. Table I
der circuits in cascade to produce the re- indicates some of the test voltages that
quired output voltage. are applied during winding of high-volt-
Adequate d-c insulation test equipment age machines. At these high direct volt-
utilizing each method is in use. ages, little attempt has been made to cor-
The variation in the d-c and a-c peak relate leakage and dielectric strength;
breakdown voltages of solid insulations the primary use of the leakage is an in-
is a very controversial subject and prob- dication to the tester of impending trouble
ably will prevent utilizing the advantages indicated by current runaway. Another
of d-c testing until more information on factor preventing correlation between
specific insulation systems can be deter- leakage and insulation strength during d-c
mined. It is doubtful that an absolute test is that momentary or 1-minute tests
equivalent ratio of d-c to a-c peak volt- are used and no steady-state leakage is
age can be determined for solid insula- reached in these time intervals; the rate
tion. However, and this is important, d-c at which the voltage is applied is an im-
tests can be used to give assurance of the
absence of specific types of insulation 60
faults.
7
30 +30
Shop D-C Overpotential Testing
The advantages of d-c testing were ap-
plied to d-c armature coils long before its
use was extended to high-voltage insula-
tion. In connection with turn insulation
failures on a certain type motor, d-c test-
ing was distinctly advantageous in the de- VOLTAGE DOUBLER CIRCUIT
tection of copper slivers and similar
faults. D-c testing of turn insulation on
low-voltage equipment during coil manu-
facture has given excellent results during
the past 4 years.
Preliminary winding tests have been
made with direct as well as with alternat-
ing current on high-voltage windings for LADDER TYPE TRPLER CIRCUIT, 45KV POWER SUPPLY
the last year. Manufacturers' prelimi- Figure 3. Conventional d-c high-voltage
nary winding tests are directed toward test circuits
Alke-D-C Overpotential Testing Experience AUGUST 1952
 Table 1. D-C Overpotential Test Voltages future d-c will replace preliminary a-c
tests in the winding sections. This will
First Winiding Test Second Winding Test eliminate all a-c tests except the com-
Bottom Coil Test (Momentaary Before (Momentary After
Voltage Class, (Momentary), Connecctions), Connections), al Test, mercial final winding test.
Kilovolts Kilovolts Kiloiovolts Kilovolts lovolts In addition to the final a-c overpoten-
tial tests on new windings, dielectric ab-
11 . 59 ..... .59 .56.5
.. 551.5 sorption curves at operating stress are
12.5 66 ... 6 6 .6 .1
13.2 . 71 71 67.5.6 61.4 contemplated. This information will be
13.8
14.4 .
.73.
77.
........... 73 ..
77 ..
69.3
.
73.3.
63. 0
636.7 available to the customer and may be
16.5 .89. 89 .. 83.8. 776.2 used as an aid in determining insulation
18 . 97. 97 .. 91.3. 83.0 deterioration during subsequent inspec-
tions. It is hoped also that leakage cur-
rent at some direct voltage that will be
portant factor which determine s the leak- winding was not grounded properly after used for overpotential testing the winding
age at these relatively short time in- a high-voltage d-c test. Figure a shows during maintenance periods can be fur-
tervals. the voltage recovery characteristics of a nished the customer.
For adequate d-c test voltag,es for pre- high-voltage winding with diffferent
liminary winding tests of th e conven- grounding times. A winding shotald be D-C Maintenance Tests of Large
tional 13.8-kv class high-volta,ge stators, grounded at least 60 minutes after a high- High-Voltage Generators
a tester of about 75 kv is requiired. With voltage d-c test has been applied.
the advent of higher direct vc)ltages ap- Shop acceptance of d-c overpottential Field acceptance and maintenance
plied to high-voltage windinggs, a new testing has been good. This can Ibe at- tests have long been a problem because of
problem became more serious than with tributed to several factors: the size of a-c test equipment and power
the lower voltage testers. V lge re 1. Ease of operation of test equipmlent. supply required. Overpotential tests are
covery of solid dielectrics is d.ue to the the only means for providing assurance
absorptive nature of such dielec trics. The 2. Reduced setup time. that the winding insulation has a certain
reversible absorption current wIhich causes 3. Visual indication of insulation conidition minimum insulation level. Suitably
voltage recovery is a function of the ap- during testing by suitable meters on tlhe test selected values of direct current are
plied voltage, time of voltage alpplication, equipment. equally as searching for likely types of in-
and type of dielectric. Voltag e recovery Results of using d-c overpotentialI tests sulation weakness with the expectancy of
characteristics of several hi,gh-voltage during winding of high-voltage gene rators small or negligible destructive effect on
windings have been measure d. It is have shown d-c tests can be relied ui pon to good insulation. In addition, d-c over-
evident that recovery voltage s of sufl- locate and detect incipient insuilation potentials appear to be fundamentally
ciently high magnitudes as to c ornstitute a weaknesses in high-voltage generatLor in- advantageous for maintenance testing.
serious safety problem were pos,sible if the sulation. It is expected that in th(e near In addition to basic advantages, the re-

Figure 4.1 Voltage re-

covery characteristics of
a high-voltage generator
winding TIME- MINUTES

AUGUST 1952 Alke-D-C Overpotential Testing Experience 569

quired test equipment is much less expen-
sive and far less costly and cumbersome
to transport. Also, insulation leakage at
high stresses may be measured. There-
fore d-c overpotential tests were recom-
mended for maintenance tests.
During the last 2 years, many gener-
ators have had d-c overpotential main-
tenance tests applied to the stator wind-
ings. For 13.8-kv machines with modern
insulation, the usual d-c overpotential
test was 30 kv for I minute. In no case
has this test failed to pick out serious
cases of insulation weaknesses. In addi-
tion to stator insulation faults, other in-
cipient weaknesses have been detected in
buswork and cables. During maintenance
d-c overpotential tests, 10-minute di-
electric absorption curves are made in the
range of 1 to 15 kv direct current. Over-
potential tests usually have been made on
all three phases to ground with direct
current; separating of phases usually in-
volves considerable labor and time and is
not considered necessary unless trouble
develops. On windings indicating low in-
sulation resistance or failure on overpo-
tential test, phases are separated to assist
in locating the trouble. However, most
cases of winding faults during overpoten-
tial tests are readily visually detected.
The ability of direct current to detect and
locate insulation faults with minimum
damage to the insulation is now well es-
tablished for maintenance testing.
In several instances d-c tests have in-
Rapid Measurement of the Thermal
Resistivity of Soil
V. V. MASON
ASSOCIATE MEMBER AIEE ASSOCIATE MEMBER AIEE
Synopsis: Following a method due origi-
nally to Stalhane and Pyk,1 the thermal
resistivity of soil may be measured in situ
by thrusting a long heated needle into the
ground to the required depth and measuring
its temperature every 30 seconds for 15 to 30
minutes. The slope of the resulting tem-
perature versus time curve on semilog paper
is proportional to the thermal resistivity of
the soil, and the constant of proportionality
is derivable theoretically. The finite diam-
eter of the needle is taken into account by
adjusting the zero time to a value found by
plotting dtlde against t. The effects of the
finite length of the needle are difficult to
assess but appear to be unimportant for the
5a70 Mason, Kurtz-Measurement of the Thermal Resistivity of Soil
dicated very low insulation resistance.
One such case involved a thermocouple in
the neutral which, with the winding iso-
lated from ground, caused very high leak-
age at relatively low d-c test voltage.
This thermocouple, not used since the
first few days of operation, was removed
and the machine had a satisfactory in-
sulation resistance at 30 kv direct current.
In another instance, a generator cable
passing near a concrete wall had been
sprayed with aluminum paint, which
possibly could cause trouble if not re-
moved. The d-c test quickly indicated
high leakage. In only one case has a high-
voltage machine indicated high leakage
during d-c test which could be attributed
to the machine insulation.
The usual range of insulation resistance
after 1-minute voltage application during
d-c overpotential test (25 to 30 kv direct
current) encountered in high-voltage
synchronous machine windings is as fol-
lows:
Hydrogen-cooled sync hronous generators,
100 to 500 megohms.
Air-cooled synchronous generators, 50 to
200 megohms.
These values are average values for many
machines tested and do not necessarily in-
dicate that an insulation resistance lower
than these limits should cause concern.
Insulation resistance, especially at high
direct voltages, depends upon many
factors. For an individual generator
winding, such factors as type of insula-
No Discussion
M. KURTZ
duration of a typical determination. Re-
sistivity values obtained agree with those
obtained by the steady-state method. A
crew of three can make determinations at the
rate of one to three per hour.
THE effect of the thermal resistivity
of the soil on the temperature rise of
a buried cable is well known. It is of par-
ticular importance for the newer directly
buried and pipe-type installations in
which the temperature rise through the
soil forms a larger part of the total rise
tion, age, atmospheric conditions, clean-
liness, and size of winding must be taken
into account when considering insulation
resistance of a particular machine.
Summary
To date about 4,000,000 kva of high-
voltage generating equipment have been
inspected in the field and d-c overpoten-
tial tests have been made to give assur-
ance of adequate insulation level. About
1,000,000 kva of generating equipment
have been tested with direct current in
the Westinghouse factory. The success
and general acceptance of this test method
has been widespread both in the shop and
in the field.
While much fundamental investigation
of d-c versus a-c testing will be accom-
plished by many individuals in the next
few years, there can be little doubt that
d-c overpotential testing will be ex-
panded where applicable to take advan-
tage, in addition to fundamental advan-
tages, of its lower initial cost and lower
operating cost, with more informative
test results.
References
1. ALTERNATlNG AND DIRECT VOLTAGE ENDLJR-
ANCE STUDIES ON MICA INSULATION FOR ELECTRIC
MACHINERY, Graham Lee Moses. AIEE T'rans-
actionts, volume 70, part I, 1951, pages 763-69.
2. A MIAINTENANCE INSPECTION PROGRAM FOR
LARGE ROTATING MACHINES, John S. Johnson.
AIEE Transactions, volume 70, part 1. 1951, pages
749-55.
than is the case with the older concrete
duct types.
In the autumn of 1949, plans of Thle
Hydro-Electric Power Commission of
Ontario to install some 25,000 feet of
underground high-voltage cable necessi-
tated the immediate determination of the
thermal resistivity of the soil along the
proposed route with a reasonable degree
of accuracy.
There are two possible procedures to be
followed in making such measurements.
Samples of the soil may be conveyed to
the laboratorv or the measurements max'
Paper 52-158, recommended by the AIEE Insulated
Conductors Committee and approved by the AIEE
Technical Program Committee for presentation at
the AIEE Summer General Meeting, Minneapolis,
Minn., June 23-27, 1952. Manuscript submitted
March 24, 1952; made available for printing April
16, 1952.
V. V. MASON and M. KURTZ are with The Hydro-
Electric Power Commission of Ontario, Toronto,
Ont., Canada.
AUGUST 1 959